CessnaAIM Pilot Safety and Warning Supplements (D5139-13) PDF

ATextron Company
Pilot Safety
and Warning
Supplements
The information contained in this document is not intended to supersede the

Owner's Manual or Pilot's Operating Handbook applicable to a specific airplane. If
there is a conflict between this Pilot Safety and Warning Supplement and either the
Owner's Manual or Pilot's Operating Handbook to a specific airplane, the Owner's
Manual or Pilot's Operating Handbook shall take precedence. This publication
replaces the original issue (D5099-13) in its entirety.
COPYRIGHT ©1998
Cessna Aircraft Company
Wichita, Kansas USA
Member of GAMA
Original Issue - 2 October 1985
D5139-13 Reissue - 1 June 1998
PILOT SAFETY AND CONTENTS
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
CONTENTS
SUPPLEMENT
INTRODUCTION
FLIGHT CONSIDERATIONS
Physiological 1
Checklists 2
Aircraft Loading 3
Single Engine Flight Information (Multi-engine Airplanes) 4
Pilot Proficiency 5
Fuel Management 6
Airframe Icing 7
Weather 8
SYSTEM OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Restraint Systems 9
Fuel System Contamination 10
Fuel Pump Operation 11
Auxiliary Fuel Tanks 12
Instrument Power 13
Alternate Air System 14
Carbon Monoxide 15
Turbocharger 16
In-Flight Fires 17
In-Flight Opening of Doors 18
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
Maintenance 19
Seat and Restraint Systems 20
Exhaust and Fuel Systems 21
Retractable Landing Gear 22
Pressurized Airplanes 23
Potential Hazards 24
Reissue - 1 June 1998 i/(ii blank)

PILOT SAFETY AND INTRODUCTION
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Pilots should know the information contained in the airplane's operating

handbook, placards and checklists, and be familiar with service/maintenance
publications, including service letters and bulletins, to ensure maximum safe
utilization of the airplane. When the airplane was manufactured, it was
equipped with a Pilot's Operating Handbook, Flight Manual, and'or Owner's
Manual. If a handbook or manual is missing, a replacement should be
obtained by contacting a Cessna Authorized Service Station.
In an effort to re-emphasize subjects that are generally known to most pilots,

safety and operational information has been provided in the following Pilot
Safety and Warning Supplements. As outlined in the table of contents, the
Supplements are arranged numerically to make it easier to locate a particular
Supplement. Supplement coverage is classified in three (3) categories: Flight
Considerations, System Operational Considerations, and Maintenance
Considerations. Most of the information relates to all Cessna airplanes,
although a few Supplements are directed at operation of specific configurations
such as multi-engine airplanes, pressurized airplanes, or airplanes certified for
flight into known icing conditions.
Day-to-day safety practices play a key role in achieving maximum utilization of

any piece of equipment.
WARNING
IT IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PILOT TO ENSURE
THAT ALL ASPECTS OF PREFLIGHT PREPARATION ARE
CONSIDERED BEFORE A FLIGHT IS INITIATED. ITEMS
WHICH MUST BE CONSIDERED INCLUDE, BUT ARE NOT
NECESSARILY LIMITED TO, THE FOLLOWING:
PILOT PHYSICAL CONDITION AND PROFICIENCY

AIRPLANE AIRWORTHINESS
AIRPLANE EQUIPMENT APPROPRIATE FOR THE
FLIGHT
AIRPLANE LOADING AND WEIGHT AND BALANCE
ROUTE OF THE FLIGHT
WEATHER DURING THE FLIGHT
FUEL QUANTITY REQUIRED FOR THE FLIGHT,
INCLUDING ADEQUATE RESERVES
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ENROUTE NAVIGATION
FACILITIES
FACILITIES AT AIRPORTS OF INTENDED USE
(Continued Next Page)
Reissue - 1 June 1998

INTRODUCTION PILOT SAFETY AND
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
WARNING (Continued)
• ADEQUACY OF AIRPORT (RUNWAY LENGTH, SLOPE,
CONDITION, ETC.)
• LOCAL NOTICES, AND PUBLISHED NOTAMS
FAILURE TO CONSIDER THESE ITEMS COULD RESULT

IN AN ACCIDENT CAUSING EXTENSIVE PROPERTY
DAMAGE AND SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL INJURIES TO
THE PILOT, PASSENGERS, AND OTHER PEOPLE ON
THE GROUND.
The following Pilot Safety and Warning Supplements discuss in detail many of
the subjects which must be considered by a pilot before embarking on any
flight. Knowledge of this information is considered essential for sate, efficient
operation of an airplane.
Proper flight safety begins long before the takeoff. A pilot's attitude toward
safety and safe operation determines the thoroughness of the preflight
preparation, including the assessment of the weather and airplane conditions
and limitations. The pilot's physical and mental condition and proficiency are
also major contributing factors. The use of current navigation charts, the
Aeronautical Information Manual, NOTAMs, airport data, weather information,
Advisory Circulars and training information, etc., is important. Individuals often
develop their own personal methods for performing certain flight operations;
however, it is required that these do not conflict with the limitations or
recommended operating procedures for a specific airplane.
The pilot should know the Emergency Procedures for the airplane, since there
may not be time to review the checklist in an emergency situation. It is
essential that the pilot review the entire operating handbook to retain familiarity.
He or she should maintain a working knowledge of the limitations of his or her
airplane. When the pilot deliberately or inadvertently operates the airplane
outside the limitations, he or she is violating Federal Aviation Regulations and
may be subject to disciplinary actions.
Cessna does not support modifications to Cessna airplanes, whether by

Supplemental Type Certificate or otherwise, unless these certificates are
approved by Cessna. Such modifications, although approved by the FAA, may
void any and all Cessna warranties on the airplane since Cessna may not
know the full effects on the overall airplane. Cessna does not and has not
tested and approved all such modifications by other companies. Maintenance
and operating procedures and performance data provided by Cessna may no
longer be accurate for the modified airplane.
Airplanes require maintenance on a regular basis. As a result, it is essential

that the airplane be regularly inspected and repaired when parts are worn or
damaged in order to maintain flight safety. Information for the proper
maintenance of the airplane is found in the airplane Service/Maintenance
Manual, Illustrated Parts Catalog, and in company-issued Service Information

PILOT SAFETY AND INTRODUCTION
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
Letters or Service Bulletins, etc. Pilots should assure themselves that all
recommendations (or product changes or modifications called for by Service
Bulletins, etc., are accomplished and that the airplane receives repetitive and
required inspections.
Much of the subject matter discussed in the following Supplements has been
derived from various publications of the U.S. Government. Since these
documents contain considerably more information and detail than is contained
here, it is highly recommended that the pilot also read them in order to gain an
even greater understanding of the subjects related to flight safety. These
publications include the following:
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL (AIM). This Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA) manual is designed to provide airmen with basic flight
information and Air Traffic Control (ATC) procedures for use in the National
Airspace System (NAS). It also contains items of interest to pilots concerning
health and medical facts, factors affecting flight safety, a pilot/controller
glossary of terms used in the Air Traffic Control System, and information on
safety, accident and hazard reporting. This manual can be purchased at retail
dealers, or on a subscription basis from the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington. D.C. 20402.
NOTICES TO AIRMEN (Class II). This is a publication containing current

Notices to Airmen (NOTAMS) which are considered essential to the safety of
flight as well as supplemental data affecting the other operational publications
listed here. It also includes current Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAMS, which
are regulatory in nature, issued to establish restrictions to flight or amend
charts or published Instrument Approach Procedures. This publication is
issued every 14 days and is available by subscription from the Superintendent
of Documents.
AIRPORT FACILITY DIRECTORY, ALASKA and PACIFIC CHART

SUPPLEMENTS. These publications contain information on airports,
communications, navigation aids, instrument landing systems, VOR receiver
checks, preferred routes, FSSWeather Service telephone numbers, Air Route
Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) frequencies, and various other pertinent
special notices essential to air navigation. These publications are available by
subscription from the National Ocean Service (NOS), NOAA N/ACC3
Distribution Division, Riverdale, Maryland 20737, telephone 1-800-638-8972
FAX (301)436-6829.
FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS (FARs). The FAA publishes the FARs

to make readily available to the aviation community the regulatory requirements
placed upon them. These regulations are sold as individual parts by the
Superintendent of Documents. The more frequently amended parts are sold
by subscription service with subscribers receiving changes automatically as
they are issued. Less active parts are sold on a single-sale basis. Changes
to single-sale parts will be sold separately as issued. Information concerning

INTRODUCTION PILOT SAFETY AND
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
these changes will be furnished by the FAA through its Status of Federal
Aviation Regulations, AC 00-4411.
ADVISORY CIRCULARS (ACs). The FAA issues ACs to inform the aviation
public of nonregulatory material of interest. Advisory Circulars are issued in a
numbered subject system corresponding to the subject areas of the Federal
Aviation Regulations. AC 00-2.11, Advisory Circular Checklist contains a listing
of ACs covering a wide range of subjects and how to order them, many of
which are distributed free-of-charge.
AC 00-2.11 is issued every four months and is available at no cost from: U.S.
Department of Transportation, Distribution requirements Section, SVC 121.21,
Washington, DC 20590. The checklist is also available via the internet at
http://www.faa.gov/abc/ac-chklist/actoc.htm.

PILOT SAFETY AND 1
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS PHYSIOLOGICAL
PHYSIOLOGICAL
FATIGUE
Fatigue continues to be one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety. It
generally slows reaction times and causes errors due to inattention, and it may
not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made. Fatigue is best
described as either acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). As a normal
occurrence of everyday living, acute fatigue is the tiredness felt after long
periods of physical and/or mental strain, including strenuous muscular effort,
immobility, heavy mental workload, strong emotional pressure, monotony, and
lack of sleep. In addition to these common causes, the pressures of business,
financial worries, and unique family problems can be important contributing
factors. Consequently, coordination and alertness, which are vital to safe pilot
performance, can be reduced. Acute fatigue can be prevented by adequate
rest and sleep, as well as regular exercise and proper nutrition.
Chronic fatigue occurs when there is insufficient time for full recovery between
periods of acute fatigue. Performance continues to degrade and judgment
becomes impaired so that unwarranted risks may be taken. Recovery from
chronic fatigue requires a prolonged period of rest. If a pilot is markedly
fatigued prior to a given flight, he or she should not fly. To prevent cumulative
fatigue effects during long flights, pilots should conscientiously make efforts to
remain mentally active by making frequent visual and radio navigation position
checks, estimates of time of arrival at the next check point, etc.
STRESS
Stress from the pressures of everyday living can impair pilot performance,
often in very subtle ways. Difficulties can occupy thought processes enough to
markedly decrease alertness. Distractions can also interfere with judgment to
the point that unwarranted risks are taken, such as flying into deteriorating
weather conditions to keep on schedule. Stress and fatigue can be an
extremely hazardous combination.
It is virtually impossible to leave stress on the ground. Therefore, when more

than usual difficulties are being experienced, a pilot should consider delaying
flight until these difficulties are satisfactorily resolved.
EMOTION
Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a serious argument, death of a

family member, separation or divorce, loss of job, or financial catastrophe can
seriously impair a pilot's ability to fly an airplane safely. The emotions of
anger, depression, and anxiety from such events not only decrease alertness

1 PILOT SAFETY AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
but may also lead to taking unnecessary risks. Any pilot who experiences an
emotionally upsetting event should not fly until satisfactorily recovered from the
event.
ILLNESS
A pilot should not fly with a known medical condition or a change of a known
medical condition that would make the pilot unable to meet medical certificate
standards. Even a minor illness suffered in day-to-day living can seriously
degrade performance of many piloting skills vital to safe flight. An illness may
produce a fever and other distracting symptoms that can impair judgment,
memory, alertness, and the ability to make decisions. Even if the symptoms ol
an illness are under adequate control with a medication, the medication may
adversely affect pilot performance, and invalidate his or her medical certificate.
The safest approach is not to fly while suffering from any illness. If there is
doubt about a particular illness, the pilot should contact an Aviation Medical
Examiner for advice.
MEDICATION
Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both prescribed and over-the-
counter medications. Many medications, such as tranquitizers, sedatives,
strong pain relievers, and cough suppressant preparations, have primary
effects that may impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, vision, and
ability to make decisions. Other medications, such as antihistamines, blood
pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion
sickness, have side effects that may impair the body's critical functions. Any
medications that depress the nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer
or antihistamine, can make a pilot more susceptible to hypoxia.
FARs prohibit pilots from flying while using any medication that affects their
faculties in any way contrary to safety. The safest advice is to not fly while
taking medications, unless approved to do so by an Aviation Medical
Examiner. The condition for which the drug is required may itself be very
hazardous to flying, even when the symptoms are suppressed by the drug. A
combination of medications may cause adverse effects that do not result from
a single medication.
ALCOHOL
Do not fly while under the influence of alcohol. Flying and alcohol are definitely
a lethal combination. FARs prohibit pilots from flying within 8 hours after
consuming any alcoholic beverage or while under the influence of alcohol. A

PILOT SAFETY AND 1
pilot may still be under the influence 8 hours after drinking a moderate amount
of alcohol. Therefore, an excellent practice is to allow at least 24 hours
between "bottle and throttle," depending on the amount ot alcoholic beverage
consumed.
Extensive research has provided a number of facts about the hazards of

alcohol consumption and flying. As little as one ounce ol liquor, one bottle of
beer, or four ounces ot wine can impair flying skills, with the alcohol consumed
in these drinks being detectable in the breath and blood for at least three
hours. Alcohol also renders a pilot much more susceptible to disorientation
and hypoxia. In addition, the after effects of alcohol increase the level of
fatigue significantly.
There is simply no way of alleviating a hangover. Remember that the human

body metabolizes alcohol at a fixed rate, and no amount of coffee or
medications will alter this rate. Do not fly with a hangover, or a "masked
hangover" (symptoms suppressed by aspirin or other medication). A pilot can
be severely impaired for many hours by hangover.
DRINKING THE RIGHT FLUIDS
One of the main sources of pilot and passenger complaints stems from the
relatively lowered humidity during air travel encountered at altitude particularly
on extended flights. Even though an individual may not be physically active,
body water is continuously expired from the lungs and through the skin. This
physiological phenomenon is called insensible perspiration or insensible loss
of water.
The loss of water through the skin, lungs, and kidneys never ceases. Water
loss is increased with exercise, fever, and in some disease conditions such as
hyperthyroidism. Combatting the effects of insensible water loss during flight
requires frequent water intake. Unless this is done, dehydration will occur and
this causes interference with blood circulation, tissue metabolism, and
excretion of the kidneys. Water is vital for the normal chemical reaction of
human tissue. It is also necessary for the regulation of body temperature and
as an excretory medium.
Beginning a flight in a rested, healthy condition is of prime importance. Proper

water balance through frequent fluid intake relieves the adverse effects
produced by insensible water loss in an atmosphere of lowered humidity.
Typical dehydration conditions are: dryness of the tissues and resulting
irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat as well as other conditions previously
mentioned plus the associated fatigue relating to the state of acidosis (reduced
alkalinity of the blood and the body tissues). A person reporting for a flight in a
dehydrated state will more readily notice these symptoms until fluids are
adequately replaced.

1 PILOT SAFETY AND
Consumption of coffee, tea, cola, and cocoa should be minimized since these
drinks contain caffeine. In addition, tea contains a related drug, theophylline,
while cocoa (and chocolate} contain theobromine, of the same drug group.
These drugs, besides having a diuretic effect, have a marked stimulating effect
and can cause an increase in pulse rate, elevation of blood pressure,
stimulation of digestive fluid formation, and irritability of the gastrointestinal
tract.
HYPOXIA
Hypoxia, in simple terms, is a lack of sufficient oxygen to keep the brain and
other body tissues functioning properly. Wide individual variation occurs with
respect to susceptibility to and symptoms of hypoxia. In addition to
progressively insufficient oxygen at higher altitudes, anything interfering with
the blood's ability to carry oxygen can contribute to hypoxia (e.g., anemias,
carbon monoxide, and certain drugs). Also, alcohol and various other drugs
decrease the brain's tolerance to hypoxia. A human body has no built-in alarm
system to let the pilot know when he is not getting enough oxygen. It is
difficult to predict when or where hypoxia will occur during a given flight, or
how it will manifest itself.
Although a deterioration in night vision occurs at a cabin pressure altitude as

low as 5000 feet, other significant effects of altitude hypoxia usually do not
occur in a normal healthy pilot below 12.000 feet. From 12,000 to 15,000 feet
of altitude, judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, and ability to make
decisions are impaired, and headache, drowsiness, dizziness, and either a
sense of well-being (euphoria) or belligerence occurs. The effects appear
following increasingly shorter periods of exposure to increasing altitude. In
fact, a pilot's performance can seriously deteriorate within 15 minutes at
15,000 feet. At cabin pressures above 15,000 feet, the periphery of the visual
field grays out to a point where only central vision remains (tunnel vision). A
blue coloration (cyanosis) of the fingernails and lips develops and the ability to
take corrective and protective action is lost in 20 to 30 minutes at 18,000 feet
and 5 to 12 minutes at 20,000 feet, followed soon thereafter by
unconsciousness.
The altitude at which significant effects of hypoxia occur can be lowered by a

number of (actors. Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking or from exhaust
fumes, lowered hemoglobin (anemia), and certain medications can reduce the
oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood to the degree that the amount of oxygen
provided to body tissues will already be equivalent to the oxygen provided to
the tissues when exposed to a cabin pressure attitude of several thousand
feet. Small amounts of alcohol and low doses of certain drugs, such as
antihistamines, tranquilizers, sedatives, and analgesics can, through their
depressant action, render the brain much more susceptible to hypoxia.
Extreme heat and cold, fever, and anxiety increase the body's demand for
oxygen, and hence, its susceptibility to hypoxia.

PILOT SAFETY AND 1
Current regulations require that pilots use supplemental oxygen after 30

minutes of exposure to cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500 and 14,000
feet and immediately upon exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000
feet. Every occupant of the airplane must be provided with supplemental
oxygen at cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet.
Hypoxia can be prevented by avoiding factors that reduce tolerance to altitude,

by enrichening the air with oxygen from an appropriate oxygen system, and by
maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin pressure altitude. For optimum
protection, pilots are encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above 10,000
feet during the day, and above 5000 feet at night.
NOTE
When using oxygen systems that do not supply "pressure

breathing", 100% oxygen cannot maintain proper blood
oxygen level above 25,000 feet altitude. Pilot's must be
familiar with limitations of the airplane oxygen system.
Pilots are encouraged to attend physiological training and susceptibility testing

in a high-altitude chamber to experience and make note of their own personal
reactions to the effects of hypoxia. These chambers are located at the FAA
Civil Aeromedical Institute and many governmental and military facilities.
Knowing before hand what your own early symptoms of hypoxia are will allow a
greater time margin for taking corrective action. The corrective action, should
symptoms be noticed, is to use supplemental oxygen and or decrease cabin
altitude. These actions must not be delayed.
SMOKING
Smokers are slightly resistant to the initial symptoms of hypoxia. Because of
this, smokers risk the possibility of delayed detection of hypoxia. Pilots should
avoid any detrimental factors, such as second hand smoke, which can cause
such insensitivity. The small merit of hypoxic tolerance in smokers will do
more harm than good by rendering them insensitive and unaware of the
hypoxic symptoms.
Smoking in the cabin of the airplane exposes other passengers to high

concentrations of noxious gas and residue. Furthermore, many of the systems
of the airplane are contaminated and deteriorated by long-term exposure to
smoking residue. Due to the large number of known dangers and hazards, as
well as those which are still the subject of research, it is strongly
recommended that smoking not take place in flight.
WARNING
SMOKING WHILE OXYGEN SYSTEMS ARE IN USE
CREATES AN EXTREME FIRE HAZARD.

1 PILOT SAFETY AND
HYPERVENTILATION
Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in the volume of air breathed in and
out of the lungs, can occur subconsciously when a stressful situation is
encountered in (light. As hyperventilation expels excessive carbon dioxide
from the body, a pilot can experience symptoms of light headedness,
suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities, and coolness — and react to
them with even greater hyperventilation. Incapacitation can eventually result.
Uncoordination, disorientation. painful muscle spasms, and finally,
unconsciousness may ultimately occur.
The symptoms of hyperventilation will subside within a few minutes if the rate
and depth of breathing are consciously brought back under control. The
restoration of normal carbon dioxide levels in the body can be hastened by
controlled breathing in and out of a paper bag held over the nose and mouth.
Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia are similar. Moreover,

hyperventilation and hypoxia can occur at the same time. Therefore, if a pilot
is using oxygen when symptoms are experienced, the oxygen system should
be checked to assure that it has been functioning effectively before giving
attention to rate and depth of breathing.
EAR BLOCK
As an airplane climbs and the cabin pressure decreases, trapped air in the
middle ear expands and escapes through the eustachian tube to the nasal
passages, thus equalizing with the pressure in the cabin. During descent,
cabin pressure increases and some air must return to the middle ear through
the eustachian tube to maintain equal pressure. However, this process does
not always occur without effort. In most cases it can be accomplished by
swallowing, yawning, tensing the muscles in the throat or. if these do not work,
by the combination of closing the mouth, pinching the nose closed, and
attempting to blow gently through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver).
Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sore throat, or a nasal

allergic condition can produce enough congestion around the eustachian tube
to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the difference in pressure
between the middle ear and the airplane cabin can build up to a level that will
hold the eustachian tube closed, making equalization difficult, if not impossible.
This situation is commonly referred to as an '"ear block." An ear block
produces severe pain and loss of hearing that can last from several hours to
several days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in flight or after landing.
Fluid can accumulate in the middle ear and become infected. If an ear block
is experienced and does not clear shortly after landing, a physician should be
consulted. Decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion usually do not
provide adequate protection around the eustachian tubes. Oral decongestants
have side effects that can significantly impair pilot performance. An ear block
can be prevented by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal
allergic condition.

