MODULE 1

The Concept and Theories of Governance

Introduction
“Knowledge is knowledge only when the students do at their best on what they
learn. “ This module is the first part of the course on Governance and Development. It is
intended to make the teaching and learning process a more inter-active and productive
endeavor. In each lesson are learning activities, concept development and
drills/exercises. Productive and constructive teaching methodologies are presented and
hopefully utilize to build the student's competencies which include among others:
professional writing style, oral presentation skills, critical analytical thinking skills,
political and administrative decision-making systems, discipline-specific knowledge
(government, non-profit management, and corporate management skills), public service
skills, research skills, proper documentation, library skills, technology skills, and
globalization.
This module also builds the knowledge base in governance and eventually will be
applied by students in the latter part of the course. It also prepares and develops students
to succeed as leaders, managers, analysts and administrators in meeting change and
challenges of governance in the public and non-profit sectors.
Hence this module attempts to discuss the concepts of governance according to
different authors and institutions; the key actors in governance as well as the
characteristics of good governance. A governance model of implementation is also
explored as a theoretical alternative that offers the potential to synthesize disparate
models and bring networks into the governance paradigm.
Lesson 1 presents the basic discussions to introduce the nature, concept and
theoretical framework of governance. It also provides students an understanding of the
difference of governance from government as well as its evolution which will eventually
develop students’ ability to apply these concepts to current issues on governance and
development.
Lesson 2 gives students a critical understanding of the role of the different key
players/actors in the governance process. This will encourage them to develop their own
ideas for enhancing participation in governance and improving accountability of the
state.
Lesson 3 discusses the definition and the elements or characteristics of good
governance as introduced by different institutions and organizations.
Lesson 4 presents the issues and challenges on governance. In here, students are
required to give their insights and opinions with regards to the issues and challenges
presented. Reforms, initiatives and solutions to these challenges are also discussed.
The students are likewise welcome to give their comments and suggestions. This
is to realize the CL (Collaborative learning) process. Collaborative Learning (CL)
encourages active student participation in the learning process. It encompasses a set of
approaches to education, sometimes also called cooperative learning or small group
learning. CL creates an environment "that involves students in doing things and thinking
about the things they are doing", and reaches students who otherwise might not be
engaged. Finally, CL is one teaching strategy among many, each of which can play a role
to make learning an active and effective process.
Before discussing the first part of the module, the teacher explains first the
academic outcomes and the related grading criteria, major course assignments, deadlines,
rationale and other particulars of course.

1 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance

General Objectives:
Upon the use and application of this module as a guide for learning, the students
should be able to:
1) Describe the development of the definition of governance as well as the current
perspectives on the word governance;
2) Discuss sustainable human development and the new public management;
3) Discuss the functional and critical role of the different key players of governance;
4) Define the meaning and essence of “good governance” and internalize the
importance of good governance in the development process;
5) Apply governance concepts and perspectives to a variety of real world situations;
6) Appreciate the role of United Nation Development Program (UNDP) and other
international institutions in the development processes.
7) Manifest higher order thinking skills such as mental inquisitiveness, critical
thinking as well as reflective thinking when given situations or issues related to
governance.

GOVERNANCE
What is Governance?

THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE

In most dictionaries “government” and “governance” are interchangeably used,
both denoting the exercise of authority in an organization, institution or state.
Government is the name given to the entity exercising that authority. Authority
can most simply define as legitimate power. Whereas power is the ability to influence the
behavior of others, authority is the right to do so. Authority is therefore the based on an
acknowledged duty to obey rather than on any form of coercion or manipulation. Weber
distinguished between three kinds of authority, based on the different grounds upon
obedience can be established; traditional authority is rooted in history, charismatic
authority stems from personality and legal-authority is grounded in a set of impersonal
rules. To study government is to study the exercise of authority (Heywood, 1997).
Government is closely related to politics. To study politics is in essence to study
government or more broadly, to study the exercise of authority. Politics is the art of
government, the exercise of control within the society through the making and
enforcement of collective decisions (Heywood, 1997). The realm of politics is restricted to
state actors who are consciously motivated by ideological beliefs, and who seek to
advance them through membership of a formal organization such as a political
organization. This is the sense in which politicians are described as “political” whereas
civil servants are seen as “non-political”, the state as “public” and the civil society as
“private”. The institutions of the state (the apparatus of the government, the courts, the
police, the army, the society-security system and so forth) can be regarded as “public” in
the sense that they are responsible for the collective organization of the community life.
Moreover, they are funded at the public’s expense, out of taxation. In contrast, civil
society consists of what Raymund Burke called the little platoons, institutions such as the
family and kinship groups, private businesses, trade unions, clubs, community groups
and so on that are private in the sense that they are set up and funded by individual
citizens. On the basis of this public/private life division, government is restricted to the
activities of the state itself and the responsibilities which are properly exercised by public
bodies. Although civil society can be distinguished from the state, it nevertheless contains
a range of institutions that are thought as “public” in a wider access.
One of its crucial implications is that it broadens our notion of the government
transferring the economy in particular from the private to the public realm. Now, the
conception of politics and government move beyond the narrow realm of government to
what is thought as “public life” or “public affairs.” Since, the government doesn’t only

