A4119

The Basics of Micro Irrigation

Scott Sanford and John Panuska

A
micro irrigation system consists of • The plant foliage is not wetted, thus
valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters reducing the potential for foliar diseases.
that slowly dispense water near the • Since the area between rows isn’t
plant root zone. There are several types of irrigated, fewer weeds grow, which can
micro irrigation. Drip irrigation, also called reduce herbicide use.
trickle irrigation, delivers one water droplet
• Water is distributed more uniformly,
at a time or a very small stream of water to
with typically 90% or greater uniformity.
plants. Micro spray irrigation delivers small
amounts of water in a fine mist, in a stream • Growers see reduced energy costs,
of water, or by means of a micro sprinkler. because the system operates at lower
Micro spray irrigation systems are often pressure and less water is used.
used in orchards to distribute water over a • Water can be distributed on the soil
larger area of a tree’s root zone than would surface (surface drip irrigation) or
a drip emitter. Micro irrigation can be used through lines buried in the plant root
in greenhouses, orchards, vineyards, fields, zone (subsurface drip irrigation),
lawns, and gardens. which will reduce damage to irrigation
Micro irrigation has many advantages over components by machinery.
sprinkler irrigation: • The drip irrigation system can be used
• Water use can be reduced by 25 to 50% to distribute water-soluble fertilizers.
(Lamont, 2012; Simonne, 2015) because Fertigation allows fertilizer to be
water is distributed to only the root applied to the crop as needed during
zone of the target plants and not the the growing season, reducing nutrient
FIGURE 1. Simple garden drip system. area between rows, reducing losses by losses and leaching.
percolation and evaporation from wet • Due to low water application rates,
faucet soil. drip irrigation can be used on sloping
backflow preventer
ground without causing erosion or
runoff.
filter There are also some drawbacks to drip
pressure regulator
irrigation:

adapter • The initial cost of the system can be

high ($500 to $2,000 per acre) relative
distribution tubing to other types of irrigation systems, and
there can be recurring costs if tubing is
replaced annually.
drip tape
• Emitter openings are very small, so
all water must be filtered to prevent
connector plugging. Depending on the source
water quality, chlorination or acid
rinsing the system may be necessary to
prevent emitters from plugging.

laterals
run down rows

end cap

flush valve or
removable end cap
 T H E B A S I C S O F M I C R O I R R I G A T I O N

• A higher level of management is • In crops that could be damaged by frost For garden applications, this may be a very
necessary to operate a drip system, during bloom, such as strawberries, a simple system, with a main line along the
because growers find it more difficult sprinkler irrigation system or floating edge of the garden and laterals running
to judge the amount of water row crop covers will be needed for frost down the rows all in one zone (figure
applied, which can result in under- or control. 1) with manual water shutoff valves for
overwatering. individual rows. A large field may require
• Though drip irrigation reduces leaching, System components multiple filtration systems, multiple zones,
and a controller to automate irrigation of
it can lead to high soil salinity or A basic drip irrigation system consists of a
alkalinity over time because excess salts the zones sequentially. Figure 2 shows a
water supply, backflow prevention valve,
are not leached from the root zone. This water supply, a filtration system, and one
fertilizer injector (optional), water filtration
can occur in soils that have a high clay zone of a multiple-zone, larger-scale drip
system, pressure regulator, a main line to
content, high compaction, very high irrigation system. When designing a new
transport water to the field, submains to
sodium content, or high water tables. micro irrigation system, whether drip or
distribute water within a field, laterals or
micro spray, it is important to work from
• Drip systems are also more prone to poly tubes to distribute water down a row,
the field to the water source, or from the
damage from machinery and wildlife, and emitters to meter water to the plants.
emitter or sprinkler to the water supply.
and at the end of the growing cycle There may also be valves for zone control;
there are cleanup costs to remove, various pipeline appurtenances such as
recycle, or dispose of surface drip tape. vacuum relief valves, air relief valves, and
pressure relief valves; flushing valves;
pressure gauges; and system controllers.

FIGURE 2. Components of a field-scale drip irrigation system.

fertilizer bypass sand check pump

injector valve separator valve control

back flush
waste discharge

control panel
fertilizer
tank
dual media filters

air
valve disc or
screen filter

to well
other head
zones
main line check valve
zone valve
irrigation
zone

lateral
end cap or
flush valve

end stop

submain line
emitter lateral
flush valve

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Piping and emitters TABLE 1. Example of friction loss calculation.