PILOT SAFETY AND 1
SINUS BLOCK
During climb and descent, air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with the
airplane cabin pressure through small openings that connect the sinuses to the
nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or
sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around
the openings to slow equalization, and as the difference in pressure between
the sinus and cabin increases, eventually the openings plug. This "sinus
block" occurs most frequently during descent.
A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses, located above each eyebrow, or
in the maxillary sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually produce
excruciating pain over the sinus area. A maxillary sinus block can also make
the upper teeth ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from nasal passages. A
sinus block can be prevented by not flying with an upper respiratory infection
or nasal allergic condition. If a sinus block does occur and does not clear
shortly after landing, a physician should be consulted.
VISION IN FLIGHT
Of all the pilot's senses, vision is the most critical to safe flight. The level of
illumination is the major factor to adequate in-flight vision. Details on flight
instruments or aeronautical charts become difficult to discern under dimly lit
conditions. Likewise, the detection of other aircraft is much more difficult
under such conditions.
In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to light, a process called dark

adaptation. Although exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is
required for complete dark adaptation, a pilot can achieve a moderate degree
of dark adaptation within 20 minutes under dim red lighting. Since red light
severely distorts colors, especially on aeronautical charts, and can cause
serious difficulty in focusing the eyes on objects inside the cabin, its use is
advisable only where optimum outside night vision is necessary. Even so,
white flight station lighting must be available when needed for map and
instrument reading, especially while under IFR conditions. Dark adaptation is
impaired by exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 5000 feet, carbon
monoxide inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes, deficiency of vitamin A
in the diet, and by prolonged exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of
dark adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a bright light, pilots
should close one eye when using a light to preserve some degree of night
vision. In addition, use of sunglasses during the day will help speed the
process of dark adaptation during night flight.

1 PILOT SAFETY AND
SCUBA DIVING
A pilot or passenger who flies shortly after prolonged scuba diving could be in
serious danger. Anyone who intends to fly after scuba diving should allow the
body sufficient time to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving. If
not, decompression sickness (commonly referred to as the "bends"), due to
dissolved gas, can occur even at low altitude and create a serious in-flight
emergency. The recommended watting time before flight to cabin altitudes of
8000 feet or less is at least 12 hours after diving which has not required
controlled ascent (non-decompression diving), and at least 24 hours after
diving which has required a controlled ascent (decompression diving). The
waiting time before flight to cabin pressure altitudes above 8000 feet should be
at least 24 hours after any scuba diving.
AEROBATIC FLIGHT
Pilots planning to engage in aerobatic maneuvers should be aware of the

physiological stresses associated with accelerative forces during such
maneuvers. Forces experienced with a rapid push-over maneuver will result in
the blood and body organs being displaced toward the head. Depending on
the forces involved and the individual tolerance, the pilot may experience
discomfort, headache, "red-out", and even unconsciousness. Forces
experienced with a rapid pull-up maneuver result in the blood and body organs
being displaced toward the lower part of the body away from the head. Since
the brain requires continuous blood circulation for an adequate oxygen supply,
there is a physiological limit to the time the pilot can tolerate higher forces
before losing consciousness. As the blood circulation to the brain decreases
as a result of the forces involved, the pilot will experience "narrowing" of visual
fields, "gray-out", "black-out", and unconsciousness.
Physiologically, humans progressively adapt to imposed strains and stresses,

and with practice, any maneuver will have a decreasing effect. Tolerance to
"G" forces is dependent on human physiology and the individual pilot. These
factors include the skeletal anatomy, the cardiovascular architecture, the
nervous system, blood make-up, the general physical state, and experience
and recency of exposure. A pilot should consult an Aviation Medical Examiner
prior to aerobatic training and be aware that poor physical condition can
reduce tolerance to accelerative forces.

PILOT SAFETY AND 2
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS CHECKLISTS
CHECKLISTS
CONSISTENT USE
Airplane checklists are available for those persons who do not wish to use the
operating handbook on every flight. These checklists contain excerpts from
the operating handbook written for that particular airplane and are designed to
remind pilots of the minimum items to check for safe operation of the airplane,
without providing details concerning the operation of any particular system.
Checklists should be used by the pilot and not placed in the seat pocket and
forgotten. Even pilots who consistently carry the checklists tend to memorize
certain areas and intentionally overlook these procedural references.
Consequently, in time, these individuals find that operating something as
complex as an airplane on memory alone is practically impossible, and
eventually, could find themselves in trouble because one or more important
items are overlooked or completely forgotten. The consistent use of all
checklists is required for the safe operation of an airplane.
NOTE
Abbreviated checklists can be used in place of the airplane

operating manual However, they should be used only after
the pilot becomes familiar with the airplane operating manual,
and thoroughly understands the required procedures for
airplane operation.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO SAFETY
Most large airplanes in the transport category are flown by consistent use of all
checkiists. Experience has shown that pilots who consistently use checklists
on every flight maintain higher overall proficiency, and have better safety
records. The pilot should not become preoccupied inside the cockpit (such as
with a checklist) and fail to remain alert for situations outside the airplane.
CHECKLIST ARRANGEMENT (ORGANIZATION OF

ITEMS)
Abbreiviated checklists are written in a concise form to provide pilots with a
means of complying with established requirements for the safe operation of
their airplane. The checklists are usually arranged by "Item" and "Condition"
headings. The item to be checked is listed with the desired condition stated.
Key words or switch and lever positions are usually emphasized by
capitalization in the "Condition" column. The checklist may also contain
supplemental information pertinent to the operation of the airplane, such as
performance data, optional equipment operation, etc., that the pilot might
routinely use.

2 PILOT SAFETY AND
CHECKLISTS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
EMERGENCY CHECKLISTS
Emergency checklists are provided for emergency situations peculiar to a

particular airplane design, operating or handling characteristic. Pilots should
periodically review the airplane operating handbook to be completely familiar
with information published by the manufacturer concerning the airplane.
Emergency situations are never planned and may occur at the worst possible
time. During most emergency conditions, there will not be sufficient time to
refer to an emergency checklist; therefore, it is essential that the pilot commit
to memory those emergency procedures that may be shown in bold-face type
or outlined with a black border, within the emergency procedures section in
operating handbooks or equivalent hand-held checklists. These items are
essential for continued sale flight. After the emergency situation is under
control, the pilot should complete the checklist in its entirety, in the proper
sequence, and confirm that all items have been accomplished. It is essential
that the pilot review and know published emergency checklists and any other
emergency procedures. Familiarity with the airplane and its systems and a
high degree of pilot proficiency are valuable assets if an emergency should
arise.

PILOT SAFETY AND 3
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AIRPLANE LOADING
AIRPLANE LOADING
AIRPLANE CENTER-OF-GRAVITY RANGE
Pilots should never become complacent about the weight and balance
limitations of an airplane, and the reasons for these limitations. Since weight
and balance are vital to safe airplane operation, every pilot should have a
thorough understanding of airplane loading, with its limitations, and the
principles of airplane balance. Airplane balance is maintained by controlling
the position of the center-of-gravity. Overloading, or misloading, may not result
in obvious structural damage, but could do harm to hidden structure or
produce a dangerous situation in the event of an emergency under those
conditions. Overloading, or misloading may also produce hazardous airplane
handling characteristics.
There are several different weights to be considered when dealing with

airplane weight and balance. These are defined in another paragraph in this
supplement. Airplanes are designed with predetermined structural limitations
to meet certain performance and flight characteristics and standards. Their
balance is determined by the relationship of the center-of-gravity (C.G.) to the
center of lift. Normally, the C.G. of an airplane is located slightly forward of the
center of lift. The pilot can safely use the airplane flight controls to maintain
stabilized balance of the airplane as long as the C.G. is located within
specified forward and aft limits. The allowable variation of the C.G. location is
called the center-of-gravity range. The exact location of the allowable C.G.
range is specified in the operating handbook for that particular airplane.
LOCATING THE LOAD
It is the responsibility of the pilot to ensure that the airplane is loaded properly.
Operation outside of prescribed weight and balance limitations could result in
an accident and serious or fatal injury.
To determine the center-of-gravity (C.G.) of an airplane, a pilot must have an

understanding of the three terms used in weight and balance calculations.
These terms are weight, moment, and arm. The principles associated with
these terms are applied to each occupant, piece of cargo or baggage, the
airplane itself, and to all fuel to determine the overall C.G. of the airplane.
The weight of an object should be carefully determined or calculated. All

weights must be measured in the same units as the aircraft empty weight. The
arm is the distance that the weight of a particular item is located from the
reference datum line or the imaginary vertical line from which all horizontal
distances are measured for balance purposes (refer to examples in Figure 1).

PILOT SAFETY AND
AIRPLANE LOADING WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
The word "moment," as used in airplane loading procedures, is the product of

the weight of the object multiplied by the arm.
■10 IN.-
(ARM)
10 LBS. 10 LBS.
-20 IN.
{AVERAGE ARM)
30 IN.
(ARM)
W X A M
10 Lax 30 IN. * 300 LB. IN.
TOTAL MOMENT
10 Lax 10 IN. * 100 LB.IN. THEN: A =
TOTAL WEIGHT
20 La (W) * 400 L8.IN.
400 LB.iN. = ♦ 20
20 LB.
Figure 1. Computing the Center-of-Gravity
Pilots can remember and use the relationship of these terms most easily by
arranging them in a mathematical triangle:
weight y arm * moment

moment * weight = arm
moment + arm = weight
The relative position of any two terms indicates the mathematical process
(multiplication or division) required to compute the third term.
A loading graph or loading tables, a center-of-gravity limits chart and/or a

center-of-gravity moment envelope chart, as well as a sample loading problem
are provided in most airplane operating handbooks. By following the narrative
directions, the pilot can determine the correct airplane C.G. for any
configuration of the airplane. If the position of the load is different from that
shown on the loading graph or in the loading tables, additional moment

PILOT SAFETY AND 3
calculations, based on the actual weight and C.G. arm (fuselage station) of the
item being loaded, must be performed.
LOAD SECURITY
In addition to the security of passengers, it is the pilot's responsibility to

determine that all cargo and/or baggage is secured before flight. When
required, the airplane may be equipped with tie-down rings or fittings for the
purpose of securing cargo or baggage in the baggage compartment or cabin
area. The maximum allowable cargo loads to be carried are determined by
cargo weight limitations, the type and number of tie-downs used, as well as by
the airplane weight and C.G. limitations. Always carefully observe all
precautions listed in the operating handbook concerning cargo tiedown.
Pilots should assist in ensuring seat security and proper restraint for all
passengers. Pilots should also advise passengers not to put heavy or sharp
items under occupied seats since these items may interfere with the seats'
energy absorption characteristics in the event of a crash.
Optional equipment installed in the airplane can affect loading, and the airplane
center-of-gravity. Under certain loading conditions in tricycle gear airplanes, it
is possible to exceed the aft C.G. limit, which could cause the airplane to tip
and allow the fuselage tailcone to strike the ground while loading the airplane.
The force of a tail ground strike could damage internal structure, resulting in
possible interference with elevator control system operation.
EFFECTS OF LOADING ON THE FLIGHT

Weight and balance limits are placed on airplanes for three principal reasons:
first, the effect of the weight on the primary and secondary structures; second,
the effect on airplane performance; and third, the effect on flight controllability,
particularly in stall and spin recovery.
A knowledge of load factors in flight maneuvers and gusts is important for

understanding how an increase in maximum weight affects the characteristics
of an airplane. The structure of an airplane subjected to a load factor of 3 Gs,
must be capable of withstanding an added load of three hundred pounds for
each hundred pound increase in weight. All Cessna airplanes are analyzed
and tested for flight at the maximum authorized weight, and within the speeds
posted for the type of flight to be performed. Flight at weights in excess of this
amount may be possible, but loads for which the airplane was not designed
may be imposed on all or some part of the structure.
An airplane loaded to the rear limit of its permissible center-of-gravity range will
respond differently than when it is loaded near the forward limit. The stall

3 PILOT SAFETY AND
characteristics of an airplane change as the airplane load changes, and stall

characteristics become progressively better as center-of-gravity moves
forward. Distribution of weight can also have a significant effect on spin
characteristics. Forward location of the C.G. will usually make it more difficult
to obtain a spin. Conversely, extremely aft C.G. locations will tend to promote
lengthened recoveries since a more complete stall can be achieved. Changes
in airplane weight as well as its distribution can have an effect on spin
characteristics since increases in weight will increase inertia. Higher weights
may delay recoveries.
An airplane loaded beyond the forward C.G. limit will be nose heavy, and can
be difficult to rotate for takeoff or flare lor landing. Airplanes with tail wheels
can be nosed over more easily.
LOAD AND LATERAL TRIM
Some airplanes have a maximum limit for wing fuel lateral imbalance and/or a
maximum wing locker load limitation. These limitations are required for one or
both of two primary reasons. The first is to ensure that the airplane will
maintain certain roll responses mandated by its certification. The other is to
prevent overheating and interruption of lateral trim on certain types of
autopilots caused by the excessive work required to maintain a wings level
attitude while one wing is heavier than the other. Pilots should carefully
observe such limitations and keep the fuel balance within the limits set forth in
the respective operating handbook.
WEIGHT AND BALANCE TERMINOLOGY
The following list is provided in order to familiarize pilots and owners with the
terminology used in calculating the weight and balance of Cessna airplanes.
(Some terminology listed herein is defined and used in Pilot's Operating
Handbooks only.)
Arm The horizontal distance from the reference datum to

the center-of-gravity (C.G.) of an item.
Basic Empty Weight The standard empty weight plus the weight of
installed optional equipment.

PILOT SAFETY AND
C.G. Arm The arm obtained by adding the airplane's individual

moments and dividing the sum by the total weight.
C.G. Limits The extreme center-of-gravity locations within which

the airplane must be operated at a given weight.
Center-of-Gravity The point at which an airplane or item of equipment

(C.G.) would balance if suspended. Its distance from the
reference datum is found by dividing the total moment
by the total weight of the airplane or item of
equipment.
MAC The mean aerodynamic chord of a wing is the chord

of an imaginary airfoil which throughout the flight
range will have the same force vectors as those of
the wing.
Maximum Landing The maximum weight approved for the landing

Weight touchdown.
Maximum Ramp The maximum weight approved for ground

Weight maneuvers. It includes the weight of start, taxi and
runup fuel.
Maximum Takeoff The maximum weight approved for the start of the
Weight takeoff roll.
Maximum Zero Fuel The maximum weight exclusive of usable fuel.

Weight
Moment The product of the weight of an item multiplied by its

arm. (Moment divided by a constant is used to
simplify balance calculations by reducing the number
of digits.)
Payload The weight of occupants, cargo, and baggage.
Reference Datum An imaginary vertical plane from which all horizontal

distances are measured for balance purposes.
Standard Empty The weight of a standard airplane, including unusable

Weight fuel, full operating fluids and full engine oil. In those
manuals which refer to this weight as Licensed Empty
Weight, the weight of engine oil is not included and
must be added separately in weight and balance
calculations.)
Station A location along the airplane luselage given in terms

of the distance from the reference datum.

3 PILOT SAFETY AND
Tare The weight of chocks, blocks, stands, etc., used when

weighing an airplane, and is included in the scale
readings. Tare is deducted from the scale reading to
obtain the actual {net) airplane weight.
Unusable Fuel The quantity of fuel that cannot be safely used in

flight.
Usable Fuel The fuel available for (light planning.
Useful Load The difference between ramp weight and the basic
empty weight.

PILOT SAFETY AND 4
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT
{MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES)
SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT

INFORMATION (MULTI-ENGINE
AIRPLANES)
INTRODUCTION
The following discussion is intended primarily for pilots of propeller-driven, light

twin-engine airplanes, powered by reciprocating engines and certified under
CAR Part 3 or FAR Part 23. This discussion is not intended to apply to
specific models, but is intended, instead, to give general guidelines or
recommendations for operations in the event of an engine failure during flight.
SINGLE ENGINE TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
Each time a pilot considers a takeoff in a twin-engine airplane, knowledge is

required of the Minimum Control Speed (Vmc) f°r tnat particular airplane.
Knowledge of this speed, is essential to ensure safe operation of the airplane
in the event an engine power loss occurs during the most critical phases of
flight, the takeoff and initial climb.
is the minimum flight speed at which the airplane is directionally and

laterally controllable as determined in accordance with Federal Aviation
Regulations. Airplane certification conditions include: one engine becoming
inoperative and windmilling; not more than a 5-degree bank toward the
operative engine; takeoff power on the operative engine; landing gear
retracted; flaps in the takeoff position; and the most critical C.G. (center of
gravity). A multi-engine airplane must reach the minimum control speed before
full control deflections can counteract the adverse rolling and/or yawing
tendencies associated with one engine inoperative and full power operation on
the other engine. The most critical time for an engine failure is during a two or
three second period, late in the takeoff, while the airplane is accelerating to a
safe speed.
Should an engine failure be experienced before liftoff speed is reached, the

takeoff must be aborted. If an engine failure occurs immediately after liftoff,
but before the landing gear is retracted, continue takeoff while retracting gear.
Abort takeoff only if sufficient runway is available. This decision should be
made before the takeoff is initiated.
The pilot of a twin-engine airplane must exercise good judgment and take
prompt action in the decision whether or not to abort a takeoff attempt
following an engine failure, since many factors will influence the decision.

4 PILOT SAFETY AND
SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
(MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES)
Some of these factors include: runway length, grade and surface condition
(i.e., slippery, dry. etc.}, field elevation, temperature, wind speed and direction,
terrain or obstructions in the vicinity of the runway, airplane weight and single
engine climb capability under the prevailing conditions, among others. The
pilot should abort the takeoff, following an engine-out, even if the airplane has
lifted off the runway, if runway conditions permit. However, under limited
circumstances (i.e., short runway with obstructions) the pilot may have to
continue the takeoff following a liftoff and an engine-out.
While it may be possible to continue the takeoff at light weights and with
favorable atmospheric conditions following an engine failure just after liftoff,
long distances are required to clear even small obstacles. Distances required
to clear an obstacle are reduced under more favorable combinations of weight,
headwind component, or obstacle height.
The pilot's decision to continue the takeoff after an engine failure should be
based on consideration of either the single engine best angle-of-climb speed
'' an obstacle is ahead, or the single engine best rate-of-climb speed
when no obstacles are present in the climb area. Once the single
engine best angte-of-climb speed is reached, altitude becomes more important
than airspeed until the obstacle is cleared. On the other hand, the single
engine best rate-of-climb speed becomes more important when there are no
obstacles ahead. Refer to the Owners Manual, Flight Manual or Pilot's
Operating Handbook for the proper airspeeds and procedures to be used in
the event of an engine failure during takeoff. Refer to the warning placard "To
Continue Flight With An Inoperative Engine" in the airplane's operating
handbook and or on the instrument panel for additional information.
Should an engine failure occur at or above these prescribed airspeeds, the

airplane, within the limitations of its single engine climb performance, should be
maneuvered to a landing. After the airplane has been "cleaned up" following
an engine failure (landing gear and wing flaps retracted and the propeller
feathered on the inoperative engine), it may be accelerated to its single engine
best rate-of-climb speed. If immediate obstructions so dictate, the single
engine best angle-of-climb speed may be maintained until the obstacles are
cleared. In no case should the speed be allowed to drop below single engine
best angle-of-climb speed unless an immediate landing is planned, since
airplane performance capabilities will deteriorate rapidly as the airspeed
decreases. After clearing all immediate obstacles, the airplane should be
accelerated slowly to its single engine best rate-of-climb speed and the climb
continued to a safe altitude which will allow maneuvering for a return to the
airport for landing.
To obtain single engine best climb performance with one engine inoperative,
the airplane must be flown in a 3 to 5 degree bank toward the operating
engine. The rudder is used to maintain straight flight, compensating for the
asymmetrical engine power. The ball of the turn-and-bank indicator should not

PILOT SAFETY AND 4
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT
be centered, but should be displaced about 1,2 ball width toward the operating
engine.
The propeller on the inoperative engine must be feathered, the landing gear
retracted, and the wing flaps retracted for continued safe flight. Cfimb
performance of an airplane with a propeller windmilling usually is nonexistent.
Once the decision to feather a propeller has been made, the pilot should
ensure that the propeller feathers properly and remains feathered. The landing
gear and wing flaps also cause a severe reduction in climb performance and
both should be retracted as soon as possible (in accordance with the
operating handbook limitations).
The following general facts should be used as a guide if an engine failure

occurs during or immediately after takeoff:
1. Discontinuing a takeoff upon encountering an engine failure is

advisable under most circumstances. Continuing the takeoff, if an
engine failure occurs prior to reaching single engine best angle-of-
ciimb speed and landing gear retraction, is not advisable.
2. Altitude is more valuable to safety immediately after takeoff than is
airspeed in excess of the single engine best angle-of-climb speed.
3. A windmilling propeller and extended landing gear cause a severe
drag penalty and, therefore, climb or continued level flight is
improbable, depending on weight, altitude and temperature. Prompt
retraction of the landing gear (except Model 337 series), identification
of the inoperative engine, and feathering of the propeller is of utmost
importance if the takeoff is to be continued.
4. Unless touchdown is imminent, in no case should airspeed be allowed
to fall below single engine best angle-of-climb speed even though
altitude is lost, since any lesser speed will result in significantly
reduced climb performance.
5. If the requirement for an immediate climb is not present, allow the
airplane to accelerate to the single engine best rate-of-climb speed
since this speed will always provide the best chance of climb or least
altitude loss.
SINGLE ENGINE CRUISE
Losing one engine during cruise on a multi-engine airplane causes little

immediate problem for a proficient, properly trained pilot. After advancing
power on the operating engine and retrimming the airplane to maintain altitude,
if possible the pilot should attempt to determine if the cause of the engine
failure can be corrected in flight prior to feathering the propeller. The
magneto/ignition switches should be checked to see if they are on, and the
fuel flow and fuel quantity for the affected engine should also be verified. If the
engine failure was apparently caused by fuel starvation, switching to another
fuel tank and/or turning on the auxiliary fuel pump (if equipped) or adjusting the

4 PILOT SAFETY AND
SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
mixture control may alleviate the condition. It must be emphasized that these
procedures are not designed to replace the procedural steps listed in the
emergency procedures section of the airplane operating handbook, but are
presented as a guide to be used by the pilot if, in his or her judgment,
corrective action should be attempted prior to shutting down a failing or
malfunctioning engine. Altitude, terrain, weather conditions, weight, and
accessibility of suitable landing areas must all be considered before attempting
to determine andor correct the cause of an engine failure. In any event, if an
engine fails in cruise and cannot be restarted, a landing at the nearest suitable
airport is recommended.
SINGLE ENGINE APPROACH AND LANDING OR

GO-AROUND
An approach and landing with one engine inoperative on a multi-engine

airplane can easily be completed by a proficient, properly trained pilot.
However, the pilot must plan and prepare the airplane much earlier than
normal to ensure success. While preparing, fuel should be scheduled so that
an adequate amount is available for use by the operative engine. All
crossfeeding should be completed during level flight above a minimum altitude
of 1000 feet AGL.
During final approach, the pilot should maintain the single engine best rate-of-
climb speed or higher, until the landing is assured. An attempt should be
made to keep the approach as normal as possible, considering the situation.
Landing gear should be extended on downwind leg or over the final approach
fix, as applicable. Flaps should be used to control the descent through the
approach.
Consideration should be given to a loss of the other engine or the necessity to

make an engine inoperative go around. Under certain combinations of weight,
temperature and altitude, neither level flight nor a single engine go-around may
be possible. Do not attempt an engine inoperative go-around after the wing
flaps have been extended beyond the normal approach or the published
approach flap setting, unless enough altitude is available to allow the wing
flaps to be retracted to the normal approach or the published approach flap
setting, or less.