2 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance

decide for all and the civil society and the private sectors play vital role in the community,
thus, the conception of the word “governance”. Governance is a broader term than
government. In its widest sense, it refers to the various ways in which social life is
coordinated. Government can therefore be seen as one of the institutions in governance;
it is possible to have governance without government (Heywood, 1997).

Governance: Varying Definitions

Governance is:
1) The traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised –
Kaufman et al.
2) The way “ … power is exercised through a country’s economic, political, and social
institutions.” – the World Bank’s PRSP Handbook.
3) “The sound exercise of political, economic, and administrative authority to
manage a country’s resources for development. It involves the institutionalization
of a system through which citizens, institutions, organizations, and groups in a
society articulate their interests, exercise their rights, and mediate their differences
in pursuit of the collective good “(Country Governance Assessment 2005).
4) “The exercise of economic, political, and administrative authority to manage a
country’s affairs at all levels. It comprises mechanisms, processes, and institutions
through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal
rights, meet their obligations, and mediate their differences.” UNDP.
5) In governance, citizens are rightly concerned with a government’s responsiveness
to their needs and protection of their rights. In general, governance issues pertain
to the ability of government to develop an efficient, effective, and accountable
public management process that is open to citizen participation and that
strengthens rather than weakens a democratic system of government. “ The
United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Office of
Democracy & Governance
6) Refers to how any organization, including a nation, is run. It includes all the
processes, systems, and controls that are used to safeguard and grow assets -
(UNDP, 1997)
7) “The systems, processes and procedures put in place to steer the direction,
management and accountability of an organization.” Birmingham City Council.
When applied to organizations that operate commercially, governance is often
termed "corporate governance"
8) "…promoting fairness, transparency and accountability" – World Bank
9) "…a system by which business organizations are directed and controlled".- OECD
10) “The manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s social
and economic resources for development. It is referred to as the quality of the
institutions to make, implement and enforce sound policies in an efficient,
effective, equitable and inclusive man The Asian Development Bank (ADB)
11) In broad terms, governance is about the institutional environment in which
citizens interact among themselves and with government agencies/officials (ADB,
2005).
12) The process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are
implemented (or not implemented). Governance can be used in several contexts
such as corporate governance, international governance, national governance and
local governance.
13) The interactions among structures, processes and traditions that determine how
power and responsibilities are exercised, how decisions are taken, and how
citizens or other stakeholders have their say. Fundamentally, it is about power,
relationships and accountability: who has influence, who decides, and how
decision-makers are held accountable. (IOG 2003)

3 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance

 14) “…As the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to manage
the nation’s affairs at all levels. It comprises of mechanisms, processes and
institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise
their legal rights and obligations and mediate their differences. Governance is not
the sole domain of government but transcends government to encompass the
business sector and the civil society (NEDA, 2006).

The Institute on Governance defines governance as the process whereby

societies or organizations make their important decisions, determine who has
voice, who is engaged in the process and how account is rendered. (IOG, 2006) The
Institute also provides a framework to further establish the concept of governance
as shown below.

