FEBRUARY 27, 2019

COMPOSTING
ENERGY ENGINEERING ASSIGNMENT
By:
Measam Ali 2016-CH-267
Abdul Hannan Qureshi 2016-CH-271
Zohaib Khan 2016-CH-273
Talha Mahmood 2016-CH-283
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Table of Contents

Definition ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Composting Process ...................................................................................................................... 2
Chemical Transformation ............................................................................................................ 3
Types of Composting .................................................................................................................... 5
Factors affecting composting ....................................................................................................... 7
Applications ................................................................................................................................... 9
Limitations ................................................................................................................................... 10
Reference ..................................................................................................................................... 11
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Definition
“Composting is the controlled aerobic biological decomposition of organic matter into a stable,
humus like product called compost.”
It is essentially the same process as natural decomposition except that it is enhanced and
accelerated by mixing organic waste with other ingredients to optimize microbial growth.

Figure 1

General background:
Composting is the process by which various aerobic micro-organisms decompose raw organic
material to obtain energy and material they need for growth and reproduction. The stable by-
products of this decomposition, the biomass of both dead and living microorganisms, and the
undegradable parts of the raw material make up the end product that is called compost. The
organisms responsible for composting require certain nutritional and environmental conditions to
survive and function. They require adequate amounts of macro- and micro-nutrients, oxygen, and
water. These organisms experience optimal growth rates only within certain temperature and pH
ranges. The image given below shows the materials that can be compost.

Composting Process
The composting process involves four main components: organic matter, moisture, oxygen,
and bacteria.

Organic matter includes plant materials and some animal manures. Organic materials used for
compost should include a mixture of brown organic material (dead leaves, twigs, manure) and
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green organic material (lawn clippings, fruit rinds, etc.). Brown materials supply carbon, while
green materials supply nitrogen. The best ratio is 1 part green to 1 part brown material. Shredding,
chopping or mowing these materials into smaller pieces will help speed the composting process
by increasing the surface area.

For piles that have mostly brown material (dead leaves), try adding a handful of commercial 10-
10-10 fertilizer to supply nitrogen and speed the compost process. Moisture is important to support
the composting process. Compost should be comparable to the wetness of a wrung-out sponge. If
the pile is too dry, materials will decompose very slowly. Add water during dry periods or when
adding large amounts of brown organic material. If the pile is too wet, turn the pile and mix the
materials. Another option is to add dry, brown organic materials.

Oxygen is needed to support the breakdown of

plant material by bacteria. To supply oxygen,
you will need to turn the compost pile so that
materials at the edges are brought to the center of
the pile. Turning the pile is important for
complete composting and for controlling odor.
Wait at least two weeks before turning the pile,
to allow the center of the pile to "heat up" and
decompose. Once the pile has cooled in the
center, decomposition of the materials has taken
place. Frequent turning will help speed the
composting process.

Bacteria and other microorganisms are the real workers in the compost process. By supplying
organic materials, water, and oxygen, the already present bacteria will break down the plant
material into useful compost for the garden. As the bacteria decompose the materials, they release
heat, which is concentrated in the center of the pile.

You may also add layers of soil or finished compost to supply more bacteria and speed the
composting process. Commercial starters are available but should not be necessary for compost
piles that have a proper carbon to nitrogen ratio (1 part green organic material to 1 part brown
organic material).In addition to bacteria, larger organisms including insects and earthworms are
active composters. These organisms break down large materials in the compost pile.

Chemical Transformation

During the composting process, micro-organisms degrade the raw material of the compost mix to
synthesize new cellular material and to obtain the energy for these catabolic processes. Before the
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micro-organisms can synthesize new cellular material, they require sufficient energy for these
processes.

The two possible modes of energy yielding metabolism for heterotrophic micro-organisms are
a) Respiration
b) Fermentation
Respiration:
Respiration can be either aerobic or anaerobic. In aerobic respiration, the aerobic micro-organisms
use molecular oxygen, O2, to liberate the bulk of the energy from the carbon source, producing
carbon dioxide and water in the process see equation