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS PILOT PROFICIENCY
PILOT PROFICIENCY
AIRSPEED CONTROL
Flying other than published airspeeds could put the pilot and airplane in an
unsafe situation. The airspeeds published in the airplane's operating
handbook have been tested and proven to help prevent unusual situations.
For example, proper liftoff speed puts the airplane in the best position for a
smooth transition to a climb attitude. However, if liftoff is too early, drag
increases and consequently increases the takeoff ground run. This procedure
also degrades controllability of multi-engine airplanes in the event an engine
failure occurs after takeoff. In addition, early liftoff increases the time required
to accelerate from liftoff to either the single-engine best rate-of-climb speed
(Vyse) or the single-engine best angle-of-climb speed (Vxse) if an obstacle is
ahead. On the other hand, if liftoff is late, the airplane will tend to "leap" into
the climb. Pilots should adhere to the published liftoff or takeoff speed for their
particular airplane.
The pilot should be familiar with the stall characteristics of the airplane when
stalled from a normal 1 G stall. Any airplane can be stalled at any speed. The
absolute maximum speed at which full aerodynamic control can be safely
applied is listed in the airplane's operating handbook as the maneuvering
speed. Do not make full or abrupt control movements above this speed. To
do so could induce structural damage to the airplane.
TRAFFIC PATTERN MANEUVERS
There have been incidents in the vicinity of controlled airports that were
caused primarily by pilots executing unexpected maneuvers. Air Traffic
Control (ATC) service is based upon observed or known traffic and airport
conditions. Air Traffic Controllers establish the sequence of arriving and
departing airplanes by advising them to adjust their flight as necessary to
achieve proper spacing. These adjustments can only be based on observed
traffic, accurate pilot radio reports, and anticipated airplane maneuvers. Pilots
are expected to cooperate so as to preclude disruption of the traffic flow or the
creation of conflicting traffic patterns. The pilot in command of an airplane is
directly responsible for and is the final authority as to the operation of his or
her airplane. On occasion, it may be necessary (or a pilot to maneuver an
airplane to maintain spacing with the traffic he or she has been sequenced to
follow. The controller can anticipate minor maneuvering such as shallow "S"
turns. The controller cannot, however, anticipate a major maneuver such as a
360-degree turn. This can result in a gap in the landing interval and more
importantly, it causes a chain reaction which may result in a conflict with other
traffic and an interruption of the sequence established by the tower or

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
PILOT PROFICIENCY WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
approach controller. The pilot should always advise the controller of the need
to make any maneuvering turns.
USE OF LIGHTS
Aircraft position (navigation) and anti-collision lights are required to be

illuminated on aircraft operated at night. Anti-coltision lights, however, may be
turned off when the pilot in command determines that, because of operating
conditions, it would be in the interest of safety to do so. For example, strobe
lights should be turned off on the ground when they adversely affect ground
personnel or other pilots, and in flight when there are adverse reflections from
clouds.
To enhance the "see-and-avoid" concept, pilots are encouraged to turn on

their rotation beacon any time the engine(s) are operating, day or night. Pilots
are further encouraged to turn on their landing lights when operating within ten
miles of any airport, day or night, in conditions of reduced visibility and areas
where flocks of birds may be expected (i.e., coastal areas, around refuse
dumps, etc.). Although turning on airplane lights does enhance the "see-and-
avoid" concept, pilots should not become complacent about keeping a sharp
lookout for other airplanes. Not all airplanes are equipped with lights and
some pilots may not have their lights turned on. Use of the taxi light, in lieu of
the landing light, on some smaller airplanes may extend the landing light
service life.
Propeller and jet blast forces generated by large airplanes have overturned or
damaged several smaller airplanes taxiing behind them. To avoid similar
results, and in the interest of preventing upsets and injuries to ground
personnel from such forces, the FAA recommends that air carriers and
commercial operators turn on their rotating beacons anytime their airplane
engine(s) are operating. All other pilots, using airplanes equipped with rotating
beacons, are also encouraged to participate in this program which is designed
to alert others to the potential hazard. Since this is a voluntary program,
exercise caution and do not rely solely on the rotating beacon as an indication
that airplane engines are operating.
PARTIAL PANEL FLYING
All pilots, and especially instrument rated pilots, should know the emergency
procedures for partial instrument panel operation included in their respective
operating handbook, as well as any FAA training material on the subject.
Routine periodic practice under simulated instrument conditions with a partial
instrument panel can be very beneficial to a pilot's proficiency. In this case,

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
the pilot should have a qualified safety pilot monitoring the simulated
instrument practice.
If a second vacuum system is not installed and a complete vacuum system
failure occurs during flight, the vacuum-driven directional indicator and attitude
indicator will be disabled, and the pilot will have to rely on the turn coordinator
or the turn and bank indicator if he or she flies into instrument meteorological
conditions. If an autopilot is installed, it too will be affected, and should not be
used. The following instructions assume that only the electrically-powered turn
coordinator is operative, and that the pilot is not completely proficient in
instrument flying.
EXECUTING A 180° TURN IN CLOUDS
Upon inadvertently entering a cloud(s), an immediate plan should be made to

turn back as follows:
1. Note compass heading.

2. Note the time in both minutes and seconds.
3. When the seconds indicate the nearest half-minute, initiate a standard
rate left turn, holding the turn coordinator (or turn and bank indicator if
installed) symbolic airplane wing opposite the lower left wing index
mark for 60 seconds. Then roll back to level flight by leveling the
miniature airplane.
4. Assure level flight through and after the turn by referencing the
altimeter, VSI, and airspeed indicator. Altitude may be maintained
with cautious use of the elevator controls.
5. Check accuracy of turn by observing the compass heading which
should be the reciprocal of the original heading.
6. If necessary, adjust heading primarily with skidding motions rather
than rolling motions so that the compass will read more accurately.
7. Maintain altitude and airspeed by cautious application of elevator
control. Avoid over-controlling by keeping the hands off the control
wheel as much as possible and steering only with the rudder.
EMERGENCY DESCENT THROUGH CLOUDS
If conditions preclude reestablishment of VFR flight by a 180° turn, a descent

through a cloud deck to VFR conditions may be appropriate. If possible,
obtain ATC clearance for an emergency descent. To guard against a spiral
dive, choose an easterly or westerly heading to minimize compass card swings
due to changing bank angles. In addition, keep hands off the control wheel
and steer a straight course with rudder control by monitoring the turn and bank
or turn coordinator. Occasionally check the compass heading and make minor
corrections to hold an approximate course. Before descending into the clouds,
set up a stabilized let-down condition as follows:
1. Extend the landing gear (if applicable).

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
2. Reduce power to set up a 500 to 800 ft/min rate of descent.

3. Adjust mixture(s) as required for smooth engine operation.
4. Adjust elevator or stabilizer, rudder and aileron trim controls for a
stabilized descent.
5. Keep hands off the control wheel. Monitor turn and bank or turn
coordinator and make corrections by rudder alone.
6. Check trend of compass card movement and make cautious
corrections with rudder inputs to stop turn.
7. Upon breaking out of the clouds, resume normal cruising flight.
RECOVERY FROM A SPIRAL DIVE
If a spiral dive is encountered while in the clouds, proceed as follows:
1. Retard the throttle(s) to idle.

2. Stop the turn by using coordinated aileron and rudder control to align
the symbolic airplane in the turn coordinator with the horizontal
reference line, or center the turn needle and ball of the turn and bank
indicator.
a. With a significant airspeed increase or altitude loss while in the
spiral, anticipate that the aircraft will pitch nose-up when the wings
are level. Take care not to overstress the airframe as a result of
this nose-up pitching tendency.
3. Cautiously apply control wheel back pressure (if necessary) to slowly
reduce the airspeed.
4. Adjust the elevator or stabilizer trim control to maintain a constant
glide airspeed.
5. Keep hands off the control wheel, using rudder control to hold a
straight heading. Use rudder trim to relieve unbalanced rudder force,
if present.
6. If the power-off glide is of sufficient duration, adjust the mixture{s), as
required.
7. Upon breaking out of the clouds, resume normal cruising flight.
USE OF LANDING GEAR AND FLAPS

A review of airplane accident investigation reports indicates a complacent
attitude on the part of some pilots toward the use of checklists for landing gear
and wing flap operation. The main confession of most pilots involved in
involuntary gear-up landings is that they "forgot" to lower the gear prior to
landing. Consistent use of the Before Landing Checklist would have alerted
these pilots and prevented a potentially hazardous situation. Other causes of
gear-up landings have been attributed to poor judgment, such as not leaving
the landing gear extended while performing several landings while remaining in
the traffic pattern. The following recommendations will lessen the possibility of
a gear-up landing.

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
1. Never move the landing gear control switch, handle, or lever while the
airplane is on the ground.
2. Do not deliberately disable any landing gear warning device or light
unless indicated otherwise in the operating handbook.
3. Apply brakes before retraction of the landing gear to stop wheel
rotation.
4. After takeoff, do not retract the landing gear until a positive rate of
climb is indicated.
5. When selecting a landing gear position, whether up or down, allow the
landing gear to complete the initial cycle to the locked position before
moving the control switch, handle, or lever in the opposite direction.
6. Never exceed the published landing gear operating speed (V|_o) while
the landing gear is in transit or the maximum landing gear extended
speed (Vle)-
7. Prepare for landing early in the approach so that trim adjustments
after lowering landing gear or flaps will not compromise the approach.
8. Leave landing gear extended during consecutive landings when the
airplane remains in the traffic pattern unless traffic pattern speeds
exceed the Maximum Landing Gear Extended Speed
A rare, but serious problem that may result from a mechanical failure in the
flap system is split wing flaps. This phenomenon occurs when the wing flap
position on one wing does not agree with the flap position on the opposite
wing, causing a rolling tendency. Split flaps can be detected and safely
countered if flap control movement is limited to small increments during inflight
operations from full down to full up and full up to full down. If a roll is detected
during flap selection, reposition the flap selector to the position from which it
was moved and the roll should be eliminated. Depending on the experience
and proficiency of the pilot, the rolling tendencies caused by a split flap
situation may be controlled with opposite aileron (and differential power for
multi-engine aircraft). Some documented contributing factors to split flaps are:
1. Pilots exceeding the Maximum Flap Extended (Vfe) speed for a given
flap setting.
2. Mechanical failure.
3. Improper maintenance.
ILLUSIONS IN FLIGHT
Many different illusions can be experienced in flight. Some can lead to spatial
disorientation. Others can lead to landing errors. Illusions rank among the
most common factors cited as contributing to fatal airplane accidents. Various
complex motions and forces and certain visual scenes encountered in flight
can create illusions of motion and position. Spatial disorientation from these
illusions can be prevented only by visual reference to reliable, fixed points on
the ground, or to flight instruments.

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
An abrupt correction of banked attitude, which has been entered too slowly to
stimulate the motion sensing system in the middle ear, can create the illusion
of banking in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will roll the airplane
back to its original dangerous attitude or, if level flight is maintained, will feel
compelled to lean in the perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides.
This phenomenon is usually referred to as the "leans" and the following
illusions fall under this category.
1. Coriolis illusion - An abrupt head movement in a prolonged constant-

rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can
create the illusion of rotation or movement on an entirely different axis.
The disoriented pilot will maneuver the airplane into a dangerous
attitude in an attempt to stop this illusion of rotation. This most
overwhelming of all illusions in flight may be prevented by not making
sudden, extreme head movements, particularly while making
prolonged constant-rate turns under IFR conditions.
2. Graveyard spin - A proper recovery from a spin thai has ceased
stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of
spinning in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will return the
airplane to its original spin.
3. Graveyard spiral - An observed loss of altitude during a coordinated
constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing
system can create the illusion of being in a descent with the wings
level. In this case, the disoriented pilot will pull back on the controls,
tightening the spiral and increasing the normal load (actor on the
airplane.
4. Somatogravic illusion - A rapid acceleration during takeoff can
create the illusion of being in a nose up attitude. The disoriented pilot
will push the airplane into a nose low, or dive attitude. A rapid
deceleration by a quick reduction of the throtlle(s) can have the
opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the airplane into a
nose up, or stall attitude.
5. Inversion Illusion - An abrupt change from climb to straight and level
flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented
pilot will push the airplane abruptly into a nose low attitude, possibly
intensifying this illusion.
6. Elevator illusion - An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, usually
caused by an updraft, can create the illusion of being in a climb. The
disoriented pilot will push the airplane into a nose low attitude. An
abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually caused by a downdraft,
has the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the airplane
into a nose up attitude.
7. False horizon - Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark
scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric
patterns of ground light can create illusions of not being aligned
correctly with the horizon. The disoriented pilot will place the airplane
in a dangerous attitude.

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
8. Autoklnesis - In the dark, a static light will appear to move about

when stared at for many seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose
control of the airplane in attempting to align it with the light.
Various surface features and atmospheric conditions encountered during

landing can create illusions of incorrect height above and distance away from
the runway threshold. Landing errors from these illusions can be prevented
by: anticipating them during approaches, aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar
airports before landing, using an electronic glide slope or visual approach
slope indicator (VASI) system when available, and maintaining optimum
proficiency in landing procedures. The following illusions apply to this
category.
1. Runway width illusion - A narrower than usual runway can create the
illusion that the airplane is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The
pilot who does not recognize this illusion will tend to fly a lower
approach, with the risk of striking objects along the approach path, or
land short. A wider than usual runway can have the opposite effect,
with the risk of flaring high and landing hard or overshooting the
runway.
2. Runway and terrain slopes illusion - An up sloping runway, up

sloping terrain, or both, can create the illusion that the airplane is at a
higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize
this illusion will fly a lower approach. A down sloping runway, down
sloping approach terrain, or both, can have (he opposite effect.
3. Featureless terrain illusion - An absence of ground features, as
when landing over water, darkened areas and terrain made
featureless by snow, can create the illusion that the airplane is at a
higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize
this illusion will tend to fly a lower approach.
4. Atmospheric illusion - Rain on the windshield can create an illusion
of greater height, and a greater distance from the runway. The pilot
who does not recognize this illusion will tend to fly a lower approach.
Penetration of fog can create the illusion of pitching up. The pilot who
does not recognize this illusion will steepen the approach, often quite
abruptly.
5. Ground lighting illusions - Lights along a straight path, such as a
road, and even lights on trains, can be mistaken tor runway and
approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting systems,
especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain, may
create the illusion of less distance to the runway. The pilot who does
not recognize this illusion will tend to fly a higher approach.
Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has few lights to provide
height cues may make a lower than normal approach.

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
SPATIAL DISORIENTATION
Spatial disorientation is the confusion of the senses affecting balance, which

occurs when a person is deprived of the normal cues upon which he or she
depends for "indexing" a sense of balance. These cues include, most
prominently, his or her visual reference to the earth's horizon and celestial
bodies, and his or her acceptance of the force of gravity as acting vertically.
When flying an airplane, the pilot may have all outside visual references
obscured by clouds or complete darkness, and his interpretation of the
direction of gravity may become confused by forces imposed on his or her
body by centrifugal force, accelerations of maneuvering, and turbulence, which
may act in any direction.
Spatial disorientation usually leads to vertigo, but is not necessarily identical to

it. Vertigo is an uncertain feeling of disorientation, turning, or imbalance, which
is usually accompanied by feelings of dizziness or incipient nausea.
When flying by reference to the natural horizon, the attitude of the airplane can
be determined visually at all times. During instrument flight, when the natural
horizon is not visible, the attitude of the airplane must be determined from the
gyro horizon and other flight instruments. Sight, supported by other senses.
maintains orientation in either case.
Sometimes during conditions of low visibility, the supporting senses conflict

with what is seen or what the pilot believes he sees. When this happens,
there is a definite susceptibility to disorientation. The degree of disorientation
varies considerably with individual pilots, their proficiency, and the conditions
which induced the problem. Complete disorientation, even for a short period
of time, can render a pilot incapable of controlling an airplane, to the extent
that he cannot maintain level flight, or even prevent fatal turns and diving
spirals.
Lack of effective visual reference is common on over-water flights at night, and

in low visibility conditions over land. Other contributing factors to disorientation
and vertigo are reflections from outside lights, and cloud reflections of beams
from rotating beacons or strobe lights.
It is important that all pilots understand the possibility of spatial disorientation,

and the steps necessary to minimize the loss of control as a result of it. The
following basic items should be known to every pilot:
1. Obtain training and maintain proficiency in the control of an airplane by

reference to instruments before flying in visibility of less than three
miles.
2. Refer to the attitude instruments frequently when flying at night or in
reduced visibility conditions.

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
3. To maintain competency in night operations, practice should include

operations in the traffic pattern, subject to the confusion caused by
reflections of ground lights, as well as the control of an airplane by
reference to instruments.
4. Familiarization with the meteorological conditions which may lead to
spatial disorientation is important. These include smoke, fog, haze,
and other restrictions to visibility.
5. Familiarity with local areas and commonly used flight routes assists in
the avoidance of disorientation by permitting the pilot to anticipate and
look for prominent terrain features.
6. The most important precaution for avoiding disorientation is the habit
of thoroughly checking the weather before each flight, while enroute,
and near the destination.
A pilot without the demonstrated competence to control an airplane by sole

reference to instruments has little chance of surviving an unintentional flight
into IFR conditions. Tests conducted by the U.S. Air Force, using qualified
instrument pilots, indicate that it may take as long as 35 seconds to establish
full control by reference to instruments after disorientation during an attempt to
maintain VFR flight in IFR weather. Instrument training and certification and
ongoing recurrent training in accordance with FAR Part 61, are designed to
provide the pilot with the skills needed to maintain control solely by reference
to flight instruments and the ability to ignore the false kinesthetic sensations
inherent with flight when no outside references are available.
MOUNTAIN FLYING
A pilot's first experience of flying over mountainous terrain (particularly if most

of his or her flight time has been over flatlands) could be a never-to-be-
forgotten experience if proper planning is not done and if the pilot is not aware
of potential hazards. Those familiar section lines in some regions are not
present in the mountains. Flat, level fields for forced landings are practically
nonexistent; abrupt changes in wind direction and velocity may occur; severe
updrafts and downdrafts are common during high wind conditions, particularly
near or above abrupt changes of terrain, such as cliffs or rugged areas; and
clouds can build up with startling rapidity. Mountain flying need not be
hazardous if you follow the recommendations below:
1. For pilots with little or no mountain flying experience, always get dual
instruction from a qualified flight instructor to become familiar with
conditions which may be encountered before flying in mountainous
terrain.
2. Plan your route to avoid topography which would prevent a safe
forced landing. The route should be near populated areas and well
known mountain passes. Sufficient altitude should be maintained to
permit gliding to a safe landing in the event of engine failure.
3. Always file a flight plan.

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
4. Don't fly a light airplane when the winds aloft, at your proposed
altitude, exceed 35 miles per hour. Expect the winds to be of much
greater velocity over mountain passes than reported a few miles from
them. Approach mountain passes with as much altitude as possible.
Downdrafts of from 1500 to 2000 feet per minute are not uncommon
on the leeward (downwind) side,
5. Severe turbulence can be expected near or above changes in terrain,
especially in high wind conditions.
6. Some canyons run into a dead end. Don't fly so far into a canyon that
you get trapped. Always be able to make a 180-degree turn, or if
canyon flying is necessary, fly down the canyon (toward lower terrain),
not up the canyon (toward higher terrain).
7. Plan the trip for the early morning hours. As a rule, the air starts to
get turbulent at about 10 a.m., and grows steadily worse until around
4 p.m., then gradually improves until dark.
8. When landing at a high altitude airfield, the same indicated airspeed
should be used as at low elevation fields. Due to the less dense air
at altitude, this same indicated airspeed actually results in a higher
true airspeed, a faster landing speed, and a longer landing distance.
During gusty wind conditions, which often prevail at high altitude fields,
a "power approach" is recommended. Additionally, due to the faster
ground speed and reduced engine performance at altitude, the takeoff
distance will increase considerably over that required at lower
altitudes.
OBSTRUCTIONS TO FLIGHT
Pilots should exercise extreme caution when flying less than 2000 feet above
ground level (AGL) because of the numerous structures (radio and television
antenna towers) exceeding 1000 feet AGL, with some extending higher than
2000 feet AGL. Most truss type structures are supported by guy wires. The
wires are difficult to see in good weather and can be totally obscured during
periods of dusk and reduced visibility. These wires can extend approximately
1500 feet horizontally from a structure; therefore, all truss type structures
should be avoided by at least 2000 feet, horizontally and vertically.
Overhead transmission and utility lines often span approaches to runways and
scenic flyways such as lakes, rivers, and canyons. The supporting structures
of these lines may not always be readily visible and the wires may be virtually
invisible under certain conditions. Most of these installations do not meet
criteria which determine them to be obstructions to air navigation and
therefore, do not require marking and/or lighting. The supporting structures of
some overhead transmission lines are equipped with flashing strobe lights.
These lights indicate wires exist between the strobe equipped structures.
10 Reissue - 1 June 1998

PILOT SAFETY AND 6
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL MANAGEMENT
FUEL MANAGEMENT
POOR TECHNIQUES
Poor fuel management is often the cause of aircraft accidents. Some airplane
accident reports have listed such poor fuel management techniques as
switching to another fuel tank after the before takeoff runup was completed,
and then experiencing engine problems on takeoff. Other reports tell of pilots
switching fuel tanks at a critical point on the approach to a landing and
inadvertently selecting an empty tank when there is not enough time to
compensate for the subsequent loss of power. Flying low during day cross
country, or moderately low at night, can be hazardous if a fuel tank runs dry.
Too much altitude may be lost during the time it takes to discover the reason
for power loss, select a different fuel tank, and restart the engine. Pilots
should be thoroughly familiar with the airplane fuel system and tank switching
procedures. Furthermore, it is an unsafe technique to run a fuel tank dry as a
routine procedure, although there are exceptions. Any sediment or water not
drained from the fuel tank could be drawn into the fuel system and cause
erratic operation or even total power loss.
FUELING THE AIRCRAFT
The aircraft should be on level ground during all fueling operations, since filling
the tanks when the aircraft is not level may result in a fuel quantity less than
the maximum capacity. Rapid filling of a fuel tank, without allowing time for air
in the tank to escape, may result in a lower fuel quantity. Some single engine
aircraft that allow simultaneous use of fuel from more than one tank have fuel
tanks with interconnected vent lines. If the tanks are filled with fuel and the
aircraft allowed to sit with one wing lower than the other, fuel may drain from
the higher tank to the lower and subsequently out the fuel vent. This will result
in loss of fuel. This fuel loss may be prevented by placing the fuel selector in
a position other than "both".
Some Cessna single-engine airplanes have long, narrow fuel tanks. If your
airplane is so equipped, it may be necessary to partially fill each tank
alternately, and repeat the sequence as required to completely fill the tanks to
their maximum capacity. This method of fueling helps prevent the airplane
from settling to a wing-low attitude because of increased fuel weight in the
fullest wing tank.
It is always the responsibility of the pilot-in-command to ensure sufficient fuel is

available for the planned flight. Refer to the airplane operating handbook for
proper fueling procedures.