DECISION
MAKING

Figure 1

The need for governance exists anytime a group of people come together to
accomplish an end. Most agree that the central component of governance is decision-
making.
It is the process through which this group of people make decisions that direct
their collective efforts. (See figure 2)

STAKEHOLDERS
INPUT

DECISION MAKING
Figure 2
Source: Institute of Governance http://www.iog.ca/

If the group is too large to efficiently make all necessary decisions, it creates an
entity to facilitate the process. Group members delegate a large portion of the decision-
making responsibility to this entity. In voluntary sector organizations this entity is the
board of directors. One simple definition of governance is "the art of steering societies
and organizations." Governance is about the more strategic aspects of steering, making
the larger decisions about both direction and roles.
Some observers criticize this definition as being too simple. Steering suggests that
governance is a straightforward process, akin to a steersman in a boat. These critics assert
that governance is neither simple nor neat — by nature it may be messy, tentative,
unpredictable and fluid. Governance is complicated by the fact that it involves multiple
actors, not a single helmsman.
These multiple actors are the organization's stakeholders. (See figure 2) They
articulate their interests; influence how decisions are made, who the decision-makers are
and what decisions are taken.
4 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance
 STAKEHOLDERS
INPUT OUTPUT/ACCOUNTABILITY

DECISION MAKING
Figure 3
Source: Institute on Governance http://www.iog.ca

Decision-makers must absorb this input into the decision-making process.

Decision-makers are then accountable to those same stakeholders for the organization's
output and the process of producing it. (See Figure 3)

Governance According to UNDP

The challenge for all societies is to create a system of governance that promotes
supports and sustains human development - especially for the poorest and most
marginal. But the search for a clearly articulated concept of governance has just begun.
Good governance is, among other things, participatory, transparent and
accountable. It is also effective and equitable. And it promotes the rule of law. Good
governance ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad
consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard
in decision-making over the allocation of development resources.
Governance has three legs: economic, political and administrative. Economic
governance includes decision-making processes that affect a country's economic
activities and its relationships with other economies. It clearly has major implications for
equity, poverty and quality of life. Political governance is the process of decision-making
to formulate policy. Administrative governance is the system of policy implementation.
Encompassing all three, good governance defines the processes and structures that guide
political and socio-economic relationships.
Governance encompasses the state, but it transcends the state by including the
private sector and civil society organizations. What constitutes the state is widely
debated. Here, the state is defined to include political and public sector institutions.
UNDP's primary interest lies in how effectively the state serves the needs of its people.
The private sector covers private enterprises (manufacturing, trade, banking,
cooperatives and so on) and the informal sector in the marketplace. Some say that the
private sector is part of civil society. But the private sector is separate to the extent that
private sector players influence social, economic and political policies in ways that create
a more conducive environment for the marketplace and enterprises.
Civil society, lying between the individual and the state, comprises individuals
and groups (organized or unorganized) interacting socially, politically and economically
- regulated by formal and informal rules and laws.

GOVERNANCE & SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:

UNDP believes that developing the capacity of good governance is the primordial
way to eliminate poverty. Notions of good governance and the link between governance
and sustainable human development vary greatly, however, both in academic literature
and among development practitioners2. (UNDP, 1997)

5 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance

So, what is sustainable human development?
Human development as expanding the choices for all people in society. This
means that men and women - particularly the poor and vulnerable - are at the center of
the development process. It also means "protection of the life opportunities of future
generations...and...the natural systems on which all life depends" (UNDP, Human
Development Report 1996). This makes the central purpose of development the creation
of an enabling environment in which all can enjoy long, healthy and creative lives.
Economic growth is a means to sustainable human development - not an end in
itself. Human Development Report 1996 showed that economic growth does not
automatically lead to sustainable human development and the elimination of poverty.
For example, countries that do well when ranked by per capita income often slip down
the ladder when ranked by the human development index. There are, moreover, marked
disparities within countries - rich and poor alike - and these become striking when human
development among indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities is evaluated separately.
There are five aspects to sustainable human development - all affecting the lives
of the poor and vulnerable:
 Empowerment - The expansion of men and women's capabilities and choices
increases their ability to exercise those choices free of hunger, want and
deprivation. It also increases their opportunity to participate in, or endorse,
decision-making affecting their lives
 Co-operation - With a sense of belonging important for personal fulfillment,
wellbeing and a sense of purpose and meaning, human development is
concerned with the ways in which people work together and interact.
 Equity - The expansion of capabilities and opportunities means more than
income - it also means equity, such as an educational system to which
everybody should have access.
 Sustainability - The needs of this generation must be met without
compromising the right of future generations to be free of poverty and
deprivation and to exercise their basic capabilities.
 Security - Particularly the security of livelihood. People need to be freed from
threats, such as disease or repression and from sudden harmful disruptions in
their lives.
 UNDP focuses on four critical elements of sustainable human development:
eliminating poverty, creating jobs and sustaining livelihoods, protecting and
regenerating the environment, and promoting the advancement of women.
Developing the capacities for good governance underpins all these objectives.