Three types of piping are used in drip Friction loss
irrigation systems: Pipe size/type Length of pipe (psi)/100 feet Total friction loss
• Main line pipe routes the water from the
4-inch PVC pipe 200 feet 0.22 0.44 psi
source to the edge of the field.
• Submain pipe distributes the water to 3-inch PVC pipe 300 feet 0.74 2.22 psi
zones in a field. Fitting allowance na 25% of total pipe 2.66 × 0.25 = 0.67
• Lateral pipe distributes the water to the Total 3.33 psi
plants.
In a small system, the main and submain
calculating friction losses. A rule of thumb the friction loss on the friction loss chart
pipes may be the same.
is to add 20% to the friction losses of your (see the third column of table 1). Calculate
Main lines straight pipes to account for fittings. the pressure drop for each section of pipe
Main lines are typically made of aluminum, Example: A system will require 750 feet of (length × pressure loss per 100 feet) (see
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene 2-inch PVC pipe, which has a friction loss fourth column of table 1). Calculate the
(PE), or lay-flat tubing, (figures 3 and 4). of 1.37 pounds per square inch (psi) per allowance for fittings (total pressure drop
They can be laid on top of the ground for 100 feet at a flow rate of 50 gallons per for pipe × 25%). Add the pipe and fitting
seasonal use or buried for more permanent minute (gpm). The total friction loss is 10.3 losses to estimate the total friction loss.
installations. The type of pipe will psi for the pipe (750 feet × 1.37 psi/100 Pipes will need to be purged of water for
determine whether it can be buried. Some feet). The fittings are estimated to add an the winter to prevent pipe breaks. For
types of pipe, such as lay-flat tubing and additional 20% in losses, or 2.0 psi (10.3 psi permanent installations, pipe slope and
thin-walled polyethylene, cannot be buried × 0.20). The estimated total friction losses drain locations need to be considered
because they will collapse. for fittings and piping will therefore be 12.3 during installation. Temporary or
The pipe should be sized to minimize psi. seasonally installed piping or permanent
friction loss at the maximum expected flow If the main or submain size is reduced piping above ground needs to be
rate and have a maximum flow velocity of along the pipe run (e.g., 200 feet of 4-inch protected from damage by vehicle traffic
less than 5 feet per second. For long runs, pipe followed by 300 feet of 3-inch pipe), and field operations.
a larger pipe may be needed to reduce then the percentage to account for fittings
friction losses. The friction losses per is increased to 25%. If the pressure drop Submains
information for fittings is available from the Submains are used to route water from
hundred feet for different pipe materials
manufacturer, it should be used instead of the main line to zones in the field. The
and pipe sizes can be found in tables, such
estimating. lateral tubing with emitters is connected
as the one published by the Irrigation
to the submains and delivers water to
Association in 2008 (see the reference Example: A system has 200 feet of 4-inch individual plants. Submain piping can
section). Pipe fittings (e.g., elbows, tees, PVC pipe followed by 300 feet of 3-inch be PVC, PE, or lay-flat tubing. The laterals
reducers) also need to be considered when PVC pipe to the farthest field from the are connected to PE (figure 5) or lay-flat
well at a flow rate of 100 gpm. Look up

FIGURE 3. From left, aluminum, PVC, and FIGURE 4. Polyethylene tubing. FIGURE 5. Drip tape barbed connector
lay-flat pipe materials. with and without valve.

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FIGURE 6. Lay-flat tubing with adaptor
for lateral.

tubing with barbed end connectors (figure would be used for sandy soils, while a
6), while PVC requires a gasket (figure 7), wider spacing could be used for soils with
glue connector, or transfer tube. Fittings higher clay content due to the difference
installed into PVC piping should be in lateral water movement within the soil.
considered permanent. Crops with large in-row spacing, such as
Ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun tomatoes or pumpkins, can have emitter
degrades PVC. This causes PVC piping to spacing that matches the plant spacing.
become discolored and more brittle over Closer spacing in row crops reduces the
time. If PVC piping is used above ground, variation in water distribution between
it can be painted with a white water-based emitters. Typically, a 12-inch spacing works
latex paint, wrapped with an opaque well for most soils.
FIGURE 7. Drip tape barbed connector
material, or purchased with UV protection. Another type of emitter is a point source
with grommet for PVC pipe.
The UV-resistant PVC pipe is termed PVC emitter (figure 10). This type can be used in
UVR (UV-resistant). It still degrades over greenhouses or nurseries for potted plants
time but at a slower rate than it would and in orchards or vineyards. For orchards
without the protection. Most suppliers and vineyards, multiple emitters may be
recommend painting the PVC pipe or using required per tree or vine. One advantage
a thicker pipe rather than using PVC UVR of point source emitters in orchards and
pipe. vineyards is that you can insert them
at any spacing needed—just punch a
Laterals and emitters hole and insert the barbed end. They
Drip tape, a thin-walled tubing with are available in pressure-compensating
emitters incorporated at preset intervals, or non-compensating types. Pressure-
is the most common type of lateral used compensating emitters (figure 10, two
FIGURE 8. Different types of drip tubing for row crops (figure 8). Drip tape comes emitters on the right) are designed to
emitter openings. in different wall thicknesses (4 to 15 mil) maintain uniform water flow over a
to meet various durability and pressure range of pressures. Typically they have a
requirements. A thin-walled drip tape diaphragm to regulate the pressure. They
(4 or 5 mil) would be most economical help to maintain uniform water flow when
for an annual crop. For a crop such as there are elevation differences in a system
strawberries that will be grown for 3 to or long pipe runs.
4 years, a medium wall thickness (6 or 8 Spray emitters, misters, and micro
mil) will provide durability to last the crop sprinklers (figure 11) are other types of
cycle. If drip tape will be reused or moved emitters and are typically used in orchards,
for multiple seasons, a wall thickness of landscape applications, or greenhouses.
FIGURE 9. Cut-away view of drip tape 10 mil is recommended. For permaculture
emitter bonded to inside of tube (top) (orchards, vineyards, or berries), or where
FIGURE 11. Micro sprinklers on stakes
and external view (bottom). there is more field traffic or where rodent
or risers.
damage is more likely, a heavy-walled
tubing (12 or 15 mil) is available. The drip
tape can remain in or on the ground over
winter as the water will drain, so freezing
will not damage it; however, it still can be
damaged by rodents or equipment.
An emitter is a device that meters water
out along a lateral. Typical flow rates for a
drip emitter range from 0.4 to 2.0 gallons
per hour (gph). The emitter opening can
FIGURE 10. Point source emitters. be a single point or a slit. Figure 9 shows
the external view of the emitter and a
cut-away of the internal part of the emitter
that is bonded to the inside of the plastic
tubing. Emitter spacing can range from
4 to 24 inches; 8 to 16 inches is common
for vegetable crops. A closer spacing