6 PILOT SAFETY AND
FUEL MANAGEMENT WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
UNUSABLE FUEL
Unusable fuel is the quantity of fuel that cannot safely be used in flight. The
amount of unusable fuel varies with airplane and fuel system design, and the
maximum amount is determined in accordance with Civil or Federal Aviation
Regulations (CARs or FARs). Unusable fuel is always included in the
airplane's licensed or basic empty weight for weight and balance purposes.
Unusable fuel should never be included when computing the endurance of any
airplane.
FUEL PLANNING WITH MINIMUM RESERVES

Airplane accidents involving engine power loss continue to reflect fuel
starvation as the primary cause or a contributing factor. Some of these
accidents were caused by departing with insufficient fuel onboard to complete
the intended (light. Fuel exhaustion in flight can mean only one thing - a
forced landing with the possibility of serious damage, injury, or death.
A pilot should not begin a flight without determining the fuel required and
verifying its presence onboard. To be specific, during VFR conditions, do not
take off unless there is enough fuel to fly to the planned destination
(considering wind and forecast weather conditions), assuming the airplane's
normal cruising airspeed, fly after that for at least 30 minutes during the day, or
at least 45 minutes at night.
Departure fuel requirements are a little different when operating under IFR
conditions. Do not depart an airport on an IFR trip unless the airplane has
enough fuel to complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing
(considering weather reports and forecasts) and fly from that airport to the
planned alternate airport, and afterwards still fly at least 45 minutes at normal
cruising speed.
FLIGHT COORDINATION VS. FUEL FLOW

The shape of most airplane wing fuel tanks is such that, in certain flight
maneuvers, the fuel may move away from the fuel tank supply outlet. If the
outlet is uncovered, fuel flow to the engine may be interrupted and a temporary
loss of power might result. Pilots can prevent inadvertent uncovering of the
tank outlet by having adequate fuel in the tank selected and avoiding
maneuvers such as prolonged uncoordinated flight or sideslips which move
fuel away from the feed lines.
It is important to observe the uncoordinated flight or sideslip limitations listed in

the respective operating handbook. As a general rule, limit uncoordinated
flight or sideslip to 30 seconds in duration when the fuel level in the selected
fuel tank is 1/4 full or less. Airplanes are usually considered in a sideslip
anytime the turn and bank "ball" is more than one quarter ball out of the
center (coordinated flight) position. The amount of usable fuel decreases with
the severity of the sideslip in all cases.

PILOT SAFETY AND 6
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL MANAGEMENT
FUEL SELECTION FOR APPROACH/LANDING

On some single-engine airplanes, the fuel selector valve handle is normally
positioned to the BOTH position to allow symmetric fuel feed from each wing
fuel tank. However, if the airplane is not kept in coordinated flight, unequal fuel
flow may occur. The resulting wing heaviness may be corrected during flight
by turning the fuel selector valve handle to the tank in the "heavy" wing. On
other single-engine airplanes, the fuel selector has LEFT ON or RIGHT ON
positions, and takeoffs and landings are to be accomplished using fuel from
the fuller tank.
Most multi-engine airplanes have fuel tanks in each wing or in wing tip tanks,
and it is advisable to feed the engines symmetrically during cruise so that
approximately the same amount of fuel will be left in each side for descent,
approach, and landing. If fuel has been consumed at uneven rates between
the two wing tanks because of prolonged single-engine flight, fuel leak or
siphon, or improper fuel servicing, it is desirable to balance the fuel load by
operating both engines from the fuller tank. However, as long as there is
sufficient fuel in both wing tanks, even though they may have unequal
quantities, it is important to switch the left and right fuel selectors to the left
and right wing tanks, respectively, feeling for the detent, prior to the approach.
This will ensure that adequate fuel flow will be available to each operating
engine if a go-around is necessary. In the case of single-engine operation,
operate from the fuller tank, attempting to have a little more fuel in the wing on
the side with the operating engine prior to descent.
On all multi-engine airplanes equipped with wing tip fuel tanks, the tip tanks are
the main fuel tanks on the tank selector valve controls. Refer to Supplement
12 of this Pilot Safety and Warning Supplements Manual and the applicable
airplane operating handbook.
Reissue - 1 June 1998 3/(4 blank)

PILOT SAFETY AND 7
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AIRFRAME ICING
AIRFRAME ICING
Pilots should monitor weather conditions while flying and should be alert to
conditions which might lead to icing. Icing conditions should be avoided when
possible, even if the airplane is certified and approved for flight into known
icing areas. A climb normally is the best ice avoidance action to take.
Alternatives are a course reversal or a descent to warmer air. If icing
conditions are encountered inadvertently, immediate corrective action is
required.
FLIGHT INTO KNOWN ICING

Flight into known icing is the intentional flight into icing conditions that are
known to exist. Icing conditions exist anytime the indicated OAT (outside air
temperature) is + 10°C or below, or the RAT (ram air temperature) is + 10°C
or below, and visible moisture in any form is present. Any airplane that is not
specifically certified for flight into known icing conditions, is prohibited by
regulations from doing so.
Ice accumulations significantly alter the shape of the airfoil and increase the
weight of the aircraft. Ice accumulations on the aircraft will increase stall
speeds and alter the speeds for optimum performance. Flight at high angles
of attack (low airspeed) can result in ice buildup on the underside of wings and
the horizontal tail aft of the areas protected by boots or leading edge anti-ice
systems. Trace or light amounts of icing on the horizontal tail can significantly
alter airfoil characteristics, which will affect stability and control of the aircraft.
Inflight ice protection equipment is not designed to remove ice, snow, or frost
accumulations on a parked airplane sufficiently enough to ensure a safe
takeoff or subsequent flight. Other means (such as a heated hangar or
approved deicing solutions) must be employed to ensure that all wing, tail,
control, propeller, windshield, static port surfaces and fuel vents are free of ice,
snow, and frost accumulations, and that there are no internal accumulations of
ice or debris in the control surfaces, engine intakes, brakes, pilot-static system
ports, and fuel vents prior to takeoff.
AIRPLANES CERTIFIED FOR FLIGHT INTO KNOWN

ICING
An airplane certified for flight into known icing conditions must have all required
FAA approved equipment installed and fully operational. Certain airplanes
have a flight into known icing equipment package available which, if installed in
its entirety and completely operational, allows intentional penetration of areas
of known icing conditions as reported in weather sequences or by PIREPS.

7 PILOT SAFETY AND
AIRFRAME ICING WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
This known icing package is designed specifically for the airplane to provide
adequate in-flight protection during normally encountered icing conditions
produced by moisture-laden clouds. It will not provide total protection under
severe conditions such as those which exist in areas of freezing rain, nor will it
necessarily provide complete protection for continuous operation in extremely
widespread areas of heavy cloud moisture content. The installed equipment
should be used to protect the airplane Irom ice while seeking a different
altitude or routing where ice does not exist. During all operations, the pilot
must exercise good judgement and be prepared to alter his flight if conditions
exceed the capacity of the ice protection equipment or if any component of
this equipment fails.
The airplane's operating handbook will indicate the required equipment for
intentional flight into known icing conditions. Such equipment may include:
wing leading edge deice anti-ice system, vertical and horizontal stabilizer
leading edge deice'anti-ice system, propeller deice'anti-ice system, windshield
anti-ice, heated pitot tube, heated static ports and fuel vents, heated stall
warning vane'transducer or optional angle-of-attack lift sensor vane, ice
detector light(s), and increased capacity electrical and vacuum systems.
If there is any doubt whether the airplane is certified or has all the required
equipment, the pilot should assume that the airplane is not certified for flight
into known icing and avoid any encounters with areas of icing.
KINDS OF ICING
Airframe icing is a major hazard. It is at its worst when the supercooled (liquid
below freezing temperature) water droplets are large and plentiful. Droplets of
this type are usually found in cumulus clouds and are the cause of "clear ice".
Clear ice is transparent ice deposited in layers, and may be either smooth or
rough. This ice coats more of the wing than "rime ice" because the droplets
flow back from the leading edge over the upper and lower wing surface before
freezing, and the rate of accumulation is higher.
Rime ice is an opaque, granular, and rough deposit of ice that is usually
encountered in stratus clouds. Small supercooled droplets freeze instantly
when struck by the leading edges of the airplane. Rime ice can quickly
change the drag characteristics of the airplane. Under some conditions, a
large "double horn" buildup on the leading edges can occur which drastically
alters the airfoil shape. Altitude changes usually work well as an avoidance
strategy for rime ice. In colder temperatures, these types of supercooled
water droplets quickly convert to ice crystals.
Icing in precipitation comes from freezing rain or drizzle which falls from
warmer air aloft to colder air below. This results in a very rapid buildup of
clear ice, and must be avoided by all means available to the pilot.

PILOT SAFETY AND 7
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AIRFRAME ICING
It it is snowing, the problem is not so much the snow sticking to the airplane as
the icing caused by the supercooled water droplets in the clouds from which
the snow is falling. The amount of ice will depend upon cloud saturation.
Pilots should report all icing conditions to ATC'FSS, and if operating under IFR
conditions, request new routing or altitude if icing will be a hazard. Be sure to
give type of airplane when reporting icing.
The following describe how to report icing conditions:
1. Trace - Ice becomes visible. Rate of accumulation is slightly greater

than the rate of sublimation. Anti-ice equipment must be on and deice
equipment may or may not be required.
2. Light - The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is
prolonged in this environment (over 1 hour). Occasional use of
deicing equipment and continuous use of anti-icing equipment
removes/prevents accumulation.
3. Moderate - The rate of accumulation is such that even short
encounters become potentially hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing
equipment and flight diversion is necessary.
4. Severe - The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/anti-icing
equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate flight
diversion is necessary.
RESULTS OF ICING
Airplane performance can be severely reduced by ice accumulation.
Accumulation of 1/2 inch of ice on the leading edges of the wings and
empennage can cause a large loss in rate of climb, a cruise speed reduction
of up to 30 KIAS, as well as a significant buffet and stall speed increase. Even
if the airplane is certified for flight into known icing and the equipment is
working properly, ice remaining on unprotected areas of the airplane can
cause large performance losses. With one inch of residual ice accumulation,
these losses can double, or even triple. Ice accumulation also will increase
airplane weight.
INADVERTENT ICING ENCOUNTER

Flight into icing conditions is not recommended. However, an inadvertent
encounter with these conditions is possible. The following are things to
consider doing if inadvertent icing is experienced. These items are not
intended to replace procedures described in any operating handbook. Instead,
this list has been generated to familiarize pilots of older model Cessnas with
guidelines they can use in the event of an inadvertent icing condition. The
best procedure is a change of altitude, or course reversal to escape the icing
conditions.

7 PILOT SAFETY AND
AIRFRAME ICING WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
1. Turn pitot heat, stall warning heat, propeller deice/anti-ice, and

windshield anti-ice switches ON (if installed).
2. Change altitude (usually climb) or turn back to obtain an outside air
temperature that is less conducive to icing.
3. Increase power as necessary to maintain cruise airspeed and to
minimize ice accumulation. Maintain a minimum indicated airspeed of
Vy + 10 KIAS until assured that all ice is off the airframe.
4. Turn cabin heat and defroster controls full on and open defrost control
to obtain maximum windshield defroster effectiveness.
5. Increase engine speed to minimize ice buildup on propeller blades. If
excessive vibration is noted, momentarily reduce engine speed with
the propeller control, and then rapidly move the control full forward.
Cycling the RPM flexes the propeller blades and high RPM increases
centrifugal force, causing ice to shed more readily.
6. Watch for signs of induction air filter ice. Regain manifold pressure by
increasing the throttle setting and/or selecting alternate air or
carburetor heat. If ice accumulates on the intake filter (requiring
alternate air), a decrease of manifold pressure will be experienced,
and the mixture should be adjusted as required.
7. If icing conditions are unavoidable, plan a landing at the nearest
airport. In the event of an extremely rapid ice buildup, select a
suitable "off airport" landing site.
8. Ice accumulation of 1/4 inch or more on the wing leading edges may
require significantly higher power and a higher approach and landing
speed, and result in a higher stall speed and longer landing roll.
9. If practical, open the window and, scrape ice from a portion of the
windshield for visibility in the landing approach.
10. Approach with reduced flap extension to ensure adequate elevator
effectiveness in the approach and landing.
11. Avoid a slow and high flare-out.
12. Missed approaches should be avoided whenever possible, because of
severely reduced climb capability. However, if a go-around is
mandatory, make the decision much earlier in the approach than
normal. Apply maximum power while retracting the flaps slowly in
small increments (if extended). Retract the landing gear after
immediate obstacles are cleared.

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS WEATHER
WEATHER
ALERTNESS
Most pilots pay particularly close attention to the business of (lying when they
are intentionally operating in instrument weather conditions. On the other
hand, unlimited visibility tends to encourage a sense of security which may not
be justified. The pilot should be alert to the potential of weather hazards, and
prepared if these hazards are encountered on every flight.
VFR JUDGMENT
Published distance from clouds and visability regulations establish the

minimums for VFR flight. The pilot who uses even greater margins exercises
good judgment. VFR operation in class D airspace, when the official visibility
is 3 miles or greater, is not prohibited, but good judgment would dictate thai
VFR pilots keep out of the approach area under marginal conditions.
Precipitation reduces forward visibility. Although it is perfectly legal to cancel

an IFR flight plan whenever the pilot feels he can proceed VFR, it is usually a
good practice to continue IFR into a terminal area until the destination airport is
in sight.
While conducting simulated instrument flights, pilots should ensure that the
weather provides adequate visibility to the safety pilot. Greater visibility is
advisable when flying in or near a busy airway or close to an airport.
IFR JUDGMENT
The following tips are not necessarily based on Federal Aviation Regulations,
but are offered as recommendations for pilot consideration. They do, however,
address those elements of IFR flight that are common causes of accidents.
1. All pilots should have an annual IFR proficiency check, regardless of

IFR hours flown.
2. For the first 25 hours of pilot-in-command time in airplane type,
increase ILS visibility minimums and raise nonprecision approach
minimums.
3. An operating autopilot or wing leveler is strongly recommended for
single pilot IFR operations.
4. Do not depart on an IFR flight without an independent power source
for attitude and heading systems, and an emergency power source for

8 PILOT SAFETY AND
WEATHER WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
at least one VHF communications radio, or a hand-held

communications radio.
5. Be sure the airplane has enough fuel to fly to the destination with a
headwind calculated at 125 percent of the forecast wind, and a
tailwind calculated at 75 percent of forecast wind. Also, include
enough fuel to miss the approach at the destination airport, climb to
cruise altitude and fly an approach at an alternate airport, plus 45
minutes of fuel for low altitude holding.
6. The !FR takeoff runway should meet the criteria of the accelerate-
stop.go distances for that particular twin-engine airplane, or 200
percent of the distance to clear a 50-foot obstacle for a single.
7. Do not enter an area of embedded thunderstorms without on-board
weather detection equipment (radar and/or StormscopeTM) and unless
cloud bases are at least 2000 feet above the highest terrain, terrain is
essentially level, and VFR can be maintained. Avoid all cells by five
miles, and severe storms by 20 miles.
8. Do not enter possible icing conditions unless all deice and anti-ice
systems are fully operational, or the weather provides at least a 1000-
foot ceiling and three miles visibility for the entire route over level
terrain, and the surface temperatures are greater than 5DC.
9. Adhere to weather minimums, missed approach procedures and
requirements for visual contact with the runway environment. If an
approach is missed, with the runway not in sight at the appropriate
time because of weather conditions, do not attempt another approach
unless there is a valid reason to believe there has been a substantial
improvement in the weather.
10. Observe the minimum runway requirement for an IFR landing. The
minimum IFR runway length for propeller driven airplanes should be
considered 200 percent of maximum landing distance. Increase these
distances 90 percent for a wet runway and 150 percent for ice on the
runway.
11. Make a missed approach if speed and configuration are not stable
inside the middle marker or on nonprecision final, or if the touchdown
aiming point will be missed by more than 1000 feet. If an approach is
missed because of pilot technique, evaluate the reasons and options
before attempting another approach.
12. Use supplemental oxygen above a cabin altitude of 5000 feet at night,
and above 10,000 feet during the day.
WIND
The keys to successfully counteracting the effects of wind are proficiency,

understanding the wind response characteristics of the airplane, and a
thoughtful approach to the operation. Some operating handbooks indicate a
maximum demonstrated crosswind velocity, but this value is not considered to
be limiting. There is an ultimate limit on wind for safe operation, which varies
with the airplane and pilot. The lighter the airplane and the lower the stalling
speed, the less wind it will take to exceed this limit. The way an airplane rests

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
on its landing gear affects handling characteristics. If it sits nose down, the
wing will be unloaded and the airplane will handle better in wind than an
airplane which sits in a nose up attitude, creating a positive angle of attack.
For the latter type, the full weight of the airplane cannot be on the wheels as
the airplane is facing into the wind. Airplanes with these characteristics cause
pilots to work harder to keep the airplane under control.
CROSSWIND
While an airplane is moving on the ground, it is affected by the direction and

velocity of the wind. When taxiing into the wind, the control effectiveness is
increased by the speed of the wind. The tendency of an airplane to
weathervane is the greatest while taxiing directly crosswind, which makes this
maneuver difficult. When taxiing in crosswind, speed and use of brakes should
be held to a minimum and all controls should be utilized to maintain directional
control and balance (see Crosswind Taxi Diagram, Figure 1).
Takeoffs into strong crosswinds are normally performed with the minimum flap
setting necessary for the field length. With the ailerons deflected into the wind,
the airplane should be accelerated to a speed slightly higher than normal (on
multi-engine airplanes, additional power may be carried on the upwind engine
until the rudder becomes effective), and then the airplane should be flown off
abruptly to prevent possible settling back to the runway while drifting. When
clear of the ground and any obstacle, the pilot should execute a coordinated
turn into the wind to correct for drift. The pilot's ability to handle a crosswind is
more dependent upon pilot proficiency than airplane limitations.
A crosswind approach and landing may be performed using either the wing-
low, crab, or combination drift correction technique, depending upon the
training, experience, and desires of the pilot. Use of the minimum flap setting
required for the field length is recommended . Whichever method is used, the
pilot should hold a straight course after touchdown with the steerable nose or
tailwheel and occasional differential braking, if necessary.

8 PILOT SAFETY AND
USE UP AILERON USE UP AILERON

ON LH WING AND i ON RH WING AND
NEUTRAL ELEVATOR NEUTRAL ELEVATOR
USE DOWN AILERON ,, USE DOWN AILERON

ON LH WING AND 1 ON RH WING AND
DOWN ELEVATOR DOWN ELEVATOR
NOTE
CODE
WIND DIRECTION Strong quartering tail winds required

caution. Avoid sudden bursts of the
throttle and sharp braking when the
airplane is in this attitude. Use the
steerable nose or tail wheel and rudder to
maintain direction.
Figure 1. Crosswind Taxi Diagram

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
On those airplanes with a steerable tailwheel. landings may be made with the
tailwheel lock (if installed) engaged or disengaged. Although the use of the
lock is left to the individual pilot's preference, it should be used during strong
crosswind landings on rough fields with a heavily loaded airplane. l( the lock
were disengaged, this condition could lead to a touchdown with a deflected
tailwheel and subsequent external forces on the tailwheel that are conducive to
shimmy.
LOW LEVEL WIND SHEAR
Low level wind shear is the interflow of air masses near the ground, having
different speeds and directions. As an airplane passes through the narrow
boundary between the two air masses, large fluctuations in airspeed may be
encountered depending on the difference in speed and direction of the air
masses. Low level wind shear can be experienced through both the horizontal
and vertical piane. One major risk with a wind shear encounter is that a
sudden loss of airspeed may render the airplane out of control near the
ground. Recovery depends on altitude and the magnitude of the airspeed
loss.
A wind shear encounter can be reported as either positive or negative. A

positive wind shear is one in which the headwind component suddenly
increases. The airplane's inertia makes it tend to maintain the same velocity
through space, not through air, so the first thing a pilot is likely to notice is an
increase in airspeed. The opposite case, a negative wind shear, is a sudden
decrease in headwind component. The airplane will begin to sink immediately,
as lift is decreased by the reduced airspeed; and as the natural aerodynamics,
and/or the pilot, lowers the nose, the descent rate increases.
The effects of wind shear on smaller airplanes are sometimes less severe than
on large jetliners. Smaller airplanes have less mass (and therefore less
inertia), and their speed can change more quickly. Thus, a smaller airplane
can return to its trimmed speed, after encountering a wind shear, more rapidly
than a larger, heavier one.
TYPES OF WIND SHEAR CONDITIONS
Wind shear is encountered in several distinct weather scenarios. Within a

frontal zone, as one air mass overtakes another, variations in wind speed and
direction can be significant. Fast moving cold fronts, squall lines, and gust
fronts pose the highest risk.
A temperature inversion can present a fast moving air mass directly above a
very stable calm layer at the surface. Under these conditions an airplane on
approach with a headwind aloft will experience a rapid loss of airspeed during
descent through the boundary layer to the calm air beneath.