[C, O,4H] + O2 → CO2 + H2O + Energy

This conversion is not achieved through a single reaction, but through a series of reactions. These
reactions serve not only to liberate significant quantities of energy, but also to form a large number
of organic intermediates that serve as starting points for other synthetic reactions. Aerobic
respiration is preferred over anaerobic respiration and fermentation for composting because it is
more efficient, generates more energy, operates at higher temperatures, and does not produce the
same quantity of odorous compounds. Aerobes can also use a greater variety of organic compounds
as a source of energy that results in more complete degradation and stabilization of the compost
material.
In anaerobic respiration, the micro-organisms use electron acceptors other than O2, such as nitrates
(NO3–), sulfates (SO4 2–), and carbonates (CO3 2–) to obtain energy. Their use of these alternate
electron acceptors in the energy-yielding metabolism produces odorous or undesirable
compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and methane (CH3).
Fermentation:
Fermentation is the simplest means of energy generation. It does not require oxygen and is quite
inefficient. Most of the carbon decomposed through fermentation is converted to end-products,
not cell substituents, while liberating only a small amount of energy.
Unassimilated protein as nitrogenous organic residue is broken down to obtain the nitrogen
necessary for the synthesis of cellular material in heterotrophic micro-organisms. Nitrogenous
organic residues, or proteins, undergo enzymatic oxidation (digestion) to form complex amino
compounds through a process called aminization. Carbon dioxide (CO2), energy, and other by-
products are also produced.

Proteins + O2 → complex amino compounds + CO2 + Energy + other products

The products of the digestion of the proteins and complex amino acids can only be used in the
synthesis of new cellular material if sufficient carbon is available. If not enough carbon or energy
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to incorporate these amino compounds into the cells is available, unstable nitrogen forms and
accumulates through the process of ammonification. Because the ammonia group is characteristic
of amino acids, ammonia (NH3) or ammonium ions (NH4 +) will accumulate.

R−NH3 + HOH → R−OH + NH3 + Energy

Types of Composting
Composting may be divided into two categories by the nature of the decomposition process.

1. Aerobic composting
2. Anaerobic composting

1 Aerobic composting:
Aerobic composting takes place in the presence of ample O. In this process, aerobic
microorganisms break down organic matter and produce carbon dioxide (CO2), ammonia,
water, heat and humus, the relatively stable organic end product. Although aerobic
composting may produce intermediate compounds such as organic acids, aerobic micro-
organisms decompose them further. The resultant compost, with its relatively unstable
form of organic matter, has little risk of phytotoxicity. The heat generated accelerates the
breakdown of proteins, fats and complex carbohydrates such as cellulose and hemi-
cellulose. Hence, the processing time is shorter. Moreover, this process destroys many
micro-organisms that are human or plant pathogens, as well as weed seeds, provided it
undergoes sufficiently high temperature.

2 Anaerobic composting:
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In anaerobic composting, decomposition occurs where oxygen (O) is absent or in limited

supply. Under this method, anaerobic micro-organisms dominate and develop intermediate
compounds including methane, organic acids, hydrogen sulphide and other substances. In
the absence of O, these compounds accumulate and are not metabolized further. Many of
these compounds have strong odors and some present phytotoxicity. As anaerobic
composting is a low-temperature process, it leaves weed seeds and pathogens intact.
Moreover, the process usually takes longer than aerobic composting. These drawbacks
often offset the merits of this process, viz. little work involved and fewer nutrients lost
during the process.
Composting can also be divided based on other factors. These types include:

 Backyard/Onsite composting
 Vermicomposting
 Aerated windrow composting
 Aerated static pile composting
 In-vessel composting

1 Backyard/Onsite composting
Backyard or onsite composting can be conducted by residents and other small-quantity
generators of organic waste on their own property. By composting these materials onsite,
homeowners and select businesses can significantly reduce the amount of waste that needs to
be disposed of and thereby save money from avoided disposal costs.

2 Vermicomposting
Through this method, red worms-not nightcrawlers or field worms found in gardens- are placed in
bins with organic matter in order to break it down into a high-value compost called castings. Worm
bins are easy to construct (they are also commercially available) and can be adapted to
accommodate the volume of food scraps generated.

3 Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting

Organic waste is formed into rows of long piles called “windrows” and aerated by turning the
pile periodically by either manual or mechanical means. The ideal pile height, which is
between 4 and 8 feet, allows for a pile large enough to generate sufficient heat and maintain
temperatures, yet small enough to allow oxygen to flow to the windrow's core. The ideal pile
width is between 14 and 16 feet.

4 Aerated Static Pile Composting

In aerated static pile composting, organic waste is mixed together in one large pile instead of
rows. To aerate the pile, layers of loosely piled bulking agents (e.g., wood chips, shredded
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newspaper) are added so that air can pass from the bottom to the top of the pile. The piles also
can be placed over a network of pipes that deliver air into or draw air out of the pile. Air
blowers might be activated by a timer or a temperature sensors.

