CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOWS

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOWS

MOTION OF FLUID FLOWS

Hydrodynamics is the study of water flow. It helps us to understand how water behaves when it flows in pipes
and channels and to answer such questions as:
1) What diameter of pipe is needed to supply a village or a town with water? Fig. 1.1
2) How wide and deep must a channel be to carry water from a dam to an irrigation scheme? Fig. 1.2
3) What kind of pumps may be required and how big must they be? Fig. 1.3

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

These are the practical problems of hydrodynamics. Hydrodynamics is more complex than hydrostatics because
it must take account of more factors, particularly the direction and velocity in which the water is flowing and
the influence of viscosity.

In early times hydrodynamics, like many other developments, moved forward on a trial and error basis. If the
flow was not enough then a larger diameter pipe was used, if a pipe burst under the water pressure then a
stronger one was put in its place. But during the past 250 years or so scientists have found new ways of
answering the questions about size, shape and strength. They experimented in laboratories and came up with
mathematical theories that have now replaced trial and error methods for the most common hydraulic problems.

I. PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW

Major subdivisions of flows:

a) Steady or Unsteady - based on consideration of the time scale

b) Uniform or Non-uniform - relate to the scale of distance

Definition:
*discharge or flow rate is the amount of fluid passing through a section per unit of time (mass flow
rate, kg/sec; weight flow rate, kN/sec; volume flow rate, m3/sec)

a) A flow is steady if the parameters (velocity, discharge*, pressure, or depth of flow) describing that flow
do not vary with time.
b) A flow is unsteady if the parameters do vary with time.
c) A flow is uniform if the parameters describing the flow do not vary with distance along the flow path.
d) A flow is non-uniform when the magnitude of the parameters varies from point to point along the flow
path.

Assumptions in Fluid Flows

In an inviscid flow the effects of viscosity can be completely neglected with no significant effects on the solution
to a problem involving the flow. All fluids have viscosity and if the viscous effects cannot be neglected, it is a
viscous flow. Viscous effects are very important in pipe flows and many other kinds of flows inside conduits;
they lead to losses and require pumps in long pipe lines. But, are there flows in which we can neglect the
influence of viscosity? Certainly, we would not even consider inviscid flows if no such flows could be found in
our engineering problems.

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 CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOWS

Still further simplification is possible if the fluid is incompressible, which we may define as having density
variations which are negligible in the mass-conservation requirement. Liquid flows are assumed to be
incompressible in most situations (water hammer is an exception). In such incompressible flows the density of a
fluid particle as it moves along is assumed to be constant.

Classifications of fluid flow

a) Steady uniform flow

For such a flow the discharge is constant with time and the cross-section through which the flow
passes is of constant area.

b) Steady non-uniform flow

The discharge is constant with time, but the cross-sectional area varies with distance.

c) Unsteady uniform flow

The cross-section through the flow is constant, but the discharge varies with time.

d) Unsteady non-uniform flow

The cross-section and discharge vary with both time and distance.

The Fundamental Equations of Fluid Dynamics

Description and physical basis

1. conservation of matter (conservation of mass)

2. conservation of energy
3. conservation of momentum

Control Volume
1) It is a purely imaginary region within a body of a flowing fluid.
2) It is a volume or structure in space, surrounded by a boundary, which accepts water and other
inputs, operates on them internally and produces them as outputs.
3) The control volume resembles the free-body concept, which is applied to systems in solid-
mechanics analyses.

The Law of Conservation of Matter

Matter cannot be created nor destroyed; though it may be transformed.
*The principle of conservation of mass states that during any time interval t, for any control
volume, the mass flow entering minus the mass flow leaving equals the change of mass within
the control volume.

The Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy may be neither created nor destroyed but can be transformed form one guise to another,
but none is actually lost.

The Law of Conservation of Momentum

A body in motion cannot gain or lose momentum unless some external force is applied.

Continuity Equation (conservation of mass) (Refer to Figure 1.4)

Qinflow = Qoutflow

The continuity equation builds on the discharge equation and simply means that the amount of water flowing
into a system must be equal to the amount of water flowing out of it.