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 U N I V E R S I T Y O F W I S C O N S I N - E X T E N S I O N

FIGURE 12. Heavy-walled drip tubing for TABLE 2. Recommended subsurface drip tubing spacing and depth.
surface or sub-surface applications.
Crop Depth (inches) Drip line spacing

Fruit trees and grapes > 16 Same as rows

Blueberries, raspberries >8 Same as rows

Row crops—corn, asparagus > 12 Maximum of 60 inches

Raised beds—single row One drip line offset 4 to 6

2–4
They can distribute water across a large (tomatoes, cucumbers) inches from center of bed
area of the root zone of a plant or tree.
These emitters can cover areas from Raised beds—double row One drip line in center
2–4
about 5 to 30 feet in diameter depending (eggplant, peppers, strawberries) of bed
on orifice size, distribution pattern, and
water pressure. The water flow rates range Raised beds—double row Two drip lines spaced half
3–6
from 5 to 20 gph. The micro sprinklers are (bed width greater than 30 inches) the bed width apart
typically attached to a 1- to 3-foot-long
stake with spaghetti tubing (small Adapted from Van der Gulik, 1999 (table 6.1).
diameter tubing) connecting the sprinkler
to the lateral. These are typically used in placed in the root zone. This reduces the Subsurface drip irrigation installed
orchards with full-size or semi-dwarf trees.exposure of wetted soil to evaporation. permanently in a field or orchard typically
Micro sprinklers or misters may also be For deep-rooted crops the SSDI lines are will have a longer life if thicker-walled
useful for frost control for strawberries installed permanently below the tillage tubing is used, and it can last 20 years or
and other early-flowering crops. These zone, but for shallow-rooted crops the more if properly installed and maintained.
types of sprinklers have the disadvantage tubing may be removed after the crop The biggest disadvantage of subsurface
of higher evaporative losses and may rotation. Subsurface installation can reduce irrigation is the difficulty of monitoring
increase canopy humidity levels, increasing the cost over the long run but has a higher the water applied and being aware of
conditions favorable for fungal diseases. initial cost because installation is more problems such as plugged emitters or
complex, requiring a thick-walled emitter damaged tubing. Using water meters
Traditionally, drip tape is placed on
line and trenching equipment. Subsurface on each zone and on each field can help
top of the soil surface or under plastic
drip tubing can be knifed in, but submain identify problems by making it possible
mulch, which can expose the drip tape
piping must be trenched in at the ends to compare current flow rates with
to damage. When tape is placed on top
of the field or zone. Typically, tubing has those observed at installation. The use
of the soil, some evaporation will occur
an 8 to 15 mil wall thickness, but piping is of soil moisture monitoring sensors can
due to the wet soil surface. For subsurface
available up to 60 mil (figure 12). Thicker- help determine when water is needed.
drip irrigation (SSDI), the emitter is
walled tubing is used with higher system Subsurface drip irrigation won’t wet the
pressures and in soil near the surface so other means of
FIGURE 13. Drip tubing supported on wire in vineyard rough (rocky) terrain. applying water may be needed during
about 1 foot above the ground. Very thin-walled germination if the weather is dry; however,
tubing (4 to 6 mil) this is typically not a problem in Wisconsin.
should not be used Drip line spacing and depth
for permanent The spacing and depth of subsurface
subsurface drip irrigation piping varies greatly with the
irrigation applications type of plant. The installation depth for
because it will fruit trees and grapes will be the deepest,
collapse. Drip tubing while the installation depth for crops like
should be pressurized strawberries and tomatoes will be shallow.
shortly after burying Raised beds may require multiple drip
to prevent crushing lines, depending on the bed width. Table
of the tubing as the 2 provides guidance on the depth and
ground settles. spacing to use for various crops.

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 T H E B A S I C S O F M I C R O I R R I G A T I O N

Emitter spacing TABLE 3. Guide for number of emitters per plant.