8 PILOT SAFETY AND
The most violent type of wind shear is that induced by convective activity and
thunderstorms. Downdrafts created by local areas of descending air (roughly 5
to 20 miles diameter) can exceed 700 feet per minute. At times, very small
areas of descending air (1 mile or so in diameter), called microbursts, can
reach vertical speeds of 6000 feet per minute or more. Such downdrafts
generate significant turbulence and exceed the climb capability of many
airplanes. In addition, as the downdraftmicroburst reaches the ground, the air
spreads in all directions. The pilot entering the area at relatively low altitude
will likely experience an increase in airspeed followed by a dramatic decrease
in airspeed and altitude while exiting the area.
INDICATIONS OF WIND SHEAR
The winds near or around the base of a thunderstorm are largely

unpredictable, but there are identifiable signs that may indicate that wind shear
conditions exist. Small areas of rainfall, or shafts of heavy rain are clues to
possible wind shear conditions. Virga, or rain shafts that evaporate before
reaching the ground, may indicate cool, dense air sinking rapidly and may
contain microburst winds. On the ground, such signs as trees bending in the
wind, ripples on water, or a line of dust clouds should alert the pilot.
With the presence of a strong temperature inversion, if low clouds are moving
rapidly but winds are calm or from a different direction on the surface, a narrow
wind shear zone might exist and the pilot may elect to use a higher climb
speed until crossing the zone. Conversely, while in the landing pattern or on
an approach, if the reported surface winds are significantly different than that
being experienced in flight, it must be taken as a warning to the potential of
wind shear.
A pilot who has been holding a wind correction angle on final approach, and
suddenly finds that a change has to be made - i.e., the runway (or CDI needle)
starts moving off to the side - most likely encountered wind shear. The usual
techniques apply, such as an appropriate heading change, but more
importantly, the pilot has been alerted to the presence of a wind shear situation
and should be ready to deal with a more serious headwind to tailwind shear at
any time.
COPING WITH WIND SHEAR

A pilot can cope with wind shear by maintaining a somewhat higher airspeed
not to exceed Va (maneuvering speed), since the conditions conducive to wind
shear are also often conducive to turbulence. Pilots should be alert for
negative wind shear; if the airspeed is suddenly decreasing, the sink rate
increasing, or more than usual approach power is required, a negative wind
shear may well have been encountered. Also, the closer the airplane gets to

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
the ground, the smaller the margin for sink recovery. Be prepared to go
around at the first indication of a negative wind shear. A positive wind shear
may be followed immediately by a negative shear.
Some larger airports are equipped with a low-level wind shear alerting system
(LLWAS). Many have ATIS, and or AWOS wind information. All elements of
the weather conditions including pilot reports should be carefully considered
and any pilot who experiences wind shear should warn others.
In summary, all pilots should remain alert to the possibility of low level wind
shear. If wind shear is encountered on final approach, usually characterized
by erratic airspeed and altimeter indications and almost always associated with
uncommanded airplane attitude changes, do not hesitate to go around. If the
approach profile and airspeed cannot be reestablished, it cannot be
emphasized too strongly that a go-around is often the pilot's best course of
action, and the earlier the decision to go around, the better the chance of
recovery.
THUNDERSTORM AVOIDANCE
Much has been written about thunderstorms. They have been studied for
years, and while considerable information has been learned, the studies
continue because questions still remain. Knowledge and weather radar have
modified our attitudes toward thunderstorms. But any storm recognizable as a
thunderstorm should be considered hazardous. Never regard any
thunderstorm lightly, even when radar observers report the echoes are of light
intensity. Avoiding all thunderstorms is the best policy.
The following are some do's and don'ts of thunderstorm avoidance:
1. Don't land or takeoff in the face of an approaching thunderstorm. A

sudden gust front of low level turbulence (wind shear) could cause
loss of control.
2. Don't attempt to fly under a thunderstorm, even if you can see through
to the other side. Turbulence and wind shear under the storm is likely
and hazardous.
3. Don't fly near clouds containing embedded thunderstorms. Scattered
thunderstorms that are not embedded usually can be visually
circumnavigated.
4. Don't trust the visual appearance to be a reliable indicator of the
turbulence inside a thunderstorm.
5. Do avoid, by at least 20 miles, any thunderstorm identified as severe
or giving an intense radar echo. This is especially true under the anvil
of a large cumulonimbus.
6. Do circumnavigate the entire area if the area has 6/10 thunderstorm
coverage.
7. Do remember that vivid and frequent lightning indicates the probability

of a severe thunderstorm.

8 PILOT SAFETY AND
8. Do regard, as extremely hazardous, any thunderstorm with tops

35,000 feet or higher, whether the top is visually sighted or
determined by radar.
9. Do check the convective outlook during weather briefings.
The following are some do's and don'ts during inadvertent thunderstorm area
penetration:
1. Do keep your eyes on the instruments. Looking outside the cabin can
increase the danger of temporary blindness from lightning.
2. Don't change power settings; maintain settings for the recommended
turbulent air penetration speed.
3. Do maintain a generally constant attitude.
4. Don't attempt to maintain altitude. Maneuvers made in attempting to
maintain an exact altitude increase the stress on the airplane.
5. Exit the storm as soon as possible.
A pilot on an IFR flight plan must not deviate from an approved route or
altitude without proper clearance, as this may place him in conflict with other
air traffic. Strict adherence to traffic clearance is necessary to assure an
adequate level of safety.
Always remember, all thunderstorms are potentially hazardous and the pilot is
best advised to avoid them whenever possible.
FROM WARM WEATHER TO COLD WEATHER
Flying from warm weather to cold weather can do unusual things to airplanes.
To cope with this problem, pilots must be alerted to a few preparations. If the
airplane is serviced with a heavier grade of oil, such as SAE 50, the oil should
be changed to a lighter grade such as SAE 30 before flying into very coid
weather. If use of a multi-viscosity oil is approved, it is recommended for
improved starting in cold weather. Refer to the airplane operating handbook or
maintenance manual for approved oils. An engine/airplane winterization kit
may be available for the airplane. It usually contains restrictive covers for the
cowl nose cap and/or oil cooler and engine crankcase breather for flight in
very cold weather. Proper preflight draining of the fuel system from all drains
is especially important and will help eliminate any free water accumulation.
The use of fuel additives, such as Prist or EGME, may also be desirable.
Refer to the airplane operating handbook or maintenance manual for approved
fuel additives.
In order to prevent propeller freeze-up when operating in very cold weather, it

may be necessary to exercise the constant speed prop every few minutes.
This can be accomplished by moving the prop controls forward or aft from
their cruise position 300 RPM and back during flight.

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
ICE, SNOW, FROST, Etc.

For any extended time, it is always best to park an airplane in a hangar,
particularly during inclement weather. When this is not possible, all ice. snow,
frost, etc., must be removed from the entire airframe and engine(s) prior to
starling.
The presence of ice, snow, frost, etc., on the wings, tail, conlrol surfaces
(externally and internally), etc., is hazardous. Safe operation depends upon
their removal. Too often, their effects on airplane performance are not
completely understood or appreciated.
WAKE TURBULENCE
Airplanes are significantly affected by the wake turbulence of any heavier

aircraft or helicopter. Wake turbulence dissipation and displacement are
functions of elapsed time and prevailing wind speed and direction. During
calm conditions, severe turbulence generated by iarge aircraft can persist as
long as 10 minutes. Delay takeoff to ensure dissipation and displacement of
wake turbulence. When it is necessary to take off behind a heavier aircraft or
helicopter, avoid wake turbulence, particularly wake vortices, by vertical or
lateral spacing or an appropriate time delay.
Vertical avoidance is appropriate to longer runways where operations can be

completed on portions of the runway not affected by the vortices of preceding
aircraft and flying above areas where vortices will be present is possible.
Become airborne well before the preceding aircraft rotation point and climb
above its flight path, or lift off beyond the touchdown point of a landing aircraft.
When it is necessary to land behind another aircraft, remain above its
approach path and land beyond its touchdown point. Touchdown prior to the
rotation point of a departing aircraft.
Lateral movement of wake vortices is only possible when a significant

crosswind exists and is not detectable unless exhaust smoke or dust marks
the vortices. Consider offsetting the takeoff path to the upwind side of the
runway.

PILOT SAFETY AND 9
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS RESTRAINT SYSTEMS
RESTRAINT SYSTEMS
SEAT RESTRAINTS
Records of general aviation airplane accident injuries reveal a surprising

number of instances in which the occupants were not properly using the
available restraint system, indicating the presence of a complacent attitude
during airplane preflight briefing inspections. An unbuckled restraint system
during a critical phase of flight, such as during turbulence, could cause loss of
control of the airplane and/or injuries. Although the ultimate responsibility lies
with the pilot-in-command, each user of a restraint system should be cognizant
of the importance of proper use of the complete restraint system.
Pilots should ensure that all occupants properly use their individual restraint
systems. The system should be adjusted snug across the body. A loose
restraint belt will allow the wearer excessive movement and could result in
serious injuries. The wearer should not allow sharp or hard items in pockets or
other clothing to remain between their body and the restraint system to avoid
discomfort or injury during adverse flight condilions or accidents. Each
occupant must have their own restraint system. Use of a single system by
more than one person could result in serious injury.
Occupants of adjustable seats should position and lock their seats before
fastening their restraint system. Restraint belts can be lengthened before use
by grasping the sides of the link on the link half of the belt and pulling against
the belt. Then, after locking the belt link into the belt buckle, the belt can be
tightened by pulling the free end. The belt is released by pulling upward on
the top of the buckle. Restraint systems must be fastened anytime the
airplane is in motion. Before takeoff, the pilot should brief all passengers on
the proper use. including the method of unlatching the entire restraint system,
in the event that emergency egress from the airplane is necessary.
Small children must be secured in an approved child restraint system as

defined in FAR 91.107 "Use of safety belts, shoulder harnesses, and child
restraint systems". The pilot should know and follow the instructions for
installation and use provided by the seat manufacturer. The child restraint
system should be installed in an aircraft seat other than a front seat. If the
child restraint system is installed in a front seat, the pilot must ensure that it
does not interfere with full control movement or restrict access to any aircraft
controls. Also, the pilot should consider whether the child restraint system
could interfere with emergency egress. Refer to AC 91-62A. "Use of Child
Seats In Aircraft" for more information.
If shoulder restraints are not installed, kits are available from Cessna or from
other approved sources. Cessna strongly recommends the installation of
shoulder harnesses.

9 PILOT SAFETY AND
RESTRAINT SYSTEMS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
SEAT STOPS/LATCHES
The pilot should visually check the seat for security on the seat tracks and
assure that the seat is locked in position. This can be accomplished by
visually ascertaining pin engagement and physically attempting to move the
seat fore and aft to verify the seat is secured in position. Failure to ensure that
the seat is locked in position could result in the seat sliding aft during a critical
phase of flight, such as initial climb. Mandatory Service Bulletin SEB89-32
installs secondary seat stops and is available from Cessna.
The pilot's seat should be adjusted and locked in a position to allow full rudder
deflection and brake application without having to shift position in the seat. For
takeoff and landing, passenger seat backs should be adjusted to the most
upright position.
SECURITY IN AFT-FACING SEATS

Some aft-facing seats are adjustable fore and aft, within the limits of the seat
stops. Ensure the seat stop pins are engaged with the holes in the seat tracks
before takeoff and landing. The restraint system should be worn anytime the
seat is occupied. Assure that the seats are installed in the correct positions.
Approved seat designs differ between forward-facing and rear-facing seats and
proper occupant protection is dependent upon proper seat installation.

PILOT SAFETY AND 10
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINATION
FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINATION
ADEQUATE PREFLIGHT OF THE FUEL SYSTEM

A full preflight inspection is recommended before each flight for general
aviation airplanes. Inspection procedures for the fuel system must include
checking the quantity of fuel with the airplane on level ground, checking the
security of fuel filler caps and draining the fuel tank sumps, fuel reservoir(s),
fuel line drain(s), fuel selector drains, and fuel strainer(s). To ensure that no
unsampled fuel remains in the airplane, an adequate sample of fuel from the
fuel strainer must be taken with the fuel selector valve placed in each of its
positions (BOTH, LEFT, RIGHT, etc.). Some Cessna airplanes are equipped
with a fuel reservoir(s). If so equipped, the pilot should be aware of the
location of the fuel reservoir(s) and its drain plug or quick-drain. The fuel
reservoir(s) on most single-engine airplanes is located near the fuel system
low point where water will accumulate. Therefore, the fuel reservoir(s) must be
drained routinely during each prefiight inspection. Periodically check the
condition of the fuel filler cap seals, pawls, and springs for evidence of wear
and/or deterioration which indicates a need for replacement. Check fuel cap
adapters and seals to insure that the sealing surfaces are clean and not rusted
or pitted. Deformed pawls may affect the sealing capabilities of the seals
and/or cause it to be exposed to detrimental weather elements. Precautions
should be taken to prevent water entry into fuel tanks, due to damaged filler
caps and every effort made to check and remove all water throughout the fuel
system. Umbrella caps will assist in preventing water entry into the fuel tank
through the fuel filler.
It is the pilot's responsibility to ensure that the airplane is properly serviced

before each flight with the correct type of fuel. The pilot must take the time to
inspect the airplane thoroughly, making sure all of the fuel filler caps are
installed and secured properly after visually checking the fuel quantity with the
airplane on level ground. During the check of the fuel tanks, observe the color
and odor of the fuel while draining a generous sample from each sump and
drain point into a transparent container. Check for the presence of water, dirt,
rust, or other contaminants. Never save the fuel sample and risk the possibility
of contaminating the system. Also, ensure that each fuel tank vent is clear of
restrictions {i.e., dirt, insect nests, ice, snow, bent or pinched tubes, etc.).
Refer to the airplanes Maintenance Manual for for fuel tank vent removal and
inspection if needed.

10 PILOT SAFETY AND
FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINATION WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
PROPER SAMPLING FROM QUICK DRAINS

The fuel system sumps and drains should always be drained and checked for
contaminants after each refueling and during each preflight inspection. Drain
at least a cupful of fuel into a clear container to check for solid and'or liquid
contaminants, and proper fuel grade. If contamination is observed, take further
samples at all fuel drain points until fuel is clear ot contaminants; then, gently
rock wings and. if possible, lower the tail to move any additional contaminants
to the sampling points. Take repeated samples from ail fuel drain points until
all contamination has been removed. If excessive sampling is required,
completely defuel, drain and clean the airplane fuel system, and attempt to
discover where or how the contamination originated before the airplane flies
again. Do not fly the airplane with contaminated or unapproved fuel. If an
improper fuel type is detected, the mandatory procedure is to completely
defuel and drain the fuel system.
Extra effort is needed for a proper preflight of all fuel drains on a float plane. If
water is detected after rocking the wings and lowering the tail, the aircraft
should not be flown until after the fuel system is completely drained and
cleaned.
80 versus 100 OCTANE FUEL
When 80 octane (red) fuel began to be replaced by 100LL (blue) there was
concern about the service life expectancy of low compression engines. It was
claimed that some engines experienced accelerated exhaust valve erosion and
valve guide wear from the use of highly leaded 100/130 (green) avgas in
engines that were rated to use a minimum grade of 80 octane fuel. Engine
manufacturers have provided amended operating procedures and maintenance
schedules to minimize problems resulting from the use of high lead 100.130
avgas. Experience has now proven that low-compression aircraft engines can
be operated safely on 100LL avgas providing they are regularly operated and
serviced in accordance with the operating handbook or other officially
approved document.
AVGAS versus JET FUEL
Occasionally, airplanes are inadvertently serviced with the wrong type of fuel.
Piston engines may run briefly on jet fuel, but detonation and overheating will
soon cause power failure. All piston-engine airplanes should have fuel filler
restrictors installed to prevent jet fuel from being pumped into the fuel tanks.
An engine failure caused by running a turbine engine on the wrong fuel may
not be as sudden, but prolonged operation on avgas will severely damage the
engine because of the lead content and differing combustion temperature of
the fuel. Time limitations for use of avgas in turbine engines are listed in the
operating handbook.

PILOT SAFETY AND 10
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINATION
AUTOMOTIVE GASOLINE/FUEL
Never use automotive gasoline in an airplane unless the engine and airplane
fuel system are specifically certified and approved for automotive gasoline use.
The additives used in the production of automotive gasoline vary widely
throughout the petroleum industry and may have deteriorating effects on
airplane fuel system components. The qualities of automotive gasoline can
induce vapor lock, increase the probability of carburetor icing, and can cause
internal engine problems.
FUEL CAP SECURITY
The consequence of a missing or incorrectly installed fuel filler cap is inflight

fuel siphoning. Inflight siphoning may distort the fuel cell on some airplanes
with bladder-type fuel cells. This distortion will change the fuel cell capacity,
and may interfere with the operation of the fuel quantity indicator sensing
mechanism inside the cell. This condition will generally cause an erroneous
and misleading fuel quantity reading and may result in incomplete filling for the
next flight.
CONTAMINATION
Solid contamination may consist of rust, sand, pebbles, dirt, microbes or

bacterial growth. If any solid contaminants are found in any part of the fuel
system, drain and clean the airplane fuel system. Do not fly the airplane with
fuel contaminated with solid material.
Liquid contamination is usually water, improper fuel type, fuel grade, or

additives that are not compatible with the fuel or fuel system components.
Liquid contamination should be addressed as set forth in the section entitled
"Proper Sampling from Quick Drains", and as prescribed in the airplane's
approved flight manual.
Reissue - 1 June 1998 3/(4 blank}

PILOT SAFETY AND 11
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL PUMP OPERATION
FUEL PUMP OPERATION
AUXILIARY FUEL PUMP OPERATION - GENERAL
The engine-cfriven fuel pump is designed to supply an engine with a steady,

uninterrupted flow of fuel. Temperature changes, pressure changes, agitation
in the fuel lines, fuel quality, and other factors can cause a release of vapor in
the fuel system. Some airplanes (single and multi-engine) incorporate an
auxiliary fuel pump to reduce excess fuel vapor in the fuel supply for each
engine. This pump is also used to ensure that a positive supply of fuel is
available in the event the engine driven fuel pump should fail.
FUEL VAPOR
Under hot, high altitude conditions, or in situations during a climb that are
conducive to fuel vapor formation, it may be necessary to utilize the auxiliary
fuel pump(s) to attain or stabilize the fuel flow required for proper engine
operation. Use the auxiliary fuel pump(s) in all conditions where there is any
possibility of excessive fuel vapor formation or temporary disruption of fuel flow
in accordance with operating handbook procedures.
SINGLE ENGINE FUEL PUMP OPERATION

(CARBURETED ENGINE)
On some carbureted, high wing, single engine airplanes, the auxiliary fuel
pump should be turned on anytime the indicated fuel pressure falls below the
minimum. Typically this would only occur in an extreme climb attitude following
failure of the engine driven fuel pump. Consult the operating handbook of the
affected model for a detailed description of the procedure.
SINGLE ENGINE FUEL PUMP OPERATION

(PRECiSION/BENDIX FUEL INJECTED ENGINE)
The auxiliary fuel pump is used primarily for priming the engine before starting.
Priming is accomplished through the regular injection system. If the auxiliary
fuel pump switch is placed in the ON position for prolonged periods with the
master switch turned on, the mixture rich, and the engine stopped, the intake
manifoids will become flooded.

11 PILOT SAFETY AND
FUEL PUMP OPERATION WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
The auxiliary fuel pump is also used for vapor suppression in hot weather.
Normally, momentary use will be sufficient (or vapor suppression. Turning on
the auxiliary fuel pump with a normally operating engine pump will result in
enrichment of the mixture. The auxiliary fuel pump should not be operated
during takeoff and landing, since gravity and the engine driven fuel pump will
supply adequate fuel flow to the fuel injector unit. In the event of failure of the
engine driven fuel pump, use of the auxiliary fuel pump will provide sufficient
fuel to maintain flight at maximum continuous power.
To ensure a prompt engine restart after running a fuel tank dry, switch the fuel
selector to the opposite tank at the first indication of fuel flow fluctuation or
power loss. Turn on the auxiliary fuel pump and advance the mixture control
to full rich. After power and steady fuel flow are restored, turn off the auxiliary
fuel pump and lean the mixture as necessary.
SINGLE ENGINE FUEL PUMP OPERATION (TCM

FUEL INJECTED ENGINE)
The auxiliary fuel pump on single engine airplanes is controlled by a split
rocker type switch labeled AUX PUMP. One side of the switch is red and is
labeled HI; the other side is yellow and is labeled LO.
The LO side operates the pump at low speed, and, if desired, can be used for
starting or vapor suppression. The HI side operates the pump at high speed,
supplying sufficient fuel flow to maintain adequate power in the event of an
engine driven fuel pump failure. In addition, the HI side may be used for
normal engine starts, vapor elimination in flight, and inflight engine starts.
When the engine driven fuel pump is functioning and the auxiliary fuel pump is
placed in the HI position, a fuel/air ratio considerably richer than best power is
produced unless the mixture is leaned. Therefore, the auxiliary fuel pump
must be turned off during takeoff or landing, and during all other normal flight
conditions. With the engine stopped and the battery switch on, the cylinder
intake ports can become flooded if the HI or LO side of the auxiliary fuel pump
switch is turned on.
In hot, high altitude conditions, or climb conditions that are conducive to fuel
vapor formation, it may be necessary to utilize the auxiliary fuel pump to attain
or stabilize the fuel flow required for the type of climb being performed. Select
either the HI or LO position of the switch as required, and adjust the mixture to
the desired fuel flow. If fluctuating fuel flow (greater than 5 Ibs/hr) is observed,
place the auxiliary fuel pump switch in the HI or LO position as required to
clear the fuel system of vapor. The auxiliary fuel pump may be operated
continuously in cruise, if necessary, but should be turned off prior to descent.
Each time the auxiliary fuel pump switch is turned on or off, the mixture should
be readjusted.