Types of Waste and Waste Generators: Aerated static piles are suitable for a relatively
homogenous mix of organic waste and work well for larger quantity generators of yard
trimmings and compostable municipal solid waste (e.g., food scraps, paper products), which
might include local governments, landscapers, or farms. This method, however, does not work
well for composting animal byproducts or grease from food processing industries.

5 In-Vessel Composting
Organic materials are fed into a drum, silo, concrete-lined trench, or similar equipment where
the environmental conditions-including temperature, moisture, and aeration-are closely
controlled. The apparatus usually has a mechanism to turn or agitate the material for proper
aeration. In-vessel composters vary in size and capacity.

Types of Waste and Waste Generators: In-vessel composting can process large amounts of
waste without taking up as much space as the windrow method. In addition, it can
accommodate virtually any type of organic waste (e.g., meat, animal manure, biosolids, food
scraps). Some in-vessel composters can fit into a school or restaurant kitchen while others can
be as large as a school bus to accommodate large food processing plants.

Factors affecting composting

 Aeration
Composting requires large amounts of O, particularly at the initial stage. Aeration is the source
of O, and, thus, indispensable for aerobic composting. Where the supply of O is not sufficient,
the growth of aerobic micro-organisms is limited, resulting in slower decomposition.
Moreover, aeration removes excessive heat, water vapour and other gases trapped in the pile.
Heat removal is particularly important in warm climates as the risk of overheating and fire is
higher. Therefore, good aeration is indispensable for efficient composting. It may be achieved
by controlling the physical quality of the materials (particle size and moisture content), pile
size and ventilation and by ensuring adequate frequency of turning.

 Moisture
Moisture is necessary to support the metabolic activity of the micro-organisms. Composting
materials should maintain a moisture content of 40–65 percent. Where the pile is too dry,
composting occurs more slowly, while a moisture content in excess of 65 percent develops
anaerobic conditions. In practice, it is advisable to start the pile with a moisture content of 50–
60 percent, finishing at about 30 percent.
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 Nutrients
Micro-organisms require C, N, phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) as the primary nutrients. Of
particular importance is the C:N ratio of raw materials. The optimal C:N ratio of raw materials
is between 25:1 and 30:1 although ratios between 20:1 and 40:1 are also acceptable. Where the
ratio is higher than 40:1, the growth of micro-organisms is limited, resulting in a longer
composting time. A C:N ratio of less than 20:1 leads to underutilization of N and the excess
may be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia or nitrous oxide, and odour can be a problem. The
C:N ratio of the final product should be between about 10:1 and 15:1.

 Temperature
The process of composting involves two temperature ranges: mesophilic and thermophilic.
While the ideal temperature for the initial composting stage is 20–45 °C, at subsequent stages
with the thermophilic organisms taking over, a temperature range of 50–70 °C may be ideal.
High temperatures characterize the aerobic composting process and serve as signs of vigorous
microbial activities. Pathogens are normally destroyed at 55 °C and above, while the critical
point for elimination of weed seeds is 62 °C. Turnings and aeration can be used to regulate
temperature.

 Lignin content
Lignin is one of the main constituents of plant cell walls, and its complex chemical structure
makes it highly resistant to microbial degradation (Richard, 1996). This nature of lignin has
two implications. One is that lignin reduces the bioavailability of the other cell-wall
constituents, making the actual C:N ratio (viz. ratio of biodegradable C to N) lower than the
one normally cited. The other is that lignin serves as a porosity enhancer, which creates
favourable conditions for aerobic composting. Therefore, while the addition of lignin-
decomposing fungi may in some cases increase available C, accelerate composting and reduce
N loss, in other cases it may result in a higher actual C:N ratio and poor porosity, both of which
prolong composting time.

 Polyphenols
Polyphenols include hydrolysable and condensed tannins (Schorth, 2003). Insoluble
condensed tannins bind the cell walls and proteins and make them physically or chemically
less accessible to decomposers. Soluble condensed and hydrolysable tannins react with
proteins and reduce their microbial degradation and thus N release. Polyphenols and lignin are
attracting more attention as inhibiting factors. Palm et al. (2001) suggest that the contents of
these two substances be used to classify organic materials for more efficient on-farm natural
resource utilization, including composting.

 pH value
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Although the natural buffering effect of the composting process lends itself to accepting
material with a wide range of pH, the pH level should not exceed eight. At higher pH levels,
more ammonia gas is generated and may be lost to the atmosphere.