The number and type of emitters varies
with the crop type and spacing. See table 3 Crop type Minimum number of emitters
for guidelines.
Drip tape—orifice spacing not greater than 1.5 times
Drip tape should be placed as close to the Vegetables (single row)
plant spacing
crop row as possible with consideration
given to avoiding damage during field Drip tape—orifice spacing not to exceed plant
Vegetables (double row)
operations (e.g., cultivation, hoeing, spacing
pruning). If drip tape is placed under
plastic, the location is important so that the Grapes Point source or drip line—2 emitters per plant
drip line is not damaged during planting.
For grapes and berries, the drip line can Strawberries Drip tape—12-inch spacing recommended
be buried (subsurface) or suspended from
a trellis wire (figure 13). A suspended line Point source—spaced every other plant
Raspberries
should be high enough not to impede Drip line—1 emitter per plant
mowing or tillage operations. When
suspended, the drip line will sag, causing Blueberries Point source—1 per plant, match plant spacing
water to drip from the lowest point.
Increasing support of the drip line will help Fruit trees Point source—halfway between trees
to direct water to the intended location. If (spacing 6 feet or less) Drip line—2 emitters per tree
using point source emitters, install them Point source or drip line—2 per tree spaced 2 feet
on the underside of the pipe to drop water from tree trunk
directly to the ground where desired. Fruit trees
(about 8 feet apart—dwarf ) Spray or micro sprinkler—spaced halfway between
As water is emitted, it enters the soil and trees with 360° head or 2 spray emitters at tree base
may spread horizontally beneath the soil with 180° or 270° heads
surface, depending on the soil texture Point source or drip line—2 per tree spaced 2.5 feet
(figure 14). This will affect the wetted from tree trunk, spacing greater than 15 feet use 3 or
volume of soil, width of the wetted root Fruit trees more emitters per tree
zone, and possibly the number and (greater than 8-foot spacing)
Spray emitters—2 at tree base with 180º heads
spacing of laterals needed. Table 4 provides discharging away from tree
a rough estimate of the lateral movement
of the water away from the drip emitter in Spray or point source—2 emitters per pot to ensure
Container plants plants get water should one orifice plug; large pots
different soil textures. Growers will need
can benefit from spray to distribute water
to dig holes, take soil core samples, or use
a soil moisture sensor to determine the Adapted from Van der Gulik, 1999 (table 5.4).
extent of lateral movement in their soils.

FIGURE 14. Wetted root zone pattern by soil type. TABLE 4. Lateral water movement from
point emitter.

Soil type Lateral movement

(feet)
Coarse sand 0.5–1.5

Fine sand 1.0–3.0

Loam 3.0–4.5

Heavy clay 4.0–6.0

clay loam sand

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FIGURE 15. Split slope lateral layout.

Controls
Drip irrigation can be controlled manually,
up-slope lateral submain running
perpendicular to slope with a timer, or by using a sophisticated
controller that interacts with sensors
that determine soil moisture levels and
down-slope lateral turn on the irrigation when the moisture
level reaches a predetermined value. In
larger systems controllers can be used to
sequence zones by activating multiple
valves. Figure 16 shows a valve bank with
an automated controller in a vineyard.

Water supply
Water sources for drip irrigation can be
surface water, groundwater, or a public
water utility. A groundwater or public
Lateral layout The maximum drip tape length will depend
water source is usually best because it
The layout of the laterals or drip tape on the distribution uniformity required, the
typically provides cleaner water. If a surface
needs to minimize the effects of slope of the field, the flow rate, the inlet
water source is used, additional filtration
elevation changes to maintain high pressure, and the diameter of the drip tape.
will be required to remove biological
water distribution uniformity. Whenever On a flat field, the lateral length can be
materials (debris, algae, bug larva, etc.) to
possible the laterals should lie along the 1,000 feet or more, but an uphill slope can
prevent emitter plugging.
contour of slopes in order to minimize reduce the maximum length by 15 to 60%
elevation pressure losses or gains. If that depending on inlet pressure and slope. When considering a drip irrigation system,
is not possible you may compensate by Drip tape manufacturers publish tables remember it is important to have an
regulating the pressure at the lateral or charts indicating the maximum length adequate water supply for the irrigated
manifold or submain, by using pressure- of run based on operating pressure, flow area during a drought period. If the water
compensating emitters, or by splitting rate per 100 feet, percent slope, emitter source cannot supply enough water
the field so that the lateral going up the spacing, and uniformity. for the system to function efficiently
slope is shorter than that going down the during a drought period, then installing
slope (figure 15). The split is to balance the Design an irrigation system may not result in
elevation effect so that pressures at the All pipes in the drip irrigation system sufficient additional yield or crop quality to
emitters are more uniform. must be sized to match the flow rates pay for the investment.
and pressure losses in each section of the In Wisconsin the peak growing season
A variety of nominal sizes of lateral
system. This process starts with laying out evapotranspiration, or plant water use, is
pipe and drip tape are available. Most
and sizing the laterals or drip tubing in about 0.30 inches per day.
manufacturers offer drip tapes from ½ to
the field, then working backward to the
13⁄8 inches in diameter. The 5⁄8-inch tubing
submains, then to the main lines. There
is sufficient for most fields, costs less, and
are three excellent handbooks listed in the FIGURE 16. Valve bank with an
is available in a wide range of emitter
reference section to help with the layout automated controller in a vineyard.
spacings and flow rates. The larger 7⁄8-inch
and sizing of all system components:
tubing can be used in longer runs and will
RO-Drip User Manual, B.C. Trickle Irrigation
still maintain high uniformity. It will also
Manual, and Drip and Micro Irrigation
possibly require fewer submains, which
Design and Management for Trees, Vines and
could reduce the number of obstacles
Field Crops.
you will need to maneuver around during
field operations. Although 7⁄8-inch tubing
and fittings cost more than 5⁄8-inch tubing,
the possibility of needing fewer submains
may reduce the overall system cost. Drip
tape sizes of 11⁄8 and 13⁄8 inches in diameter
permit higher flow rates and longer runs,
but are not commonly used.

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FIGURE 17. Backflow preventer for hose.