PILOT SAFETY AND 11
MULTI-ENGINE FUEL PUMP OPERATION

Cessna multi-engine, low wing airplanes utilize engine driven fuel pumps to
assist the continuous flow of fuel to the engine. As a general rule, the auxiliary
fuel pumps should be utilized under the following conditions:
1. Every takeoff.
2. Initial climb after takeoff (unless the operating handbook indicates that
it is not necessary).
3. When switching the fuel selector(s) from one tank to another.
4. Every approach and landing.
5. Anytime the fue! pressure is fluctuating and the engine is affected by
the fluctuation.
6. During hot weather, such as hot engine ground operation where fuel
vapor problems cause erratic engine operation.
7. High altitude. (For auxiliary fuel pump operation at high altitude
consult the operating handbook.)
8. If the engine driven fuel pump should fail.
9. On some twins when using the auxiliary fuel tanks.
If the auxiliary fuel pump is used during ground operations, such as hot day
engine starts or purging fuel vapor, pilots should check the condition of the
engine driven fuel pump before takeoff by turning the auxiliary fuel pump OFF
briefly, and then back ON for takeoff. If the engine driven fuel pump has failed,
the engine will not continue to operate.
If the battery or master switch is on while an engine is stopped on the ground

or in flight, the cylinder intake ports can become flooded if the auxiliary fuel
pump is turned on. If this situation occurs in excess of 60 seconds, the
cylinders must be purged as follows:
1. With the auxiliary fuel pump OFF, allow the induction manifold to drain
at least five minutes or until fuel ceases to flow from the drains on the
bottom of the engine.
2. If natural draining has occurred, ensure that the auxiliary fuel pump is
OFF, the magnetos or ignition switch is OFF, the mixture is in IDLE
CUT-OFF, and the throttle is FULL OPEN, then turn the engine with
the starter .
3. If natural draining has not occurred, perform maintenance as required.
A mandatory service bulletin (MEB88-3) was issued to replace the automatic

fuel pressure sensing and the cockpit auxiliary fuel pump switches for each
engine with three-position lever lock type toggle switches. These modifications
provide direct pilot activation of the auxiliary fuel pumps.
On low wing multi-engine airplanes (except model 310, 310A, and 310B, which
are not affected by this change), the switches are labeled AUX PUMP, L (left
engine) and R (right engine) and switch positions are labeled LOW, OFF, and
HIGH. The LOW position operates the auxiliary fuel pumps at low pressure

11 PILOT SAFETY AND
FUEL PUMP OPERATION WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
and can be used, when required, to provide supplementary fuel pressure for all
normal operations. The switches are OFF in the middle position. The HIGH
position is reserved for emergency operation, and operates the pumps at high
pressure. The switches are locked out of the HIGH position and the switch
toggle must be pulled to clear the lock before it can be moved to the HIGH
setting. The toggle need not be pulled to return the switch to OFF.
The LOW position of the auxiliary fuel pump switches should be used
whenever an original manualhandbook or checklist procedure specifies either
LOW (PRIME, in 310C, 31OD, 310F, 310G, 310H, 320, and 320A.) or ON. The
LOW position is also used anytime there are indications of vapor, as evidenced
by fluctuating fuel flow. Auxiliary fuel pumps, if needed, are to be operated on
LOW in all conditions except when an engine driven fuel pump fails.
The HIGH position supplies sufficient fuel flow to sustain partial engine power
and should be used solely to sustain the operation of an engine in the event its
engine driven fuel pump fails. Failure of an engine driven fuel pump will be
evidenced by a sudden reduction in the fuel flow indication immediately prior to
a loss of power while operating from a fuel tank containing adequate fuel. In
an emergency, where loss of an engine driven fuel pump is involved, pull the
applicable auxiliary fuel pump switch to clear the lock and select the HIGH
position. Then adjust the throttle and mixture controls to obtain satisfactory
operation. At high manifold pressure and RPM, auxiliary fuel pump output may
not be sufficient for normal engine operation. In this case, reduce manifold
pressure to a level compatible with the indicated fuel flow. At low power
settings, the mixture may have to be leaned for smooth engine operation. If
HIGH auxiliary pump output does not restore adequate fuel flow, a fuel leak
may exist. The auxiliary pump should be shut off and the engine secured.
If the auxiliary fuel pump switches are placed in the HIGH position with the
engine-driven fuel pump(s) operating normally, total loss of engine power may
occur due to flooding.
When performing single engine operations, the auxiliary fuel pump of the
engine to be shutdown should be turned OFF prior to any intentional engine
shutdown, to preclude fuel accumulation in the engine intake system.
In models 310, 310A, and 31 OB. which are equipped with pressure type
carburetors, the electric fuel boost pumps in the tanks provide a positive fuel
flow as emergency pumps in the event of failure of the engine driven fuel
pumps. They also provide fuel pressure for priming and starting. The boost
pumps are operated by two electric switches, and the up position is ON.
Always take off and land with these pumps turned ON. Anytime the boost
pumps are turned on without the engines running, mixture controls must be in
the idle cut-off position to prevent flooding the intake manifolds.

PILOT SAFETY AND 11
CENTERUNE THRUST TWINS (FUEL PUMP

OPERATION)
The auxiliary fuel pumps on the centerline thrust models (336 and 337
Skymaster) are controlled by two split rocker type switches. The switches are
labeled AUX PUMPS and F ENGINE R. One side of each switch is red and is
labeled HI. The other side is yellow and is labeled LO. The LO side operates
the pumps at low speed, and if desired, can be used for starting or vapor
suppression. The HI side operates the pumps at high speed, supplying
sufficient fuel How to maintain adequate power in the event of an engine driven
fuel pump failure. In addition, the HI side may be used for normal engine
starts, vapor elimination in flight, and inflight engine starts.
When the engine driven fuel pump is functioning and the auxiliary fuel pump is
placed in the HI position, a fuel/air ratio considerably richer than best power is
produced unless the mixture is leaned. Therefore, these switches must be
turned OFF during takeoff or landing, and during all other normal flight
conditions. With the engine stopped and the battery switch ON, the cylinder
intake ports can become flooded if the HI or LO side of the auxiliary fuel pump
switch is turned on.
In hot, high altitude conditions, or climb conditions that are conducive to fuel
vapor formation, it may be necessary to utilize the auxiliary fuel pumps to attain
or stabilize the fuel flow required for the type of climb being performed. Select
either the HI or LO position of the switches as required, and adjust the
mixtures to the desired fuel flow. If fluctuating fuel flow {greater than 5 Ibs/hr)
is observed, place the appropriate auxiliary fuel pump switch in the HI or LO
position as required to clear the fuel system of vapor. The auxiliary fuel pump
may be operated continuously in cruise, if necessary, but should be turned off
prior to descent. Each time the auxiliary fuel pump switches are turned on or
off. the mixtures should be readjusted.

PILOT SAFETY AND 12
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS
AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS
Many twin engine Cessna airplanes incorporate auxiliary fuel tanks to increase
range and endurance. These tanks are usually bladder type cells located
symmetrically in the outboard wing areas and contain no internal fuel pumps.
When selected, the fuel from these tanks is routed to the engine driven fuel
pump.
If the auxiliary fuel tanks are to be used, the pilot must first select main tank
(tip tank) fuel for at least 60 minutes of flight (with use of 40-gallon auxiliary fuel
tanks) or 90 minutes of flight (with use of 63-gallon auxiliary fuel tanks). This is
necessary to provide space in the main fuel tanks for vapor and fuel returned
from the engine driven fuel pumps when operating on the auxiliary fuel tanks.
If sufficient space is not available in the main tanks for this returned fuel, the
tanks can overflow through the overboard fuel vents. Since part of the fuel
from the auxiliary fuel tanks is diverted back to the main tanks instead of being
consumed by the engines, the auxiliary tanks will empty sooner than may be
anticipated. However, the main tank volume or quantity will be increased by
the returned fuel.
The fuel supply in the auxiliary fuel tanks is intended for use during cruise flight
only. The shape of the auxiliary fuel tanks is such that during certain flight
maneuvers, the fuel will move away from the fuel tank outlet. If the outlet is
uncovered while feeding the engine, fuel flow to the engine will be interrupted
and a temporary loss of power may result. Because of this, operation from the
auxiliary fuel tanks is not recommended below 1000 feet AGL.
An optional auxiliary fuel tank may be installed on some centerline thrust twins
(336 and 337 Skymaster). The system consists of two tanks, each containing
18 gallons (108 pounds) usabie, one located in each inboard wing panel. The
tanks feed directly to the fuel selector valves. The left auxiliary tank provides
fuel to the front engine only and the right auxiliary tank provides fuel to the rear
engine only. Fuel quantity for the auxiliary tanks is read on the same fuel
quantity indicators used for the main fuel tanks. This is accomplished when
the fuel selector valve handles are turned to the AUXILIARY position. As each
selector valve handle is turned to this position, it depresses a gaging button,
labeled PUSH TO GAGE, located in the AUXILIARY quadrant of the fuel
selector valve placard. The depressed button actuates a microswitch and
electrically senses auxiliary fuel rather than main fuel quantity. Auxiliary fuel
quantity can be checked without changing the selector valve handle, by
depressing the PUSH TO GAGE button manually. Depressing the gaging
button, either manually or by rotating the selector valve handle to the
AUXILIARY position, will illuminate the amber AUX FUEL ON indicator lights
mounted above the engine instrument cluster. When fuel is being used from
the auxiliary fuel tanks, any excess fuel and vapor from the engine driven
pumps is returned to fuel line manifolds. The returned vapor passes through
the fuel line manifolds to the vent lines and is routed overboard. The excess

12 PILOT SAFETY AND
AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
fuel passes into the fuel line manifold and is returned to the engine driven
pumps.
On some early mode! Skymasters, fuel vapor from the engine driven fuel
pumps is returned to the main fuel tanks. When the selector valve handles are
in the AUXILIARY position, the left auxiliary tank feeds only the front engine
and the right auxiliary tank feeds only the rear engine. If the auxiliary lanks are
to be used, select fuel from the main tanks for 60 minutes prior to switching to
auxiliary tanks. This is necessary to provide space in the main tanks for vapor
and fuel returned from the engine driven fuel pumps when operating on
auxiliary tanks. On some models, auxiliary fuel boost pumps are not provided
for the auxiliary fuel tank. Therefore it is recommended to use the auxiliary
fuel tanks only in straight and level flight. When unsure of the type of auxiliary
tank installation, consult the operating handbook for the respective airplane.
A few single-engine airplanes contain an auxiliary fuel tank. The system's

main components include a fuel tank installed on the baggage compartment
floor and an electric fuel transfer pump. The auxiliary fuel system is plumbed
into the right main fuel tank.
To use the auxiliary fuel system, select the right wing fuel tank in cruise and
operate on that tank until the fuel tank has adequate room for the transfer of
auxiliary fuel. After selecting the left main tank, turn on the auxiliary fuel
transfer pump to refill the right main fuel tank irom the auxiliary tank. Transfer
will take from 45 minutes to 1 hour. Prior to transfer, ensure that adequate fue!
is available in the left tank to allow time for the auxiliary tank to transfer.
Do not operate the transfer pump with the fuel selector valve turned to either
the BOTH or RIGHT positions. Total or partial engine stoppage will result from
air being pumped into fuel lines after fuel transfer has been completed. If this
should occur the engine will restart in 3 to 5 seconds after turning off the
transfer pump, as the air in the fuel line will be evacuated rapidly.
After transfer is complete and the pump has been turned off, the selector may
be returned to BOTH or RIGHT. Takeoff, climb, and landing should always be
conducted with the selector in the BOTH position for maximum safety.
WING LOCKER FUEL TANK USAGE
Some twins may have wing locker fuel tanks installed in the forward portion of
each wing locker baggage area. These tanks are bladder type cells for
storage of extra fuel to supplement the main tank fuel quantity. The fuel in
these tanks cannot be fed directly to the engines. Instead, it has to be
transferred to the main tanks by wing locker fuel transfer pumps. Fuel transfer
should begin as soon as adequate volume is available in the main fuel tanks to
hold the wing locker fuel. Waiting until the main tanks are low before
transferring wing locker fuel does not allow early recognition of possible failure
to transfer.

PILOT SAFETY AND 12
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS
If wing locker fuel is to be used, consult the operating handbook for the
quantity of main tank fuel which must first be used in the respective main tank
for the transferred wing locker fuel. This will prevent overflowing of the main
tank(s) when transferring the wing locker fuel.
Wing locker fuel transfer pump switches are provided to manually control the
transfer of the wing locker fuel to the main tanks. These switches should be
turned ON only to transfer fuel and turned OFF when indicator lights illuminate
to show that fuel has been transferred. The transfer pumps use the fuel in the
wing locker tank for lubrication and cooling. Therefore, transfer pump
operation after fuel transfer is complete will shorten the life of the pump. Fuel
should be cross fed. as required, to maintain fuel balance.

PILOT SAFETY AND 13
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS INSTRUMENT POWER
INSTRUMENT POWER
VACUUM POWER FAILURES
Many airplanes may be equipped with some type of back-up vacuum system
for operation in the event the primary vacuum system becomes inoperative in
(light. The backup system may be in the form of another engine-driven
vacuum pump, in parallel with the primary pump, or an electric standby
vacuum pump, also in parallel with the primary pump, or both. If a back-up
system is not available and the attitude and directional indicators are disabled,
the pilot must rely on partial instrument panel operation. This may include
using the electrically-powered turn coordinator or turn and bank indicator and
the magnetic compass, altimeter, airspeed indicator, and rate of climb
indicator.
A suction gage, and in some airplanes a low-vacuum warning light, provides a

means of monitoring the vacuum system for proper operation in flight.
Operating handbooks reflect a desired suction range during normal operation
of the airplane. A suction reading outside of this range may indicate a system
malfunction, and in this case, the vacuum driven instruments should not be
considered reliable. Whenever operation of the airplane's vacuum system is in
doubt, land when practical for repairs.
In the event of a directional indicator and attitude indicator failure due to

vacuum failure, the pilot must rely on partial instrument panel operation using
the remaining instruments. VFR operations can generally be conducted
satisfactorily without the vacuum instruments. However, instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) can be considerably more challenging. An
instrument rated pilot should stay current on partial panel flying skills but both
VFR and IFR pilots should maintain VFR conditions if a vacuum failure occurs
while clear of clouds. All pilots should become familiar with the following
procedure for executing a 180° turn in clouds with the aid of either the turn
coordinator or the turn and bank indicator.
Upon inadvertently entering clouds, maintain control of the aircraft. If it is

desired to turn back out of the clouds, the following action should be
employed:
1. Note the compass heading.

2. Note the time in both minutes and seconds.
3. When the seconds indicate the nearest half minute, initiate a standard
rate left turn, holding the turn coordinator or turn and bank indicator (if
installed) symbolic airplane wing opposite the lower left index mark for
60 seconds. Then roll back to level flight by leveling the miniature
airplane.
4. Check accuracy of turn by observing the compass heading which
should be the reciprocal of the original heading.

13 PILOT SAFETY AND
INSTRUMENT POWER WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
5. If necessary, adjust heading primarily with skidding motions rather

than rolling motions so that the compass will read more accurately.
6. Maintain altitude and airspeed by cautious application of elevator
control. Avoid over controlling by keeping the hands off the control
wheel as much as possible and steering only with the rudder.
If conditions dictate, a descent through a cloud deck to VFR conditions may be

appropriate. To guard against a spiral dive, choose an easterly or westerly
heading to minimize compass card swings due to changing bank angles. In
addition, keep hands off the control wheel and steer a straight course with
rudder control by monitoring the turn coordinator. Occasionally check the
compass heading and make minor corrections to hold an approximate course.
Before descending into the clouds, set up a stabilized let-down conditions as
follows:
1. Extend landing gear (if applicable).

2. Enrichen the fuel mixture.
3. Use full carburetor heat (it applicable).
4. Reduce power to set up a 500 to 800 ft min rate of descent.
5. Adjust the elevator trim and rudder trim (if installed) for a stabilized
descent at 5 to 20 knots above the best glide speed for the airplane.
6. Keep hands off the control wheel.
7. Monitor turn coordinator and make corrections by rudder alone.
8. Check trend of compass card movement and make cautious
corrections with rudder to stop the turn.
9. Upon breaking out of clouds, resume normal cruise flight.
ELECTRICAL POWER FAILURES
Many operating handbooks have emergency procedures for partial or total loss
of electrical power in flight. These procedures should be reviewed periodically
to remain knowledgeable of what to do in the event of an electrical problem.
The pilot should maintain control of the airplane and land when practical if an
electrical power loss is evident.
Early detection of an electrical power supply system malfunction can be

accomplished by periodically monitoring the ammeter and, if equipped, low-
voltage warning light. The cause of these malfunctions is difficult to determine
in flight. Common causes of alternator or generator failure are a broken drive
belt, alternator or generator drive, a defective alternator control unit or voltage
regulator or wiring. Problems of this nature constitute an electrical emergency
and should be addressed immediately.
If alternator power cannot be restored, and a second or back up alternator is

not available, the pilot must rely on the limited power of the battery only. Every
effort should be made to conserve electrical power for use with the most
essential equipment, such as communication and navigation radios, by turning
off or not using any non-essential equipment. Electric or electro-hydraulic
landing gear systems should be extended manually and flaps (if electrically

PILOT SAFETY AND 13
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS INSTRUMENT POWER
operated) should remain retracted during approach and landing to conserve

battery power, especially in instrument conditions.
If an electrical power loss is experienced, continued flight is possible but

should be terminated as soon as practical. Such things as fuel quantity and
engine temperature indicators and panel lights may no longer work. Hand-held
nav/comm radios and other such products are widely available and marketed
for just such a scenario; otherwise navigation by pilotage and appropriate loss
of communication procedures for the airspace involved should be conducted.
The pilot should always have a flashlight available for night flights.
LOSS OF PITOT/STATIC SOURCES

A thorough preflight inspection should reveal any blockage of the pitot tube,
drain hole, or static port on the ground to allow corrective action to be taken
prior to flight. Pilots should understand the various conditions and remedies
associated with a loss of pitot-static sources.
Pitot heat should be used whenever flying in visible moisture and the
temperature is near freezing. If airspeed is suspected to be in error while
flying in possible icing conditions with the pitot heat on, the pitot heat switch
should be cycled and the circuit breaker should be checked. If proper
operation cannot be restored, the airspeed indicator must be considered
unreliable.
If the pitot tube ram air inlet becomes blocked, the airspeed will drop to zero.
If this blockage cannot be removed in fiight, the pilot must rely on pitch attitude
and power settings to maintain a safe airspeed. A slightly higher than normal
power setting should be used to maintain a reasonable margin of extra
airspeed on final.
When flying in clear ice conditions and pitot heat is unavailable, both the ram
air inlet and the pitot drain hole could become blocked. This will cause the
airspeed indicator to react like an altimeter, indicating a higher airspeed at
higher altitudes and a lower airspeed at lower altitudes. The airspeed indicator
must be ignored. A higher power setting appropriate to the overall icing
problem should be used during the landing phase.
Many light single engine airplanes equipped with pitot heat may not be
equipped with static source heat. If the static source becomes blocked, the
airspeed indicator will still function, but will give erroneous indications. If the
airplane climbs after the blockage occurs, the airspeed indicator will indicate
lower than normal. If the airplane descends after the blockage occurs, the
airspeed will indicate higher than actual. During the landing phase, this
condition could deceive the pilot into thinking the airspeed is too high. The
altimeter and vertical speed indicator will also be affected by a static source
blockage. The altimeter will not indicate a change of altitude and the vertical
speed indicator will indicate zero airspeed. Neither instrument will reflect any
altitude changes.

13 PILOT SAFETY AND
INSTRUMENT POWER WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
Many airplanes are equipped with an alternate static air source vented within
the cabin area. If static port blockage is suspected, the alternate static source
should be selected. The cabin pressure will be slightly lower than ambient air,
but will provide a reasonable level of accuracy to the pitot static system. With
slightly less dense air in the cabin, the airspeed indicator and altimeter will
both show slightly higher than normal indications.
If the airplane is not equipped with an alternate static source, and pitot/static
instruments are essential for continued flight, the glass on the vertical speed
indicator may be broken to provide cabin air to the static system lines. The
vertical speed indicator will no longer be reliable, but the airspeed indicator
and altimeter will be functional again, with slightly higher than normal
indications.
GYRO SPIN UP AND SPIN DOWN

Gyro instruments, such as attitude and directional indicators, contain a high
speed rotor assembly driven by either electric or vacuum power. These
instruments normally operate at very high RPM and can take up to 10 minutes
or more to spin down after power is removed. Although some gyro
instruments have a "quick erect" mechanism to permit manual erection of the
rotor, which effectively minimizes time required before use, some gyro
instruments still require up to 5 minutes or more to spin up and stabilize after
power is applied. During this spin up or spin down time, the gyro instruments
should not be considered reliable. A failed gyro can be detected by first
checking the suction gage and, if available, low-voltage or low-vacuum lights
as applicable and, second, checking for slow or erratic indications of the gyro
instruments by cross-referencing with other flight instruments for contradictory
indications.
FAILED GYRO EFFECT ON AUTOPILOT

Some autopilot systems receive roll and'or yaw rate inputs from the
electrically-driven turn coordinator or turn and bank indicator. Other autopilot
systems depend on vacuum-driven attitude and directional indicators for
horizontal and azimuth reference. If a failure should occur in any of these
instruments, the autopilot should be turned off. Random signals generated by
a malfunctioning gyro could cause the autopilot to position the airplane in an
unusual attitude. Use of the autopilot after a gyro failure may result in an out
of trim condition. Be prepared to correct for this when turning off the autopilot.

PILOT SAFETY AND 14
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS ALTERNATE AIR SYSTEM
ALTERNATE AIR SYSTEM
An alternate source of air is provided to ensure satisfactory engine operation in

the event the normal induction air filter or air inlet becomes obstructed.
Although alternate air controls vary from one airplane to another, the types are:
carburetor heat, direct manual control, automatic control, or a combination of
automatic and manual controls. In most cases, the alternate air is extracted
from inside the engine cowling and is. therefore, unfiltered and hotter than
normal induction air. A loss of power will be caused by the hotter air. The
richer mixture may require adjustment of the mixture control. Consult the
applicable airplane operating handbook for details concerning the use of the
alternate air system.
CARBURETOR HEAT AND INDUCTION ICING
Carburetor heat and manually operated alternate air valve(s) are controlled by
the pilot. The carburetor heat system uses unfiltered air from inside the engine
cowling. This air is drawn into a shroud around an exhaust riser or muffler and
then ducted to the carburetor heat valve in the induction air manifold. The
carburetor heat valve is controlled by the pilot and should be used during
suspected or known carburetor icing conditions. Carburetor heat may also be
used as an alternate air source should the induction air inlet or induction air
filter become blocked for any reason.
The use of full carburetor heat at full throttle usually results in a 1 to 2 inch loss
of manifold pressure or a loss of approximately 150 RPM, depending upon the
airplane model. Application or removal of carburetor heat at higher power
settings may require adjustment of the fuel mixture. It may be impractical to
lean the mixture under low engine power conditions.
When a go-around or balked landing is initiated after use of carburetor heat

during the landing approach, the pilot should usually advance the throttle first,
then move the carburetor heat to off or cold. The throttle application must be
smooth and positive. Rapid throttle advancement in some icing conditions
could result in the engine failing to respond and the loss of power could
become critical because of the low altitude and low airspeed.
When the relative humidity is more than 50 percent and the ambient air
temperature is between 20°F to 90°F, it is possible for ice to form inside the
carburetor, since the temperature of the air passing through the venturi may
drop as much as 60° F below the ambient air temperature. If not corrected, ice
accumulation may cause complete engine stoppage.
A drop in engine RPM on fixed pitch propeller airplanes and a drop in engine
manifold pressure on constant speed propeller airplanes are indications of

14 PILOT SAFETY AND
ALTERNATE AIR SYSTEM WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
carburetor ice. If the airplane is equipped with a carburetor air temperature

gage, the possibility of carburetor ice may be anticipated and prevented by
maintaining the recommended amount of heat during cruise and letdown.
Without the indications of a carburetor air temperature gage for reference, a
pilot should use only the full heat or full cold position. An unknown amount of
partial heat can cause carburetor ice. This can occur when ice that would
ordinarily pass through the induction system is melted by partial carburetor
heat and the water droplets then refreeze upon contact with the cold metal of
the throttle plate. A carburetor air temperature gage may allow partial
carburetor heat use, resulting in less power loss.
ALTERNATE AIR FOR FUEL INJECTED ENGINE

ICING
Either an automatic alternate air system, a manually controlled alternate air

system, or a combination automatic and manual system are incorporated on
most fuel injected engines to address the potential of a blocked air induction
system.
On engines equipped with automatic alternate air, ram air from the engine
cowling inlet enters an air filter, which removes dust and other foreign matter
that would be harmful to the engine. If the air inlet or the induction air filter
should become blocked, suction created by the engine will open an alternate
air door, allowing air to be admitted from either inside or outside the cowling,
depending upon the airplane model. This air bypasses the filter and will result
in a slight decrease in full throttle manifold pressure on non-turbocharged
engines, and a notable decrease in manifold pressure from the selected cruise
power setting on turbocharged engines. This manifold pressure may be
recoverable, up to a particular altitude, with throttle and'Or RPM adjustment.
The alternate air doors should be kept closed on the ground to prevent engine
damage caused by ingesting debris through the unfiltered air ducts. For
details concerning a specific model, consult the airplane operating handbook.
Most twin engine airplanes have a manually controlled alternate air door in
each engine induction air system. If a decrease in manifold pressure is
experienced when flying in icing conditions, the alternate air doors should be
manually opened. On most twins, this manual control has two positions.
When fully in, normal filtered ram air is provided; when fully out, warm
unfiltered air from inside the cowling is provided. Other twins have alternate air
controls with an additional intermediate or center detent to provide cool,
unfiltered ram air to the induction system in the event the induction air filter is
blocked by matter other than ice.