Applications
Agriculture:

 On the open ground, for growing wheat, corn, soybeans, and similar crops, compost can be
broadcast across the top of the soil using spreader trucks or spreaders pulled behind a
tractor.
 In plasticulture, strawberries, tomatoes, peppers, melons, and other fruits and vegetables
are often grown under plastic to control temperature, retain moisture and control weeds.
 Compost can be used as an ingredient in the mix used to grow the seedlings.

Horticulture:

 In raised bed gardening, compost can be mixed with sand, clay, aged sawdust, and other
materials to create an enriched mix for landscape beds or raised-bed gardens.
 Excavated areas around the foundation of new buildings are backfilled when construction
is complete, but these planting zones may contain rubble, residues of toxic chemicals, and
other undesirable substances. Removing the backfill and replacing it with a soil/compost
mix will improve soil structure and give foundation plantings a healthier start.
 For trees and shrubs, mixes of well aged compost with the native soils can be used as
backfill.
 Two or more inches of compost can be used alone or in conjunction with
conventional mulch products to keep root zones cool, conserve moisture, and act as a slow-
release fertilizer, provided the product is coarsely textured and mature.

Erosion control:

 The use of compost to control sediment run-off and fight erosion is a relatively new
technology, now being adopted by local authorities, developers, farmers, and other major
disturbers of soil as another tool to reduce topsoil loss.
 Compost berms and socks are used alone or in conjunction with compost blankets to
mitigate the impact of high volume water discharges and flows.
 With a high water-holding capacity, compost is not tilled into the soil but remains on the
surface to temper the impact of rainfall. Even small amounts can help, but typical
recommendations call for a 5 cm (2 in.) layer to insure adequate surface coverage. The
blanket can also be directly planted into.

Commercial:

 Soil conditioning for turf growers.

 Soil conditioning for allotment holders and commercial growers.
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 Landscaping and tree planting on new highway developments.

 Providing a substrate for potted Christmas trees.
 Substrate preparation for new sports fields.

Limitations
 Cost
Due to the extremely high cost of compost per unit of nutrients in the western world (such
as the United States) on-farm use is relatively rare since rates over 4 tons/acre can not be
afforded. This is unfortunate and results from over-emphasis on "recycling organic matter"
than on "sustainable nutrients".
 Immature compost
Immature composts may cause settling and young root disturbance due to oxygen
deprivation. Seasonally, top dress with compost to the drip line and rake into the soil.
 Effort
Perhaps the most apparent disadvantage of composting is the amount of effort involved.
All the materials must be carried to the compost pile, even weeds and crop residues that
come from your garden. Once your pile is large enough to begin heating, you'll need to
turn it to make the decomposition faster and more thorough.
 Lost nutrient
Finished compost does not contain all the nutrients that went into the pile as raw materials.
If you do not carefully manage and protect your compost pile, nutrient losses can be
significant. Nitrogen is most readily reduced during composting because it dissipates into
the atmosphere as ammonia, and many other nutrients are leached out of the pile by rainfall.
Nutrient losses may be as high as 42 percent for nitrogen, 62 percent for carbon and 6.5
percent for potassium, according to a study published in 1997 in "Journal of Environmental
Quality.
 Cover crops
Composting may distract you from another method of improving the fertility and tilth of
garden soil: cover crops. In some ways, cover crops are superior to composting.
 Transport
The product is weighty and bulky, making it expensive to transport.
 Agricultural concern
Agricultural users might have concerns regarding potential levels of heavy metals and other
possible contaminants in compost, particularly mixed municipal solid wastes. The potential
for contamination becomes an important issue when compost is used on food crops.
 Long term use
Long-term and/or heavy application of composts to agricultural soils has been found to
result in salt, nutrient, or heavy metal accumulation and may adversely affect plant growth,
soil organisms, water quality, and animal and human health.
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Reference
 Environmental Impacts of Farm-Scale Composting Practices - Scientific Figure on
ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Main-bio-chemical-
reactions-of-composting-process_fig2_226558627 [accessed 25 Feb, 2019]
 Part 637 Environmental Engineering National Engineering Handbook(chapter#2)
 Aslam, DN; Vandergheynst, JS; Rumsey, TR (2008). & quot; Development of models for
predicting carbon mineralization and associated phytotoxicity in compostamended soil &
quot; Bioresour Technol.
 University of Illinois Extension: The Composting Process
 Four-Season Harvest: Organic Vegetables From Your Home Garden All Year Long;Eliot
Coleman
 University of Illinois Extension: Composting for the Homeowner
 University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Nutrient, Carbon, and Mass Loss During
 Composting of Beef Cattle Feedlot Manure
 On-farm composting methods by R.V Misra, R.N Roy and H. Hiraoka Chapter 2