The recommended maximum water

application time is 12 hours per day (Van Filtration
der Gulik, 1999), which means a minimum Drip irrigation emitters have very small
water flow rate of 6 gallons per minute per openings that can plug from biological
irrigated acre. Converting the plant water particulates (e.g., algae, bug larvae) or
use into gallons of water per acre results chemical particulates (e.g., iron, calcium). It
in a requirement of 8,146 gallons per acre is imperative that the water be free of any
per day before irrigation system losses debris in order to reduce emitter clogging
are considered. Drip irrigation typically and to maintain uniform distribution. Most
reduces the total water volume needed systems will need a 120- to 150-mesh
by reducing deep percolation and surface filtration screen, but some will require
evaporation, and by only watering the crop 200-mesh filtration to keep emitters from
root zone and not the aisle between the plugging. Manufacturers of drip tape
rows. It can also reduce weed growth due and emitters will provide a specification
FIGURE 18. Anti-siphon vacuum breaker. to the dry soil surface. The total amount of sheet with recommended filtration levels
water the plants use will remain the same measured in microns or mesh. There are
but there should be less unused water if four types of filtration systems: screens,
the system is managed effectively. disks, media (sand), and separators. Often
more than one type of filter will be used in
Water quality is an important consideration
series in a system. A simple drip irrigation
when using drip irrigation. The amount
system for a small area such as a garden
and size of suspended solids in the water
may include a screen or disk filter; a system
is important in selecting the type of
serving a larger area will often include
filtration system to use to prevent emitters
a media filter for primary filtration in
from plugging. Measures of water quality
combination with a screen or disk filter.
include Total Dissolved Solids (TDS),
which is a measure of the concentration of Screen filters have a fine screen to remove
soluble salts, and Sodium Absorption Ratio debris from the water (figure 19). They
(SAR), which is a ratio of sodium to calcium are used in small systems that have clean
and magnesium. If total dissolved solids water supplies or as secondary filters
are high, they can become a problem if after a media filter. Regular maintenance
they precipitate out of the water and plug is required to remove any debris on the
the very small openings of the emitters. screen. If the screen is allowed to become
Sometimes water treatment is needed to clogged, the water force can push debris
FIGURE 19. Inline screen filter. through the screen or rupture it. Screens
control TDS.
can be cleaned by reversing the water flow

Backflow prevention to dislodge debris either manually or by

using a flushing valve. The screen should
valve be cleaned after the pressure drop across
the filter reaches 4 to 5 psi.
A backflow prevention valve is required
to prevent contaminated water from
being drawn back into a well or public
water system. It is basically a check valve
and a vacuum relief valve in one unit that
will allow the water to flow in only one
direction, but will also allow air into the
pipeline to replace the water draining from
the system. For a small system it consists
of a small valve that attaches to a garden
hose (figure 17). A large system will use
a vacuum breaker that is permanently
installed in the water supply line (figure
18).

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TABLE 5. Media type and filtration range. FIGURE 20. Media filter.
(Courtesy of EurodripUSA.)

Sand media type Mean effective

Mesh range
and designation size (mm)

#8 crushed granite 100–140 1.50

#12 silica sand 130–140 1.20

#11 crushed granite* 140–180 0.78

#16 silica sand 150–200 0.70

#20 silica sand*† 200–250 0.47

* Widely used media types.

† Use a base layer of garnet media (effective media size greater than
1.0 mm) in bottom of tank. Fill to 6 inches above underdrain.
Source: Van der Gulik, 1999; Burt and Styles, 2011.

Media filters (also called sand filters), Media filters can be easily cleaned by one is filtering while the second filter is
similar to swimming pool filters, are backflushing to remove the trapped being backflushed. Three-filter systems
effective for removal of suspended particles. During backflushing water is are often used so two are filtering while
particulate matter in the water supply. They routed backwards through the media to one is backflushing. The filter should be
use sand or crushed rock as a media and dislodge trapped particles and discharge backflushed for 3 to 5 minutes or until the
are capable of trapping large quantities of them to a waste drain (figure 21). With drain water runs clear. The frequency of
suspended solids while still maintaining proper controls, backflushing can be backflushing will depend on the amount
rated flow rates (figure 20). The media programmed to occur automatically of particulates in the source water. The
type selected will affect the filtration mesh at a fixed time interval or based on recommendation is to backflush every 2
range. Table 5 lists different types of media the pressure difference between the to 4 hours of operation or, if differential
and the effective mesh range. incoming and outgoing flow. To provide pressure is used, when pressure loss across
continuous water flow for irrigation, at the filter (compared with clean sand) is 5
least two filters are needed so that at least to 7 psi.

FIGURE 21. Backwashing of a media filter: (a) both vessels in filtration mode; (b) one vessel in backwash mode and one vessel
in filtration mode.

backwash backwash
a b
inlet inlet

outlet outlet

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FIGURE 22. Separator/cyclone filter. FIGURE 23. Separator flows. Separator filters make use of centrifugal
(Courtesy of Netafim USA.) force to separate particles from the water
clean water outlet (figure 22). They work well for removal of
sand and particles that are heavier than
water. They are not effective for removing
organic matter and particles that are less
water dense than water. The water flow enters
inlet
the top of the cone-shaped separation
vessel tangential to the vessel wall. As the
water flows circularly, the heavier particles
move towards the vessel wall and settle
to the bottom while the water flows out
the top center of the cone (figure 23). The
accumulated particles are removed as
required, either manually or automatically.
This type of filter has the advantage of
low pressure drop because the debris is
sediment
separated out without obstructing the flow
tank path.
Disk filters use a stack of thin doughnut-
shaped filter material (figures 24 and 25).
These are often used to remove organic
matter and small particles after the water
goes through a media or separator filter,
drain but they can also be used on small systems
to avoid the expense of a media filter.
Multiple disk filters can be used in parallel
FIGURE 24. Disk filter. FIGURE 25. Disk filter element assembly. in large systems to provide greater volume.
They have greater capacity than screen
filters of similar size and are easy to clean
without scrubbing. Mesh sizes range from
40 to 200 microns and they can be cleaned
by backflushing or reversing water flow
to remove debris. This can be done either
automatically with a controller and valves
or manually. Backflushing scheduling can
be based on time or on inflow/outflow
pressure differential.
A screen or disk filter should be installed
after a media or separator filter to remove
any particles that were not removed by the
initial device.