The Art of Governing

To govern is to exercise power and authority over a territory, system or
organization. This applies to both government and governance. The exercise of authority
is uppermost in government and remains significance in governance but is no longer the
single focus. This is because the power in governance is not so much wielded as shared
and authority is defined not so much by control of the ruler as by the consent and
participation of the governed. Is a state weak under a regime of governance? Not
necessarily for it can be stronger than ever before except that the acts expected of it are
different from the role of the state as government.
In traditional parlance, government rules and controls, but in governance, it
orchestrates and manages. These contrasts may seem overdrawn, but we will flesh out
and qualify them as the discussion proceeds.
Ruling and orchestrating rest on different bases. To rule is to be the sole authority,
for which the appropriate response is to obey. A government that rules relies on force to
exact compliance, and we know from introductory from the introductory political science

6 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance

that the state has the monopoly of legitimate violence. It enacts laws binding on all the
inhabitants and metes out sanctions according to these laws. It delivers services to passive
recipients who have little influence in the definition of the programs or their eligibility
requirement and methods.
By contrast, to orchestrate is to call on everyone to play a part in moving the
society. Power rests on the trust the players have on the director and on each other.
Because built on trust, transparency in the conduct of governing is essential. Laws still
bind all, but they are laws they had a part in bringing about. Accountability is shared,
and they who have the greatest power bear the greater responsibility.
To control is not to manage, as Landau and Stout maintained in a classic article.
We have not found a definition of governance that uses control instead of management.
To control is to direct what each part of the system must do. It assumes that the
controller knows the goals and is certain how an action it requires can lead to it.
Deviation will be viewed as error in a context of full knowledge.
Controlling assumes a law (using the term in scientific sense) but to manage is to
act on a hypothesis. The manager works on incomplete information and tests if the
hypothesis is borne out in a given situation. A manager then must be open to inputs from
outside him which might provide new information and to methods other than those
originally promulgated that could lead to the specified goal. Governance chooses
management over control because its system is permeable, admits outside the influences,
assumes no omnipotence or omniscience on the part of the decision-maker, and subjects
decisions to the evaluation and critique of all those with a stake in them.
All governing is an act of leadership, of moving a society towards a preferred
direction. While government can have a connotation of being interested only in
maintenance and in preserving peace and order, governance implies leadership toward
societal development. This is shown in the following passage from the International
Institute of Administrative Sciences.
Governance is the process whereby elements in society wield power and
authority, and influence and enact policies and decisions concerning public life, economic
and social development.”
This shows that the concept is indeed a product of the late twentieth century when
development became a preoccupation of societies and states. The definition of
development shall be discussed on the succeeding modules.

The Need for Good Governance:

Why Governance Matters
Good governance creates a strong future for an organization by continuously
steering towards a vision and making sure that day-to-day management is always lined
up with the organization’s goals. At its core, governance is about leadership.
An effective board will improve the organization’s results, both financial and
social, and make sure the owners' assets and funds are used appropriately. Poor
governance can put organizations at risk of commercial failure, financial and legal
problems for directors/trustees or allow an organization to lose sight of its purpose and
its responsibilities to its owners and people who benefit from its success.
The Rights-Based Approach to governance implies that the holders of rights
should also participate fully in deciding how those rights are fulfilled, such as through
participation and greater empowerment. And as the Millennium Declaration
emphasizes, one of the most important requirements for achieving this and the MDG is
“governance” The report points out that Asia and the Pacific has many diverse forms of
democratic governments. In some cases these have involved highly centralized
administrations that have offered a limited space for popular participation. Nevertheless,
in recent years there have been significant changes. One of the most dramatic examples
has been in Indonesia, which for decades until the late 1990s had a strongly centralized

7 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance

administration. Now the democratic Government in Indonesia has not only offered free
and fair elections; it has also enacted a radical process of decentralization.
Another vital attribute of governance in MDGs is efficient and effective
administration. The Government of India, for example, is determined to be more
responsive and accountable to the public. A further governance priority in Asia and the
Pacific is the fight against corruption, which degrades the quality of governance and hits
hardest at the poorest. The Government of China for example is among those taking firm
measures to combat corruption and promote integrity in governance.