PILOT SAFETY AND 14
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS ALTERNATE AIR SYSTEM
Since the higher intake air temperature of the alternate air results in a
decrease in engine power and turbocharger capability, it is recommended that
the alternate induction air not be utilized until indications of induction air
blockage (decreased manifold pressure) are actually observed.
If additional power is required, the pilot should increase RPM as required,

move the throttles forward to maintain desired manifold pressure and readjust
the fuel mixture controls as required. These recommendations do not replace
the procedure in the airplane operating handbook.
Although most pilots are aware of the potential of carburetor to icing, many
may think that a fuel injected engine is not subject to induction icing. Although
a fuel injected engine will not form carburetor ice, other parts of the induction
system such as bends in the system or the air filter can gather ice. Slush
and'or snow can block the induction air filter. Induction air blockage can cause
loss of manifold pressure or engine stoppage.

PILOT SAFETY AND 15
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS CARBON MONOXIDE
CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless product of an internal

combustion engine and is always present in exhaust fumes. Even minute
quantities of carbon monoxide breathed over a long period of time may lead to
dire consequences. Carbon monoxide has a greater ability to combine with
the blood than oxygen. Once carbon monoxide is absorbed in the blood, it
prevents the oxygen from being absorbed.
The symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning are difficult to detect by the

person afflicted and may include blurred thinking, a feeling of uneasiness,
dizziness, headache, and loss of consciousness. If any o( these symptoms
occur, immediately open all cabin vents and turn the cabin heater off. Land as
soon as possible at the nearest airport and seek medical attention if needed.
HEATER OPERATION
Many cabin heaters in general aviation airplanes operate by allowing ambient
air to flow through an exhaust shroud where it is heated before being ducted
into the cabin. Therefore, if anyone in the cabin smells exhaust fumes when
using the cabin heater, immediately turn off the cabin heater and open all
cabin vents. Land as soon as possible at the nearest airport and seek medical
attention if needed.
WINDOW VENTILATION
If carbon monoxide is suspected in the cabin at any time, it is imperative that
immediate ventilation be initiated, including the opening of cabin windows.
Observe the maximum speed for window opening in flight. Opening a cabin
window is probably the best means of ventilating the cabin while on the
ground. However, care should be taken when parked with engine(s) operating
or when in the vicinity of other airplanes that have their engines running. The
exhaust gases from your airplane or the other airplane could enter the cabin
through the open window. Also, engine exhaust could be forced into the cabin
area during taxi operations or when taxiing downwind.

15 PILOT SAFETY AND
CARBON MONOXIDE WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
PRESSURIZED AIRPLANES
Refer to the operating handbook and/or approved flight manual for appropriate
ventilation procedures.

PILOT SAFETY AND 16
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS TURBOCHARGER
TURBOCHARGER
When operating turbocharged engines, any power increases should be

accomplished by increasing the propeller RPM first, then increasing the
manifold pressure. Power reductions should be accomplished by reducing the
manifold pressure first, then the RPM.
During cold weather operation, care should be exercised to insure that

overboost does not occur during takeoff as a result of congealed oil in the
waste gate actuating system. Before takeoff engine checks should not be
accomplished until oil temperature is at least 75 °F (minimum approved
operating limit). Takeoff should not be started unti! oil temperature is above
100cF and oil pressure below 100 psi to assure proper oil flow to the
turbocharger and its actuating system. Monitor manifold pressure during
takeoff so as not to exceed specified takeoff limits. Advance the throttle
slowly, pausing momentarily at approximately 30" MP to permit turbine speed
to stabilize, then gradually open the throttle to obtain takeoff manifold pressure.
Prior to engine shut down, operate the engine at idle RPM for approximately 5
minutes to allow the turbocharger to coo! and slow down. This reduces the
possibility of turbine bearing coking caused by oil breakdown. This 5 minutes
may be calculated from landing touchdown.
During pilot training, simulated engine out operation requiring the engine be
shut down by closing the mixture should be held to an absolute minimum.
TURBOCHARGER FAILURE
The turbocharger system's purpose is to elevate manifold pressure and thus

engine power to a level higher than can be obtained without it. A failure of the
system will cause either an overboost condition or some degree of power loss.
An overboost can be determined on the manifold pressure instrument and can
be controlled by a throttle reduction.
If turbocharger failure results in power loss, it may be further complicated by

an overly rich mixture. This rich mixture condition may be so severe as to
cause a total power failure. Leaning the mixture may restore partial power.
Partial or total power loss may also be caused by an exhaust system leak. A
landing should be made as soon as practical for either an overboost or
partial'total power loss.

PILOT SAFETY AND 17
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS IN-FLIGHT FIRES
IN-FLIGHT FIRES
FIRES IN FLIGHT
A preflight checklist is provided to aid the pilot in detecting conditions which

could contribute to an airplane fire. Fiight should not be attempted with known
fuel, oil. or exhaust leaks, since they can lead to a fire. The presence of fuel
or unusual oil or exhaust stains may be an indication of system leaks and
should be corrected prior to flight.
Fires in flight must be controlled as quickly as possible by identifying and

shutting down the affected system{s). then extinguishing the fire. Until this
process is complete, the pilot should assume the worst and initiate action for
an immediate landing. A pilot must not become distracted by the fire to the
point that control o( the airplane is lost. The pilot must be able to complete a
deductive analysis of the situation to determine the source of the fire.
Complete familiarity with the airplane and its systems will prove invaluable
should a fire occur.
ENGINE COMPARTMENT FIRES
An engine compartment fire is usually caused by fuel contacting a hot surface,

an electrical short, bleed air teak, or exhaust leak. If an engine compartment
fire occurs on a single engine airplane, the first step should be to shut off the
fuel supply to the engine by placing the mixture to idle cut off and the fuel
selector shutoff valve to the OFF position. The ignition switch should be left
ON in order for the engine to use up the fuel which remains in the fuel lines
and components between the fuel selector shutoff valve and the engine. The
airplane should be put into a sideslip, which will tend to keep the flames away
from the occupants and the fuel tanks. If this procedure is ineffective, the pilot
must make the most rapid emergency descent possible and an immediate
landing.
In multi-engine airplanes, both auxiliary fuel pumps should be turned off to

reduce pressure in the total fuel system (each auxiliary fuel pump pressurizes
a crossfeed line to the opposite fuel selector). If equipped, the emergency
crossfeed shutoff should also be activated. The engine on the wing in which
the fire exists should be shut down and its fuel selector positioned to OFF
even though the fire may not have originated in the fuel system. The cabin
heater draws fuel from the crossfeed system on some airplanes, and should
be turned off as well. The engine compartment fire extinguisher should be
discharged if the airplane is so equipped.
An open foul weather window or emergency exit may produce a low pressure
in the cabin. To avoid drawing the fire into the cabin area, the foul weather

17 PILOT SAFETY AND
IN-FLIGHT FIRES WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
window, emergency exits, or any openable windows should be kept closed.

This condition is aggravated on some models, with the landing gear and wing
flaps extended. Therefore, it is recommended to lower the landing gear as
late in the landing approach as possible. A no flap landing should also be
attempted, if practical.
ELECTRICAL FIRES
The initial indication of an electrical fire is usually the distinct odor of burning
insulation. Once an electrical fire is detected, the pilot should attempt to
identify the effected circuit by checking circuit breakers, instruments, avionics,
etc. If the affected circuit cannot be readily detected and flight conditions
permit, the battery master switch and alternator switch(es) should be turned
OFF to remove the possible sources of the fire. If at night, ensure the
availability of a flashlight before turning off electrical power. Then, close off
ventilating air as much as practical to reduce the chances of a sustained fire.
If an oxygen system is available in the airplane and no visible signs of flame
are evident, occupants should use oxygen until smoke clears.
If electrical power is essential for the flight, an attempt may be made to identify
and isolate the effected circuit by turning the Master Switch and other electrical
(except magneto) switches off and checking the condition of the circuit
breakers to identify the affected circuit. If the circuit can be readily identified,
leave it deactivated and restore power to the other circuits. If the circuit cannot
be readily identified, turn the Master Switch on, and select switches that were
on before the fire indication, one at a time, permitting some time to elapse
after each switch is turned on, until the short circuit is identified. Make sure
the fire is completely extinguished before opening vents. Land as soon as
possible for repairs.
CABIN FIRES
Fire or smoke in the cabin should be controlled by identifying and shutting

down the affected system, which is most likely to be electrical in nature, and
landing as soon as possible. Smoke may be removed by opening the cabin
air controls. However, if the smoke increases in intensity when the air controls
are opened, they should be closed as this indicates a possible fire in the
heating system, nose compartment baggage area, or that the increase in
airflow is aggravating this condition.
In pressurized airplanes, the pressurization air system will remove smoke from
the cabin. However, if the smoke is intense, it may be necessary to either
depressurize at altitude, if oxygen is available for all occupants, or execute an
emergency descent to 10.000 feet, terrain permitting. "Ram Air Dump" handle
may be pulled to aid the clearing of smoke from the cabin.

PILOT SAFETY AND 17
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS IN-FLIGHT FIRES
The pilot may choose to expel the smoke through the foul weather window(s).
The foul weather window(s) should be closed immediately if the fire becomes
more intense when the window(s) are opened. If smoke is severe, and there
are no visible signs of flame, use oxygen masks (if installed) and begin an
immediate descent.
If a fire extinguisher is used, ventilate the cabin promptly after extinguishing the
fire to reduce the gases produced by thermal decomposition. If the fire cannot
be extinguished immediately, land as soon as possible.

PILOT SAFETY AND 18
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS IN-FLIGHT OPENING OF DOORS
IN-FLIGHT OPENING OF DOORS
The occurrence of an inadvertent door opening is not as great of a concern to

the safety of the flight, as the pilot's reaction to the opening. If the pilot is
overly distracted, loss of airplane control may result even though disruption of
airflow by the door is minimal. While the shock of a sudden loud noise and
increase in sustained noise level may be surprising, mental preparation for this
event and a plan of action can eliminate inappropriate pilot reaction.
INADVERTENT OPENING OF BAGGAGE/CARGO

DOORS
The flight characteristics of an airplane will not normally be affected by an
open baggage or cargo door. The aerodynamic effects on an open door can
vary, depending on the location of the door on the airplane and the method
used to hinge the door in relation to the slipstream. Baggage, cargo doors
mounted on the side of the aft fuselage and hinged at the front will tend to stay
in a nearly closed position at most airspeeds and pose no special problems as
long as the airplane is not in uncoordinated flight in a direction which would
permit unsecured baggage to fall out of the airplane. Because of the door
location and the presence of baggage in the immediate area, the door may not
be accessible for closing in flight. Passengers, especially children, should
never be allowed to occupy the baggage portion of the cabin for the purpose
of closing the door in flight. The pilot should slow the airplane to minimize
buffeting of the door and land as soon as practical.
Top hinged baggage/cargo doors will react differently than front hinged doors if
improperly latched before takeoff. Doors of this type, may pop open at rotation
because of the increase in angle of attack and the slipstream pushing
underneath the edge of the unsecured door. After the initial opening, a
baggage door will generally tend to stay open and then may gently close as
speed is reduced and the aircraft is configured for landing (the doors will
probably tend to open again during flair). A top hinged door on the side of the
aft fuselage of a high wing airplane can sometimes be moved to a nearly
closed position by lowering the wing flaps full down (within approved airspeed
limitations) so that wing downwash will act upon the door. Unlatched nose
baggage doors and large cargo doors on the side of the aft fuselage cannot
be closed in flight and a landing should be made as soon as practical. The
pilot should avoid any abrupt airplane maneuvers in multi-engine airplanes with
an open nose baggage door, as this could throw loose objects out of the
baggage compartment and into the propeller.

18 PILOT SAFETY AND
IN-FLIGHT OPENING OF DOORS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
Front hinged wing locker doors in the aft part of the engine nacelle of multi-
engine airplanes will likely trail open a few inches if they become unlatched.
Near stall speed just prior to landing, an unlatched door may momentarily float
to a full open position.
If a door comes open on takeoff and sufficient runway remains for a safe abort,
the airplane should be stopped. If the decision is made to continue the
takeoff, maintain required airspeed and return for landing as soon as practical.
INADVERTENT OPENING OF CABIN/EMERGENCY

EXIT DOORS (UNPRESSURIZED)
If a cabin or emergency exit door should inadvertently open during

unpressurized flight, the primary concern should be directed toward
maintaining control of the airplane. Then, if a determination is made to close
the door in flight, establish a safe altitude, trim the airplane at a reduced
airspeed, and attempt to close the door. To facilitate closing the door, slide
the adjacent seat aft slightly to obtain a better grasp of the door handle. The
door handle must be in the close position prior to pulling the door closed,
followed by rotating the handle to the locked position. Under no circumstances
should the pilot leave his her seat, or unfasten the restraint system to secure a
door.
If a cabin door reopens when latched closed, the flight should be terminated
as soon as practical and repairs made.
INADVERTENT OPENING OF CABIN/EMERGENCY

EXIT DOORS (PRESSURIZED)
An inadvertent opening of a cabin/emergency exit door while the cabin is

pressurized and the aircraft is above 12,500 feet, will require the use of
supplemental oxygen or an emergency descent to an altitude below 12,500
feet. The pilot may attempt to close the door after ensuring that all occupants
are using supplemental oxygen or the cabin altitude is below 10,000 feet.
However, the primary concern should be maintaining control of the airplane.
The flight should be terminated as soon as practical and the cause of the door
opening determined before pressurized flight is continued. Under no
circumstances should the pilot leave his-'her seat, or unfasten the restraint
system to secure a door.

PILOT SAFETY AND 19
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS MAINTENANCE
MAINTENANCE
Airplanes require inspection and maintenance on a regular basis as outlined in

the operating handbook, service/maintenance manuals, other servicing
publications, and in Federal Aviation Regulations. A good visual inspection is a
continuing maintenance procedure and should be performed by anyone who is
involved with an airplane. This includes pilots, line personnel, and the
maintenance department. When worn or damaged parts are discovered, it is
essential that the defective parts be repaired or replaced to assure all systems
remain operational. The source of information for proper maintenance is the
airplane Service'Maintenance Manual and Service Letters or Service Bulletins.
Cessna's Service''Maintenance Manuals are occasionally revised. Maintenance
personnel should follow the recommendations in the latest revision. The
owner/operator must ensure that all unacceptable conditions are corrected and
the airplane receives repetitive and required inspections.
UNAUTHORIZED REPAIRS/MODIFICATIONS
All repair facilities and personnel should follow established repair procedures.
Cessna does not support modifications to Cessna airplanes, whether by
Supplemental Type Certificate or otherwise, unless those modifications are
approved by Cessna. Such modifications may void any and all warranties on
the airplane, since Cessna may not know the full effects on the overall airplane.
Cessna has not tested and approved all such modifications by other
companies. Operating procedures and performance data specified in the
operating handbook and maintenance procedures specified in the
service/Maintenance Manual may no longer be accurate for the modified
airplane. Operating procedures, maintenance procedures and performance
data that are effected by modifications not approved by Cessna should be
obtained from the STC owner.
AIRWORTHINESS OF OLDER AIRPLANES

For an airplane to remain airworthy and safe to operate, it should be operated
in accordance with Cessna recommendations and cared for with sound
inspection and maintenance practices.
An aging airplane needs more care and attention during maintenance

processes and may require more frequent inspection of structural components
for damage due to the effects of wear, deterioration, fatigue, environmental
exposure, and accidental damage. Typical areas requiring more frequent
inspection are:

19 PILOT SAFETY AND
MAINTENANCE WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
1. Wing attach points and fuselage carry-through structure.

2. Wing spar capstrips, especially the lower ones.
3. Horizontal and vertical stabilizer attach points and spar structure.
4. Control surface structure and attach points.
5. Engine mounts, beams, and cowlings.
6. Landing gear structure and attach points.
7. Structural and flooring integrity of seat and equipment attachments.
8. Pressurized structures, especially around all doors, windows,
windshields and other cutouts on pressurized airplanes.
9. Exhaust and cabin heater systems.
The final responsibility for airplane care rests with the owner/operator. All
airplane owners/operators should use the following steps as a minimum
guideline to ensure continued airworthiness of their airplanes:
1. Always follow recommended maintenance and inspection procedures.

2. Recognize that corrosion, overloading, or damage to structure can
drastically shorten fatigue life.
3. Comply with all applicable Service Bulletins, Service Letters, and FAA
Airworthiness Directives.
4. Use one of Cessna's Progressive Care Inspection and maintenance
programs to get the maximum utilization of your airplane at a minimum
cost and downtime.
CORROSION
Corrosion can cause structural failure if left unchecked. The appearance of the
corrosion varies with the metal. On aluminum and magnesium, it appears as
surface pitting and etching, often combined with a grey or white powdery
deposit. On copper and copper alloys the corrosion forms a greenish oxide
and on steel, a reddish rust. When grey, white, green or red deposits are
removed, each of the surfaces may appear etched and pitted, depending upon
the length of exposure and severity of the attack. If the damage is not too
deep, it may not significantly alter the strength of the metal. However, the pits
may become sites for crack development. Some types of corrosion can travel
beneath surface coatings and spread until the part fails.
Remove corrosion as soon as possible because it attacks and holds moisture

in contact with the metal, which causes more corrosion to form. Every visible
trace must be removed by some mechanical or chemical means. The surface
must then be chemically treated to form a film which prevents oxygen or
moisture from contacting the surface. Then, the protective surface (paint) must
be restored.
There are several different types of corrosion and different ways of detecting it
in its early stages. Uniform surface corrosion is the most common type of
corrosion. When an area of unprotected metal is exposed to the atmosphere,
there will be a uniform attack over the entire unprotected area. On a polished
Reissue ■ 1 June 1998

PILOT SAFETY AND 19
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS MAINTENANCE
surface, this type of corrosion is first seen as a general dulling of the surface.
If the corrosion is allowed to continue, the surface becomes rough and
possibly frosted in appearance.
If surface corrosion is allowed to go untreated, it can progress into the next

type of corrosion, called pitting. Pits form in localized areas and appear as
white or grey powdery deposits. Metal is converted to salts, and when
deposits are cleaned away, tiny pits or holes can be seen on the surface. If
allowed to continue, pitting can progress completely through the metal in
extreme cases.
Stress corrosion cracking is caused by the simultaneous effects of tensile

stress and corrosion. Stress may be either internal or applied. Residual stress
from the processes of heat treatment and forming, or sustained operating or
static loads, can lead to stress corrosion.
Fretting corrosion is corrosion damage between close fitting parts which are
allowed to rub together. It is the corrosive attack on one or both metals
because of chafing under a load. The results of fretting are removal or pitting
of the metal in the area of contact, galling, seizing, cracking or fatigue of the
metal, loss of tolerance in accurately fitted parts, and loosening of bolted or
clamped surfaces.
Corrosion is a universal problem that costs considerable amounts of time and

money. It is essential that each airplane owner maintain his or her airplane
based on the operating conditions, environment, and service experience.
Corrosion can be effectively prevented and or controlled if appropriate action is
taken early.
Reissue- 1 June 1998 3/(4 blank)

PILOT SAFETY AND 20
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS SEAT AND RESTRAINT SYSTEMS
SEAT AND RESTRAINT SYSTEMS
ADJUSTABLE SEAT ASSEMBLIES
Most Cessna manually-adjustable seats are suspended on two parallel, cabin

floor mounted seat tracks by roller assemblies which allow the seat to move
forward and rearward along the tracks. A series of holes are provided, usually
in the forward end of either or both seat tracks, to accommodate a mechanical
locking pin(s) which allows intermediate positioning and locking of the seat. To
prevent the seat from disengaging from the seat tracks when reaching the
ends, a mechanical seat stop is installed near both ends of the track(s).
Incidents of manually-adjustable seats slipping rearward or forward during

acceleration or deceleration of the airplane have been reported. The
investigations following these incidents have revealed discrepancies such as
gouged lockpin holes, bent lockpins, excessive clearance between seat rollers
and tracks, and missing seat stops, to name a few. Also, dust, dirt, and debris
accumulations on seat tracks and in the intermediate adjustment holes have
been found to contribute to the problem. A close check of each seat during
daily preflight. improved cabin cleanliness, and replacement of parts when
necessary will help prevent accidents involving seats. Visual checks of the
airplane should always include the cabin interior.
When inspections are made, examination of the following items is

recommended:
1. Check the seat assembly for structural integrity.

2. Inspect the roller assemblies for separation and wear.
3. Check the locking mechanism (actuating arm, linkage, locking pin or
pins) for wear.
4. Check all seat track stops for security and proper installation.
5. Inspect seat tracks for condition and security, and the locking pin
holes for wear, and dirt or debris accumulation.
6. Determine that the floor structure in the vicinity of the seat tracks is
not cracked or distorted.
7. Ensure that the secondary seat stop addressed in mandatory Service
Bulletin SEB89-32 is installed.
Damaged or worn parts are a potential hazard which should be immediately

repaired or replaced. Cessna recommends repair and/or replacement of
damaged components in accordance with the airplane's service or
maintenance publications and Service Bulletins.