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Pressure regulators of 2 psi, depending on the water flow rate

and the number of emitters being supplied
for removal. This will require higher
pressure and water flow rates, so zoning
Drip irrigation systems operate at pressures at one time. Assuming negligible pressure the system is important in order to be able
from 6 to 60 psi at the field lateral. A field drop between the reservoir and the drip to flush portions of the system one at a
lateral is piping that supplies water to line, the total pressure required would be time to achieve enough water velocity.
the drip tape or piping that contains the 6 psi. It requires 2.31 feet of elevation to If the irrigation water contains high
emitters. The pressure needed will depend produce 1 psi of pressure, so to achieve
amounts of dissolved solids, algae,
on the elevation change along the pipe the 6 psi would require the water supply to or bacteria, it may require frequent
length, length of the pipe, water flow rate, be elevated about 14 feet above the field chlorination or the addition of algaecides
distribution uniformity required, and type (2.31 feet/psi × 6 psi). A system might be or acid to remove these materials and keep
of emitter system used. Most drip tape has operated on less pressure, but the length
them from plugging the emitters. Refer to
an operating pressure range of 6 to 15 psi of run may need to be reduced or the the B.C. Trickle Irrigation Manual or Drip and
with a general recommended range of 8 water distribution uniformity may be lower. Micro Irrigation Design and Management for
to 10 psi (refer to manufacturer’s literature See manufacturer’s data for recommended Trees, Vines and Field Crops in the reference
for individual product recommendations). pressures and length of runs. section for more information on source
The recommended operating pressure
water treatment options.
for micro sprinklers or misters will vary
depending on the type and can range Flushing
from 20 to 60 psi. Higher pressures result Drip irrigation systems need to be
in larger wetted diameters and fewer flushed periodically to remove sediment,
emitters per lateral. When selecting a precipitated minerals, and particles that
pressure regulator, the desired pressure could plug the emitters. Even when the
and flow rate need to be matched to the filtration system is well designed and well
device. Pressure regulators can have a managed, flushing is essential. Systems
fixed pressure setting (figure 26) or can be should always be flushed before the first
adjustable (figure 27). use after installation and at the beginning
and end of each growing season. Where
Since a drip irrigation system can operate
water quality issues exist, flushing may also
at lower pressure than other types of
be needed during the growing season.
irrigation systems, it can utilize gravity-
Flushing involves opening the terminated
pressurized flow, given that the pressure
ends of the submains and laterals and
provided by gravity is sufficient to operate
allowing water to freely flow for a period
the system. The lower recommended
of time. The flow rate needs to be sufficient
operating pressure range for most drip
to maintain a velocity of at least 1 foot per
tape is 4 psi. A filter should be used in the
second in the pipes to suspend particles
system and this may cause a pressure drop

FIGURE 26. Pressure regulator for small FIGURE 27. Adjustable pressure regulator.
system with fixed pressure setting.

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 T H E B A S I C S O F M I C R O I R R I G A T I O N

Fertigation a venturi or proportional injector are the

least expensive methods but may require
spacing, and the managed root zone
depth. Refer to UW-Extension bulletins
The drip irrigation system can be used that the chemical or fertilizer be diluted Irrigation Management in Wisconsin (A3600-
to apply water-soluble fertilizers and with water so the proper concentration will 01) and Methods to Monitor Soil Moisture
systemic pesticides. This is done using be distributed across the field. Refer to the (A3600-02) for suggested root zone depth
an injector or dosing system to meter B.C. Trickle Irrigation Manual or Fertigation for different crops. Overlap between
the chemical into the irrigation water. in the reference section for more emitters must be taken into account when
A drip irrigation system that has high information on equipment and process estimating the wetted root zone volume.
distribution uniformity for irrigation water for fertilization through a drip irrigation The following example demonstrates how
will also have high distribution uniformity system. to determine the amount of irrigation
for fertilizers and pesticides if managed
water to apply and the interval between
correctly.
The injector should be installed before
Irrigation scheduling irrigation events.
The amount of water to apply to a crop
the filtration unit. A backflow preventer
will depend on the stage of growth, daily
must be installed between the injector
evapotranspiration (ET), soil moisture,
and a well or public water source. There are
water volume, and area to be irrigated.
several different types of injection units:
The first step is to estimate the wetted
venturi (figure 28), proportional injector,
root zone volume using table 4 to consider
or injector pump (electrically or water-
lateral water movement, the emitter
powered) (figure 29). For small systems

FIGURE 28. Venturi injector. FIGURE 29. Water-powered fertilizer

injector.