Theories of Governance
If Max Weber and Woodrow Wilson were to suddenly appear on the landscape of
modern public administration, normative theories in hand, it is likely they would be
unable to recognize the field of governance. The comprehensive, functionally uniform,
hierarchical organizations governed by strong leaders who are democratically
responsible and staffed by neutrally competent civil servants who deliver services to
citizens – to the extent they ever existed – are long gone. They have been replaced by an
‘organizational society’ in which many important services are provided through multi
organizational programs. These programs are essentially “interconnected clusters of
firms, governments, and associations which come together within the framework of these
programs” (Hjern and Porter, 1981, pp. 212-213).
These implementation structures operate within a notion of governance about
which a surprising level of consensus has been reached. There is a pervasive, shared,
global perception of governance as a topic far broader than ‘government’; the governance
approach is seen as a “new process of governing, or a changed condition of ordered rule;
or the new method by which society is governed” (Stoker, 1998, p. 17). Similarly, in the
scholarship that has followed the ‘Reinventing Government’ themes of public
effectiveness; much has been written of New Public Management practices by which
governance theory is put into action (Mathiasen, 1996; Lynn, 1996, 1998; Terry, 1998;
Kelly, 1998; Peters and Pierre, 1998).
In this complex, devolved mode of service delivery, the unit of analysis for some
students of policy implementation is the network of nonprofit organizations, private
firms and governments. As Milward and Provan note, in policy arenas such as health,
mental health, and welfare, "...joint production and having several degrees of separation
between the source and the user of government funds...combine to ensure that
hierarchies and markets will not work and that networks are the only alternative for
collective action" (2000, p. 243).
The discussions below describe the relationship of governance and other Public
Administration theories, the New Public Management, in particular.
The (mostly European) literature on governance and the increasingly international
scholarship on New Public Management (NPM) describe two models of public service
that reflect a ‘reinvented’ form of government which is better managed, and which takes
its objectives not from democratic theory but from market economics (Stoker, 1998).
While some use the terms interchangeably (for example, Hood, 1991), most of the
research makes distinctions between the two. Essentially, governance is a political theory
while NPM is an organizational theory (Peters and Pierre, 1998). As Stoker describes it,
Governance refers to the development of governing styles in which boundaries
between and within public and private sectors have become blurred. The essence of
governance is its focus on mechanisms that do not rest on recourse to the authority and
sanctions of government….Governance for (some) is about the potential for contracting,
franchising and new forms of regulation. In short, it is about what (some) refer to as the
new public management. However, governance …is more than a new set of managerial
tools. It is also about more than achieving greater efficiency in the production of public

8 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance

services (1998, p. 17-18). Peters and Pierre agree, saying that governance is about process,
while NPM is about outcomes (1998, p. 232).
Governance is ultimately concerned with creating the conditions for ordered
rule and collective action (Stoker, 1998; Peters and Pierre, 1998; Milward and Provan,
2000). As should be expected, all efforts to synthesize the literature draw from theories
found in the separate traditions. Berman owes debts to Van Meter and Van Horn (1975,
1976) and Goggin, et al (1990), among others. See Kaboolian (1998) for a description of
reform movements in the public sector that collectively comprise “New Public
Management” (NPM). I adopt her definition of NPM as a series of innovations that –
considered collectively – embody public choice approaches, transaction-cost
relationships, and preferences for efficiency over equity. Noted that the outputs of
governance are not different from those of government; it is instead a matter of a
difference in processes (1998, p. 17).
Governance refers to the development of governing styles in which boundaries
between and within public and private sectors have become blurred. The essence of
governance, and its most troublesome aspect, according to its critics, is a focus on
mechanisms that do not rest on recourse to the authority and sanctions of government
(Bekke, et al, 1995; Peters and Pierre, 1998; Stoker, 1998; Rhodes, 1996, 1997). Stoker (1998,
p. 18) draws five propositions to frame our understanding of the critical questions that
governance theory should help us answer. He acknowledges that each proposition
implies a dilemma or critical issue.
1) Governance refers to institutions and actors from within and beyond
government. (But there is a divorce between the complex realities of decision-
making associated with governance and the normative codes used to explain and
justify government). The question, as it relates to policy implementation, is one of
legitimacy. The extent to which those with decision-making power are seen to be
legitimate (in the normative sense) will directly impact their ability to mobilize
resources and promote cooperation and build and sustain partnerships. Thus, the
normative dilemma has pragmatic overtones. Beetham suggests that for power to
be legitimate it must conform to established rules; these rules must be justified by
adherence to shared beliefs; and the power must be exercised with the express
consent of subordinates (1991, p. 19).
2) Governance identifies the blurring of boundaries and responsibilities for
tackling social and economic issues. This shift in responsibility goes beyond the
public-private dimension to include notions of communitarianism and social
capital. (However, blurring of responsibilities can lead to blame avoidance or
scapegoating). An interesting research area that has grown in scope and
importance following the implementation of welfare reform is the study of faith-
based organizations’ role and impact in service delivery. Public agencies have not
merely endorsed or encouraged this partnership, but in some cases have
institutionalized these arrangements. This suggests a shift in responsibility beyond
the more traditional notions of contracting out and privatization. At the same time,
all of these activities contribute to uncertainties on the part of policy makers and
the public about who is in charge and who can be held accountable for
performance outcomes. Implementation theory must attend to the nature and
impact of responsibility and accountability.
3) Governance identifies the power dependence involved in the relationships
between institutions involved in collective action. Organizations are dependent
upon each other for the achievement of collective action, and thus must exchange
resources and negotiate shared understandings of ultimate program goals. The
implementation literature is replete with studies of coordination barriers and
impacts (for example, Jennings and Ewalt, 1998). (Nonetheless, power dependence
exacerbates the problem of unintended consequences for government because of