Energy Equation (Bernoulli's Theorem) (Refer to Figure 1.5)

p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g

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 CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOWS

Momentum Equation (of conservation of momentum)

FM = Q(V2 - V1)

DERIVATION OF FORMULAS

CONTINUITY EQUATION
1 2
Figure 1.4

Q1 A1 A2 Q2

L1 L2

From Figure 1.4, let point 1 (area of flow is A1 and length L1 that gives the volume at point 1 as Vol1) be the
entry point and point 2 (area of flow is A2 and length L2 that gives the volume at point 2 as Vol2)the exit point
of a pipe with flowing fluid. According to the Law on Conservation of Mass, during any time interval, t, for any
control volume, the mass flow entering minus the mass flow leaving equals the change of mass within the
control volume. Mathematically,

mass flow entering – mass flow leaving = net mass flow

m1 m 2 m
- =Δ eq 1.1
t t t
Considering that the fluid flow through points 1 and 2 is steady flow,
m1 m 2 m1 m 2
=0 or = eq 1.2
t t t t
m
since, ρ = , then m = ρ(Vol ) = ρAL
Vol eq 1.3
Then at points 1 and 2,
ρ1 A 1 L1 ρ 2 A 2 L 2
= eq 1.4
t t

L
considering the fluid to be incompressible, then ρ 1 = ρ 2 = ρ . Also, = velocity , then, eq. 1.4 is simplified in
t
eq. 1.5 as
A 1 V1 = A 2 V2 or Q1 = Q2 eq 1.5

which is called the Continuity Equation, where Q1 and Q2 are the flow rates at points 1 and 2, respectively. Units
can be m3/s, ft3/s, or li/s.

ENERGY EQUATION

Energy and Head

Energy is the capacity of water to do useful work and water can possess energy in three ways: pressure energy,
kinetic energy, and potential energy. (Figure 1.5a, b, and c)

Pressure energy - also called flow energy. It is the amount of work required to force the element of fluid across a
certain distance against the pressure. When water is under pressure it can do useful work for us. The flow work
done by the fluid is equal to “pAL” where p is the unit pressure of the fluid, and “AL” is the volume of fluid
passing at a section.

Kinetic energy When water flows it possesses energy because of this movement; this is known as kinetic energy
(1/2 mV2) or sometimes velocity energy. The faster water flows the greater is its kinetic energy.

Elevation energy - the energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its position or elevation with respect to a datum
plane. Water also has energy because of its location. Water stored in the mountains can do useful work by

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 CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOWS

generating hydro-power whereas water stored on a flood plain has little or no potential for work. So the higher
the water source the more energy water has. This is called potential energy (Wz)
.

Figure 1.5

L1

Q1 L2

Figure 1.6 A1

A2

1
Q2
2
Z1
Z2

datum

In Figure 1.6, V1 and V2 are the velocity vectors of the flow at the two points while z 1 and z2 are the vertical
distances from a datum to the centroids of the mass flow at the two points. The energies present in the flow are
the kinetic energy, and the potential energy. The potential energy is composed of the pressure energy and
elevation energy.

Energy at point 1 - Energy at point 2 = net energy

Since the flow is steady, E1 - E2 = 0 or E1 = E2 eq 1.6

1 1
E1 = m V 2 + p 1 A 1L 1 + m 1gz 1 and E2 = m V 2 + p 2 A 2 L 2 + m 2 gz 2 eq 1.7
2 1 1 2 2 2

Since the fluid is incompressible, m1 = m2 = m = AL eq 1.8

W
Simplify all terms per unit weight of the fluid, γ = , Vol = AL, and γ = ρg eq 1.9
Vol

1 ρALV 2 1 mV 2
2 p1 AL ρALgz 1 p AL ρALgz 2
= 2
1 2
+ + + 2 + eq 1.10
ρgAL ρgAL ρgAL ρgAL ρgAL ρgAL

p 1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 eq 1.11
ρg 2g ρg 2g

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 CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOWS

which is called the Bernoulli’s Energy Equation where “p/g” is the pressure head, “V2/2g” is the velocity head
and “z” is the elevation head.