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Example calculation of water requirements

Crop: Strawberry 4. Calculate the days between irrigation events (assuming
Plants are 1 foot apart in rows 4 feet apart with row lengths of no rainfall).
200 feet. The root depth is assumed to be They will equal 312 gallons ÷ 45 gallons/day = 6.9 days.
1 foot (table 2 in Methods to Monitor Soil Moisture (A3600-02)). Based on the water-holding capacity of the soil, the crop
Irrigation system: 5⁄8-inch drip tubing with 12-inch emitter would need to be irrigated every 6 or 7 days. (Note that
spacing and a flow rate of 0.22 gallons per minute (gpm)/100 this does not account for the potential lateral movement
feet at 8 psi. of water.)

Soil type: Silt loam with 2.5 inches of available water per foot 5. Calculate the hours of irrigation.
(refer to Irrigation Management in Wisconsin (A3600-01)) and 3 The irrigation rate for the 200-foot row is 0.22 gpm/100
feet of lateral movement (table 3). feet × 200 feet row = 0.44 gpm.
Average crop ET: 0.18 inches per day. Reference ET × crop To apply 312 gallons of water will require 312 gallons ÷
coefficient (Kc) × non-uniformity factor (1.1–1.2). 0.44 gpm ÷ 60 minutes/hour = 11.8 hours.
Allowable depletion, amount of water removed from Because the water may spread laterally up to 3 feet, irrigation
managed root zone before irrigating: 50%. should be done more frequently for shorter durations to keep
1. Calculate soil volume. the applied water within the root zone where the plant can
access it. It will be better to apply water every 2 to 3 days than
The lateral movement of the water can be up to 3 feet but
every 6 to 7 days; only experience will help determine the
the roots of the strawberries will be about as wide as they
appropriate frequency and timing. A soil moisture probe could
are deep. Therefore the soil volume will be 1 foot deep × 2
be used to verify water movement in the soil to determine the
feet wide (1 foot diameter around each plant) × 200 feet,
appropriate irrigation frequency. If the water was going to be
or 400 cubic feet (see figure 30).
applied every 2 days, the application time would be calculated
2. Calculate the water-holding capacity of the soil. by multiplying the daily evapotranspiration amount for the row
The given water available water-holding capacity of the by the number of days (to determine the water volume) and
soil is 2.5 inches per foot of depth. The water volume is 2.5 dividing by the water application rate.
inches × 12 inches × 12 inches = 360 cubic inches of water In this example, 44.9 gallons of water use per day × 2 days ÷
per cubic foot of soil. (0.44 gpm × 60 minutes/hour) = 3.5 hours.
Converted to gallons, 360 ÷ 231 cubic inches/gallon =
1.56 gallons/cubic foot. FIGURE 30. Plant root zone versus water movement.
So in the 200-foot row the soil can hold 1.56 gallons/cubic
root zone width
foot × 400 cubic feet = 624 gallons. (2 feet)
With a 50% allowable depletion, irrigation would occur
when the water volume had decreased by 50%, or 312
gallons.
3. Calculate volume of water to replenish daily ET losses.
The crop ET is 0.18 inches per day, so we need to
determine how long the irrigation needs to run per day to managed
root zone
replace the water used. The amount of water per cubic foot
of the managed root zone will be equal to 0.18 inch/day
× 144 square inches at the surface/cubic feet of soil ÷ 231
cubic inches/gallon
= 0.112 gallon of water/cubic foot of soil per day used by root zone depth
(1 foot)
plants and evaporation
= 0.112 gallon of water/cubic foot of soil × 400 cubic feet
of soil = 44.9 gallons water used per day.

potential lateral movement of water

(6 feet wide, 3 feet deep)
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 T H E B A S I C S O F M I C R O I R R I G A T I O N

Drip irrigation fittings and tools

FIGURE 31. Tee connector—Used for adding a branch in a drip FIGURE 34. End plug—Used at the end of drip tape to
tape line. terminate the line. Some have a cap that can be removed for
flushing the line. Others just hold the tubing in a folded-over
position.

FIGURE 32. Elbow connector—Used for making a sharp bend

in a drip tape without kinking.

FIGURE 35. Goof plug—Used to plug an unneeded hole in the

sub or main polyethylene tubing.

FIGURE 33. Coupler—Used to connect two sections of drip tape

or rigid polyethylene tubing. They are available with valves for
zone control.

FIGURE 36. Drip tape and barb connector—Used to connect

drip tape to a submain line.

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 U N I V E R S I T Y O F W I S C O N S I N - E X T E N S I O N

FIGURE 37. Spray/sprinkler emitter—Used to cover a wider FIGURE 40. Controller—Used to turn on and off the water
area such as the root zone of a fruit tree. flow to a system or to a zone. This can be a manual valve, timer
(pictured below), or a programmable controller that uses
sensors to determine when soil moisture is needed.

FIGURE 38. Zone control valve—Electrically operated

(solenoid) valve used with a controller to turn water to a zone
on and off.

Recycling
Drip tubing is typically made from polyethylene plastic that can
be recycled. Some drip tubing manufacturers offer recycling of
tubing, hose, or tape. There are also independent companies
that will recycle drip tubing along with other agricultural
plastics. Refer to the UW-Extension crop irrigation website for
a list of companies that offer recycling (http://fyi.uwex.edu/
cropirrigation/drip-irrigation/).