9 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance

 the likelihood of principal-agent problems.) For implementation scholarship to
contribute to a greater understanding of governance relationships, arrangements
for minimizing (and impacts of) game-playing, subversion, creaming and
opportunism must be explored.
4) Governance is about autonomous self-governing networks of actors. (The
emergence of self-governing networks raises difficulties over accountability).
Governance networks, in Stoker’s terms, “involve not just influencing government
policy but taking over the business of government” (1998, p. 23). The “hollow
state” that networks have triggered (Milward, 1996; Milward and Provan, 2000)
raises questions about how government can manage public programs when they
consist largely of entities outside the public domain. Network theory and
governance issues overlap, and they are both directly linked to questions of
implementation.
5) Governance recognizes the capacity to get things done which does not rest on
the power of government to command or use its authority. (But even so,
government failures may occur.) It is in this proposition that we find a natural
progression from the more encompassing theory of governance to the more
prescriptive notions of New Public Management. Stoker notes that within
governance there is a concerted emphasis on new tools and techniques to steer and
guide. The language is taken directly from reinventing themes. The dilemma of
governance in this context is that there is a broader concern with the very real
potential for leadership failure, differences among key partners in time horizons
and goal priorities, and social conflicts, all of which can result in governance
failure. Stoker draws on Goodin as he suggests that design challenges of public
institutions can be addressed in part by “revisability, robustness, sensitivity to
motivational complexity, public defendability, and variability to encourage
experimentation” (Stoker, 1998, p. 26, quoting from Goodin, 1996, p. 39-43).
As Peters and Pierre note, “governance is about maintaining public-sector
resources under some degree of political control and developing strategies to sustain
government’s capacity to act” in the face of management tools that replace highly
centralized, hierarchical structures with decentralized management environments where
decisions on resource allocation and service delivery are made closer to the point of
delivery (1998, p. 232).

EVALUATION:
ASSIGNMENT
Essay: Handwritten (1 Whole Sheet of Paper). Don’t write at the back of the paper
DEADLINE OF SUBMISSION will be on SEPTEMBER 2, 2019 @ 4PM
1) What is your understanding of the concept of governance? And, what is your own
concept of governance. Explain. (10 points)
2) Explain the shift of government to governance. (5 points)
3) Discuss the theories of governance and New Public Management. (25 points)
4) Discuss the significance of governance in the development process. (10 points)

Activity: (Show your Computer Literacy Skills, Creativity, and Imaginative Thinking.
PRINT your output in a WHITE SHORT SPECIALTY BOARD PAPER; BE CREATIVE!
Right your name AT THE BACK of the Bond Paper)
Rubric of Grading your Output: Creativity (50%); Imagination (20%); Relevance (20%);
Neatness (5%); Color Combination (5%)
DEADLINE OF SUBMISSION will be on SEPTEMBER 6, 2019 @ 4PM
1) A project: Make a poster/collage/diorama that shows the significance of
governance.

10 | Module 1: The Concept and Theories of Governance