MODIFIED BERNOULLI’S ENERGY EQUATION

a) With head loss, hL

Head loss in a water system can be due to
- Friction
- Pipe fittings
- Change in the dimensions of areas of flow
- Change in flow direction

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z 2  h L eq 1.12
g 2g g 2g

b) With pump (hA is head added by the pump)

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  h A  2  2  z 2 eq 1.13
g 2g g 2g

c) With turbine (hE is the head extracted by the turbine)

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z 2  h A eq 1.14
g 2g g 2g

POWER (pump or turbine)

P = Qh eq 1.15

Where P is power,  is the unit weight of the fluid, Q is the flow rate, and h is the head.

𝐏𝐎 eq 1.16
𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐏𝐈

where PO and PI are the power output and power input, respectively.

Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines

Energy Grade Line - a graphical representation of the total energy of flow (the sum of kinetic and potential
energies)

*Characteristics of EGL

 EGL always slope downward in the direction of flow, and it will only rise with the presence of a pump
 The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head lost between the points
 Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal

Hydraulic Grade Line - also known as pressure gradient. It is the graphical representation of the total potential
energy of flow. It is the line that connects the water levels in successive piezometer tubes placed at intervals
along the pipe.

*Characteristics of HGL

 HGL is always below the EGL by an amount equal to the velocity head
 HGL slopes downward in the direction of the flow but it may rise or fall due to changes in velocity or
pressure
 For a uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to the EGL
 For pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in pressure heads between any two points is also equal to the head
lost between these points

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 CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOWS

MOMENTUM EQUATION

Applying a force to a mass causes it to accelerate (Newton's second law, eq. 1.17) and the effect of this is to
cause a change in velocity (eq. 1.19). This means there is a link between mass and velocity and this is called
momentum.

1 2
Figure 1.7

V1 A1 A2 V2

L1 L2

Momentum is about movement and the forces which cause it. It is used to determine the forces created by water
as it moves through pipes and hydraulic structures.

F = ma eq 1.17

But: mass flow (kg/s) = mass density (kg/m3) x discharge (m3/s)

Mass flow = ρQ eq 1.18

And as shown in Figure 1.7, which is the assumed control volume of a flowing fluid:

ΔV = V1 – V2 eq 1.19
where V1 and V2 represent two velocities in a system, and so:

FM = ρQ(V1 – V2) eq 1.20

Eq. 1.20 is the force exerted by the fluid. An important application of the momentum equation is to the deflectors
(or vanes) of pumps, turbines, or compressors. The applications involve both stationary defectors and moving
deflectors. The following assumptions are made for both:

. The frictional force between the fluid and the deflector is negligible.
. The pressure is assumed to be constant as the fluid moves over the deflector.
. The body force is assumed to be negligible.
. The effect of the lateral spreading of the fluid stream is neglected.

 Force against stationary flat plates

Figure 1.8
Water jet

plate

V1 1 2

In Figure 1.8, the water jet flowing at a rate of Q strikes a flat plate and is deflected symmetrically making V2
equal to zero. The y-components of the force balance because of having equal magnitudes and opposite
directions. Therefore, the x-component remains and using eq. 1.20,

FM(x) = ρQ(V1)

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 CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOWS

 Force against stationary curved vanes or blades

V2(X)
Figure 1.9 V2

V2(Y)
Water jet
Stationary
vane/blade

V1
θ

In Figure 1.9, the water jet is deflected by the stationary (or fixed) vane (or blade) having a deflection angle of θ.
Thus, the force of the jet has the following components:

FM(x) = ρQ(V1(x) – V2(x))

FM(y) = ρQ(V1(y) – V2(y))

 Force against moving curved vanes or blades

V2(X)
Figure 1.20 V2

V2(Y)
Water jet
Stationary
vane/blade

V1 V’
θ

In Figure 1.20, the water jet (having cross-sectional A) is deflected by the moving vane having velocity equal to
V’. The angle of deflection of the vane is θ. Thus, the force of the deflected jet has the following components:

FM(x) = ρQ’(V1(x) – V2(x))

FM(y) = ρQ’(V1(y) – V2(y))
Q’ = A(u)
u = V1 – V’