FIGURE 39. Punch tools—Used to punch a hole in polyethylene

tubing for inserting a drip tape and barb connector. Equipment manufacturers
A list of manufacturers who distribute irrigation equipment in
Wisconsin for the agricultural market is available at https://fyi.
uwex.edu/cropirrigation/drip-irrigation/.

Design software for layout and pipe sizing

• Aqua-Flow Design Assist software from Toro.
• Drip Hydraulics Calculator, Irrigation Training and Research
Center, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis
Obispo, CA. (Comes with the book Drip and Micro Irrigation
Design and Management for Trees, Vines, and Field Crops).
• HydroCalc software from NetaFim.

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 T H E B A S I C S O F M I C R O I R R I G A T I O N

References Sanford, S. and J. Panuska, 2015. Irrigation

Management in Wisconsin, Bulletin A3600-01,
Van der Gulik, T.W., 1999. B.C. Trickle Irrigation
Manual, B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and
University of Wisconsin-Extension. https:// Food, Abbotsford, B.C. Canada. Available
Print materials learningstore.uwex.edu/Assets/pdfs/A3600-01. from Irrigation Industry Association of British
Irrigation Association, 2008. Friction Loss Charts,
pdf. Columbia (https://www.irrigationbc.com/).
Fairfax, VA.
Scherer, T.F., W. Kranz, D. Pfost, H. Werner, J.A.
Roberts Irrigation Products, Inc. (now part of
Wright, and C.D. Yonts, 1999. Sprinkler Irrigation Websites
Rivulis Irrigation), 2001. RO-Drip User Manual. Stryker, Jess, Irrigation Tutorials.
Systems, MWPS-30, Midwest Plan Service, Ames,
Burt, C.M. and S.W. Styles, 2011. Drip and Micro IA. www.irrigationtutorials.com/
Irrigation Design and Management for Trees, drip-irrigation-design-guidelines-basics-of-
Simonne, E., R. Hochmuth, J. Breman, W. Lamont,
Vines, and Field Crops, 4th ed., Irrigation Training measurements-parts-and-more/
K. Treadwell, and A. Gazula, 2015. Drip-Irrigation
and Research Center, California Polytechnic State Irrigation in the Pacific Northwest, irrigation
Systems for Small Conventional Vegetable Farms
University, San Luis Obispo, CA. calculator tools and tools for determining pipe
and Organic Vegetable Farms, Bulletin HS1144,
Burt, C.M., K. O’Connor, and T. Ruehr, 1995. University of Florida Extension, Gainesville, FL. sizes, irrigation timing, drip line rates, among
Fertigation, Irrigation Training and Research http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/HS/HS38800.pdf. many others. http://irrigation.wsu.edu/Content/
Center, California Polytechnic State University, Select-Calculators.php
Tomasko, S. and G. Nice, 2013. Wisconsin Private
San Luis Obispo, CA. Understanding Crop Irrigation, UW-Extension
& Commercial Pesticide Applicator: Chemigation,
Lamont, W.J., M.D. Orzolik, J.K. Harper, L.F. Kime, University of Wisconsin-Extension. Available at: resource for all types of irrigation and irrigation
and A.R. Jarrett, 2012. Drip Irrigation for Vegetable https://patstore.wisc.edu/secure/default.asp. management tools for Wisconsin. https://fyi.
Production, Pennsylvania State University, uwex.edu/cropirrigation/
University Park, PA.
Panuska, J., S. Sanford, and A. Newenhouse,
2015. Methods to Monitor Soil Moisture, Bulletin
A3600-02, University of Wisconsin-Extension.
https://learningstore.uwex.edu/Assets/pdfs/
A3600-02.pdf.

Note: The inclusion or exclusion of equipment manufacturers, product photos, and/or product names in this publication does not constitute
endorsement or condemnation by the University of Wisconsin or the University of Wisconsin-Extension. Photos and illustrations are used to
convey a visual image of what the equipment looks like or how it is assembled.
This material is based upon work that is supported by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
under award number 2011-38640-30539 through the North Central Region SARE program. USDA is an equal opportunity employer and
service provider. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and
do not necessarily reflect the view of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Copyright © 2018 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System doing business as the division of Cooperative Extension of
the University of Wisconsin-Extension. All rights reserved.
Authors: Scott Sanford is an agricultural engineer and distinguished outreach specialist, and John Panuska is a natural resource and bio
environmental engineer and distinguished faculty associate, biological systems engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison and University
of Wisconsin-Extension. Cooperative Extension publications are subject to peer review.
University of Wisconsin-Extension, Cooperative Extension, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Wisconsin
counties, publishes this information to further the purpose of the May 8 and June 30, 1914, Acts of Congress. An EEO/AA employer, University
of Wisconsin-Extension provides equal opportunities in employment and programming, including Title VI, Title IX, and the Americans
with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements. If you have a disability and require this information in an alternative format (Braille, large print,
audiotape, etc.), please contact [email protected]. For communicative accommodations in languages other than English, please contact
[email protected].
If you would like to submit a copyright request, please contact Cooperative Extension Publishing at 432 N. Lake St., Rm. 227, Madison, WI
53706; [email protected]; or (608) 263-2770 (711 for Relay).
This publication is available from your county UW-Extension office (counties.uwex.edu) or from Cooperative Extension Publishing.
To order, call toll-free 1-877-947-7827 or visit our website at learningstore.uwex.edu.

The Basics of Micro Irrigation (A4119) I-03-2018

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