20 PILOT SAFETY AND
SEAT AND RESTRAINT SYSTEMS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
RESTRAINT SYSTEMS
While performing the cabin portion of the daily preflight, it is recommended that
pilots check each restraint system installed in the airplane. This should include
a functional check of the restraint belt locking and releasing mechanism. If
new passengers or students are to be carried, it is a good practice to insist
that they operate the restraint system to become tamiliar with the procedures.
During inspections, maintenance personnel should check each restraint system

installation for serviceability in accordance with current publications applicable
to the airplane. Special attention should be given to restraint attachment points
and to the nylon bushing on the belt at the point where the shoulder restraint
harness attaches. Undetected cracks or broken connections could cause a
serious situation to develop when it is least expected. The restraint system
webbing should be inspected for degradation. Repair or replace the restraint
system per Cessna instructions if damage is detected.

PILOT SAFETY AND 21
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS EXHAUST AND FUEL SYSTEMS
EXHAUST AND FUEL SYSTEMS
THE ENGINE EXHAUST SYSTEM

The primary function of an engine exhaust system is to route exhaust gases
safely overboard. Other functions of the exhaust system may include use as
the driving source for a turbocharger turbine and/or use as a heat source for
carburetor and'or cabin heat requirements.
Heat and carbon monoxide are the unavoidable byproducts of all reciprocating
engine operations. The temperatures within the exhaust system of an engine
can exceed 1750°F. Consequently, if an exhaust leak should occur, heat
damage can occur to the engine mounting structure, and accessories such as
hoses, belts, wire bundles, etc. In some cases, the position of the leak could
lead to engine stoppage and'or an engine compartment fire.
An exhaust system leak can also lead to carbon monoxide poisoning. This
colorless, odorless, tasteless combustion byproduct is always present in
exhaust fumes. For this reason, special seals are provided wherever cables,
hoses, wire bundles, etc. pass through the engine firewall. For even greater
protection from carbon monoxide, special window, door, and fuselage seals
are installed. No leakage of exhaust into the cabin should be tolerated.
Exhaust systems should be checked for stains indicative of exhaust leaks at

cylinder heads or cracks in the exhaust or tailpipe. The condition and security
of the exhaust system in the area of the exhaust muffler shroud should be
checked. Any cracks or leaks in this area could be a source for exhaust to
enter the cabin.
ENGINE COMPARTMENT TEMPERATURES
High engine compartment temperatures can degrade the operational efficiency

of the engine and also accelerate the deterioration of engine components.
Several conditions could cause or contribute to a higher than normal engine
compartment temperature; however, improper operating techniques are found
to be the most common cause. Avoid excessive operation of an engine on the
ground. Prolonged ground operations should be done into the wind at rich
mixture settings. If the cowling has been removed for maintenance, cooling
airflow is poor and cylinder head temperature and oil temperature gages must
be monitored during engine runups.
On virtually all air-cooled reciprocating engines, the engine and engine

compartment are cooled by utilizing a pressure cooling baffle system with
airflow as the cooling medium. The condition of these baffles and their seals
is important.

21 PILOT SAFETY AND
EXHAUST AND FUEL SYSTEMS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
Baffles should be secure and baffle seals should be positioned in a direction

which would seal airflow around the engine baffles. Even a slight reduction in
cooling efficiency can cause the engine to operate hotter than normal, thus
increasing the potential for heat damaged components.
An inspection of the engine compartment, plus careful observation of the

engine temperatures during normal flight, can be of great assistance in
verifying the condition of the engine. If the pilot takes the time to record
engine temperatures on a regular basis, trends within the engine can be
detected early and corrected before a serious condition occurs.
HOSES AND WIRE HARNESS INTEGRITY

All fuel, oil, and hydraulic components should be checked for condition,
security and any evidence of leakage. All leaks should be repaired before
starting the engine.
As airplanes and engines age, there is a need to re-emphasize the inspection

or replacement requirements of engine hoses or lines that carry fuel, oil, or
hydraulic fluid. For newer Cessnas, a replacement requirement for hoses in
the engine compartment (except teflon lined) has been established at each 5
years or at engine overhaul, whichever occurs first. This is considered to
include "shelf" life. All hose manufactured for airplane use is marked
indicating the quarter-year in which they were manufactured. For instance, a
listing of "4Q85" means the hose was manufactured in the fourth quarter of
1985. Maintenance personnel should not use hoses with a high "shelf" life
age.
Like time, heat is always a detriment to hoses. The prudent pilot realizes
during the daily preflight, that an engine hose might look good, but if it is
wiggled, a telltale "crackle" may be heard. This means that the hose is brittle
and should be replaced. Also if he slides his hand over the back side of the
hose, he may find an abrasion or wear not visible from the front side.
Ignition leads'wire harnesses and spark plugs are also affected by excessive
heating in the engine compartment. Overheating of the spark plug barrels,
sometimes caused by damaged cylinder baffles or missing cooling air blast
tubes, may seriously deteriorate the ignition leads. Any overheating of a spark
plug by a defective baffle or exhaust gas leak at the exhaust pipe mounting
flange can generate temperatures sufficient to cause pre-ignition and piston
distress.

PILOT SAFETY AND 22
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR
RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR
The adjustment and rigging of a retractable landing gear system should be

done by trained maintenance personnel. Continued reliability of the landing
gear system is only possible if it is properly maintained in the prescribed
published manner. The rigging process must be performed exactly as
published in the Cessna Service/Maintenance Manual and Service Bulletins.
For complete emergency procedures concerning landing gear extension, refer
to the airplane operating handbook.

PILOT SAFETY AND 23
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS PRESSURIZED AIRPLANES
PRESSURIZED AIRPLANES
DOOR SECURITY
The conventional and air-stair doors on pressurized airplanes have a series of

pins, actuated by an overcenter locking handle, to maintain the door seal
during the pressurization cycle. Some air-stair doors are sealed by
pressurization air pressing against the cabin door windlace which covers the
door gap. Door security can be verified by visually checking the locking
indicator tor the door handle safety lock, in the case of single-engine airplanes,
and checking for correct locking indications provided in the door of multi-
engine airplanes. It is recommended that pilots check the locking pins and
door seals for cracks or damage during each preflight. Any damaged parts
should be repaired prior to pressurized flight.
WINDOWS AND WINDSHIELDS
The windows in pressurized airplanes are exposed to a fatigue cycle each time
the airplane is pressurized. These cycles could lead to fatigue cracks in and
around the windows. Windows should be inspected frequently for condition
and serviceability. Windows or windshields having replacement life limits
should be replaced prior to intervals defined in applicable service'maintenance
manuals.
The windows and windshields on pressurized airplanes are particularly

sensitive to crazing and scratches. Any crazing, cracks, or deep scratches
cannot be tolerated for pressurized flight. Consult the airplane's operating
manual when in doubt about the severity of the damage. Repairs should be
completed prior to pressurized flight.
THE PRESSURE VESSEL
There are significant structural differences between the fuselage of a non-

pressurized airplane and one which is pressurized. The pressure vessel is the
portion of the cabin area to be pressurized. Pressure differential is the
difference between the atmospheric pressure at the altitude at which the
airplane is flying and the pressure inside the cabin.
Any seam, joint, or hole where wire bundles or tubing pass through the
pressure vessel must be sealed to maintain the selected pressurization. If any
of these seats are deteriorated or missing, the normal cabin pressure
differential may be impossible to attain. Maintenance personnel should inspect
the pressure seals for serviceability. Any cracks in the skin of the pressure

23 PILOT SAFETY AND
PRESSURIZED AIRPLANES WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
vessel could lead to sudden depressurization. Maintenance personnel should

carefully inspect the pressure vessel for cracks, corrosion, and deterioration. .
Any damage should be corrected before pressurized flight.
If the airplane cabin is pressurized and it becomes necessary to use the

heated alternate induction air on both engines, the pressurization controls must
be selected OFF to preventing nacelle fumes from entering the cabin. The
cabin should be depressurized and maximum ventilation provided. Therefore,
if the flight altitude is above 10,000 feet, all occupants should use oxygen, if
available, or descent should be initiated.

PILOT SAFETY AND 24
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS POTENTIAL HAZARDS
POTENTIAL HAZARDS
PROPELLERS
WARNING
ALWAYS STAND CLEAR OF PROPELLER BLADE PATHS,

ESPECIALLY WHEN MOVING THE PROPELLER.
PARTICULAR CAUTION SHOULD BE PRACTICED
AROUND WARM ENGINES.
Review of propeller accidents indicates that most were preventable. A

propeller under power, even at slow idling speed, has sufficient force to inflict
fatal injuries. Pilots can be most effective in ensuring that passengers arrive
and depart the vicinity of the airplane safely by stopping the engine(s) during
loading and unloading.
Cessna airplanes are delivered with propellers using paint schemes to

increase visibility of the blades. Owners should maintain the original paint
scheme.
Pilots and Service personnel should develop the following safety habits:
1. Before moving a propeller or connecting an external power source to

an airplane, be sure that the airplane is chocked, ignition switches are
in the OFF position, throttle is closed, mixture is in IDLE CUT-OFF
position, and all equipment and personnel are clear of the propeller.
Failed diodes in airplane electrical systems have caused starters to
engage when external power was applied regardless of the switch
position.
2. When removing an external power source from an airplane, keep the
equipment and yourself clear of the propeller.
3. Pilots should make certain that all personnel are clear of the propeller,
prior to engine start.
4. Attach pull ropes to wheel chocks located close to a rotating
propeller(s).
5. Before removing the wheel chocks, the pilot should hold brakes or
apply the parking brake.
6. Be absolutely sure that all equipment and personnel are clear of the
airplane before releasing the brakes.
7. Ground personnel should be given recurrent propeller safety training
to keep them alert to the dangers of working around airplanes.
The pilot should carefully inspect the propeller during each preflight inspection.
Some constant speed propellers manufactured by McCaufey are subject to a
requirement that they be filled with a red-dyed oil. This oil helps lubricate and

24 PILOT SAFETY AND
POTENTIAL HAZARDS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
prevent corrosion of internal propeller parts and may assist in detection of

cracks. If a crack is detected, the airplane should not be flown until the
propeller is replaced.
AIR CONDITIONING FREON
The refrigerant R- 12 (FREON) is relatively safe to handle when using proper

protective safety equipment. Since at sea level the boiling point of R- 12 is -
21.6°F. any contact with bare skin will immediately burn (freeze) the area. If
R-12 should contact your eye, it will burn and can cause permanent blindness.
Treat spills or splashes on your body by washing with clean, cool, water, and
seek immediate medical attention. R-12, when heated to a high temperature
such as with an open flame or spillage on a hot manifold, generates phosgene
gas (a colorless gas with an unpleasant odor). This gas is a severe respiratory
irritant and should be considered as a DEADLY POISON.
USED ENGINE OIL
Pilots and maintenance personnel who handle engine oil are advised to
minimize skin contact with used oil. and promptly remove any used engine oil
from their skin.
The following are some do's and don'ts concerning used engine oil:
1. Do follow work practices that minimize the amount of skin exposed,

and the length of time used oil stays on the skin.
2. Do thoroughly wash used oil off skin as soon as possible.
3. Do wash oil-soaked clothing before wearing them again. Discard oil-
soaked shoes.
4. Do use gloves made from material that oil cannot penetrate.
5. Don't use kerosene, gasoline, thinners. or solvents to remove used
engine oil. These products can cause serious toxic effects.
7. Don't put oily rags in pockets, or tuck them under a belt. This can
cause continuous skin contact.
8. Don't pour used engine oil on the ground, or down drains and sewers.
This is a violation of Federal Law. The Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) encourages collection of used engine oil at collection
points in compliance with appropriate state and local ordinances.
AVIATION FUEL ADDITIVE
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether (EGME), which is a primary ingredient in

aviation fuel additives, is toxic. It creates a dangerous health hazard when
breathed or absorbed into the skin. When inhaled. EGME is primarily a central
nervous system depressant, and acute inhalation overexposure may cause
kidney injury. The primary symptoms of inhalation overexposure include
Reissue ■ 1 June 1998

PILOT SAFETY AND 24
headache, drowsiness, blurred vision, weakness, lack of coordination, tremor,

unconsciousness, and even death. EGME is irritating to the eyes and skin and
can be readily absorbed through the skin in toxic amounts. Symptoms o(
overexposure due to skin absorption are essentially the same as those
outlined for inhalation.
When servicing fuel with an anti-ice additive containing EGME, follow the
manufacturers instructions and use appropriate personal protective equipment.
These items would include chemical safety goggles or shield, respirator with
organic vapor cartridges, nonabsorbing neoprene rubber gloves and an apron
and long-sleeved shirt as additional skin protection from spraying or splashing
anti-ice additive.
In the event EGME contact is experienced, the following emergency and first
aid procedures should be used.
1. If EGME is inhaled, remove person to fresh air. If breathing is difficult,

administer oxygen. If the person is not breathing give artificial
respiration. Always call a physician.
2. If eye or skin contact is experienced, flush with plenty of water (use
soap and water for skin) for at least 15 minutes while removing
contaminated clothing and shoes. Call a physician. Thoroughly wash
contaminated clothing and shoes before reuse.
3. If ingested, drink large quantities of water and induce vomiting by
placing a finger far back in throat. Contact a physician immediately. If
vomiting cannot be induced, or if victim is unconscious or in
convulsions, take immediately to a hospital or physician. Do not
induce vomiting or give anything by mouth to an unconscious person.
Diethylene glycol monomethyl ether (DIEGME), a fuel anti-icing additive

approved for use in some airplanes, is slightly toxic if swallowed and may
cause eye redness, swelling and irritation. DIEGME also is combustible.
Before using DIEGME, refer to all safety information on the container.
BIRDS, INSECTS, AND RODENTS

Bird, insect, and mouse nests in airplanes are both hazardous and costly.
They seem to find even the smallest opening on an airplane to make their
nests. Evidence of nest building activities may include the following:
1. Any mud smears or droplets at pitot static masts, fuel tank vents,
crankcase breathers, stall warning vanes, cabin air vents, and any
fluid drain holes are indications of mud dauber wasp activities.
2. Straw, string, or blades of grass extending from cowling openings,
carburetor air intakes, blast tubes, or exhaust stacks are signs of birds
at work.
3. Cotton batting, shreds of fabric, and/or paper at wheel wells and
empennage openings are frequently indicators that rodents such as

24 PILOT SAFETY AND
mice have been or may still be on board. They may gnaw on any
material in the airplane including wire bundles and rubber or plastic
tubing.
If nests or building materials are found on the airplane, they must be removed
before flight. It is strongly recommended that a qualified mechanic thoroughly
inspect components such as pitotstatic systems for remains of any nesting
material after its removal and before flight to ensure complete removal. Even
small amounts of foreign material can result in significant problems in flight.
Some precautions can be taken to prevent problems. Always use the pilot
tube cover and any other external covers when the airplane is being stored. If
the airplane is hangared, make sure the hangar is kept clean and neat to
prevent insects and mice from lodging in the hanger in the first place. If need
be, set traps for rodents and'or spray the area for insects. Models of
predators that appear life-like such as owls or snakes may also be effective at
preventing some birds from lodging in a hangar.
Removal of the nest of an insect, bird, or rodent does not prevent

reconstruction elsewhere on the airplane or even in the same location again.
Some creatures are not easily discouraged and may return to cause problems
within a very short time period. Regardless of precautions used to prevent
such problems, the pilot should be alert to the evidence of small animal
activities during every preflight inspection.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER AGENTS
Halon, Bromochloromethane (CB), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and dry chemical

extinguishing agents are four of the most common types of fire extinguishing
agents found in and around airplanes. Prolonged exposure (5 minutes or
more) to any of these agents in a confined area could cause serious injury or
even death. Pilots and ground personnel should become familiar with the
precautions associated with each particular agent. Adequate respiratory and
eye protection from excessive exposure, including the use of oxygen when
available, should be sought as soon as the primary fire emergency will permit.
The discharge of large amounts of carbon dioxide to extinguish a fire may

create hazards to personnel such as oxygen deficiency and reduced visibility.
The dilution of the oxygen in the air, by the carbon dioxide concentrations that
will extinguish a fire, may create an atmosphere that will not sustain life.
Personnel rendered unconscious under these conditions can usually be
revived without any permanent ill effects when promptly removed from the
adverse condition.
The discharge of large amounts of dry chemical agents may create hazards to
personnel such as reduced visibility and temporary breathing difficulty. Where
there is a possibility that personnel may be exposed to dry chemical agents,
suitable safeguards should be provided to ensure prompt evacuation.

PILOT SAFETY AND 24
OXYGEN
Before servicing any airplane with oxygen, consult the specific airplane
service/maintenance manual to determine the proper type of servicing
equipment to be used. Airplanes should not be serviced with oxygen during
refueling, defueling, or other maintenance work which could provide fuel and a
source of ignition. Also, oxygen servicing of an airplane should be
accomplished outside, not in hangars.
Oxygen is a very reactive material, combining with most of the chemical

elements. The union of oxygen with another substance is known as oxidation.
Extremely rapid or spontaneous oxidation is known as combustion. While
oxygen is non-combustible in itself, it strongly and rapidly accelerates the
combustion of all flammable materials; some to an explosive degree.
The following are some do's and don'ts when handling or using oxygen:
1. Do check that only "aviators breathing oxygen" is going into the

airplane system.
2. Don't confuse aviators breathing oxygen with "hospital/medical"
oxygen. (The latter is pure enough for breathing, but the moisture
content is usually higher which could freeze and plug the lines and
valves of an airplane oxygen system.)
3. Do reject any oxygen that has an abnormal odor (good oxygen is
odorless).
4. Do follow the published applicable instructions regarding charging,
purging, and maintenance of airplane oxygen systems.
5. Don't use oil or grease (including certain lipsticks and lip balms)
around oxygen systems.
6. Don't expose oxygen containers to high temperatures.
COMPRESSED AIR
Compressed air is a mechanic's tool as versatile as electricity, and can be as

deadly. The use of compressed air to blow dust or dirt from parts of the body
or clothing is a dangerous practice. As little as 12 psi can dislocate an
eyeball. Air can enter the navel through a layer of clothing and inflate and
rupture the intestines. Compressed air has been known to strike a small
wound on a person's hand and inflate the arm.
Never look into or point any compressed air apparatus toward any part of the
body. Always wear prescribed personal protective equipment. Also,
continuously check the condition of air tools and air hoses to make sure they
do not show signs of damage or looseness. A loose hose carrying pressure is
like a bullwhip and can cause serious injury to personnel and/or cause damage

24 PILOT SAFETY AND
to surrounding equipment. If a situation such as this should occur, do not

attempt to catch the hose end; shut off the air source first.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
Static electricity, by definition, is a negative or positive charge of electricity that

an object accumulates, and creates a spark when the object comes near
another object. Static electricity may accumulate on an airplane during flight or
while it is on the ground, as long as air is flowing over its surfaces. Unless
static electricity is carried away by ground wires, an explosion may be caused
during any fueling operations.
Grounding an airplane is a good safety precaution because static electricity

cannot be seen until it's too late. To properiy ground an airplane, attach one
end of a static ground wire to an unpainted point on the airplane and the other
end to an approved grounding stake. Attaching the ground wire to the airplane
first will ensure that any spark of static electricity will occur at the grounding
stake and not at the airplane. Do not attach a ground wire to any antenna.
Antennas are poor grounding attachment points because they are insulated
from the airplane structure.
On some airplanes, wick-type static dischargers are installed to improve radio

communications during flight through dust or various forms of precipitation
(rain, snow or ice crystals). Under these conditions, the build-up and
discharge of static electricity from the trailing edges of wings, rudder, elevator,
and propeller tips can result in loss of usable radio signals on all
communications and navigation radio equipment. Usually the ADF is first to be
affected and VHF communication equipment is the last to be affected.
Installation of static dischargers reduces interference from precipitation static,
but it is possible to encounter severe precipitation static conditions which might
cause the loss of radio signals, even with static dischargers installed.
Static dischargers lose their effectiveness with age, and therefore should be
checked at every scheduled inspection by a qualified technician. If testing
equipment is not available, it is recommended that the wicks be replaced every
two years, especially if the airplane is operated frequently in IFR conditions.
ELT BATTERY AND GAS SPRING/DAMPER

DISPOSAL
To prevent bodily injury, do not compact (compress) or incinerate an ELT
battery-pack or gas spring'damper. The ELT battery pack should be discarded
in accordance with local EPA standards.
A gas spring or gas damper contains an inert gas and oil under pressure, and
reacts much like an aerosol can when compressed or heated; it may explode.
Therefore, all unserviceable gas springs or dampers should be depressurized,
using the maintenance manual instructions.
Reissue- 1 June 1998

PILOT SAFETY AND 24
HEARING LOSS
Hearing loss due to overexposure to loud noise levels is a real possibility while
working near operating airplane engines. Continuous exposure to excessive
noise diminishes hearing acuity, with high frequency response failing first, if
the overexposure continues, the middle frequencies, most important in
conversation, are also lost. Earmuffs, some headset types, and earplugs are
very useful to avoid hearing loss. By far, the earplug has proven to be the
best protection overall. Limits have been established which relate sound level
(dB) to exposure time. These limits are based on daily exposures for long
intervals.
Sound Level
115 110 105 100
(dB)
Maximum Time
15 30 60 120
fmln.)
WEATHER RADAR EXPOSURE
The dangers of exposure to airborne weather radar operated on the ground

include the possibility of damage to low tolerance parts of the human body and
ignition of combustible materials by radiated energy. Low tolerance parts of
the body include the eyes and testes. Airborne weather radar should be
operated on the ground only by qualified personnel. The radar should not be
operated while the airplane is in a hangar or other enclosure unless the radar
transmitter is disconnected, or the energy is directed toward an absorption
shield which dissipates the radio frequency (RF) energy.
Personnel should never stand near or directly in front of a radar antenna which
is transmitting. When the antenna is transmitting and scanning, personnel
should not be allowed within 15 feet of the area being scanned by the antenna.
Personnel should not be allowed at the end of an open waveguide (hollow duct
work through which electromagnetic waves are conducted to and from the
antenna) unless the radar is off and will remain off. Radar should not be
operated with an open waveguide unless a "dummy toad" is connected to the
portion which is connected to the transmitter. Personnel should not look into a
waveguide, or the open end of a coaxial connector or line connected to a
radar transmitter.
Weather radar installed on any airplane should not be operated while that
airplane, or an adjacent airplane is being refueled or defueled.

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The information contained in this document is not intended to supersede the

SYSTEM OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Reissue - 1 June 1998 i/(ii blank)

Pilots should know the information contained in the airplane's operating

In an effort to re-emphasize subjects that are generally known to most pilots,

Day-to-day safety practices play a key role in achieving maximum utilization of

PILOT PHYSICAL CONDITION AND PROFICIENCY

(Continued Next Page)

Reissue - 1 June 1998

FAILURE TO CONSIDER THESE ITEMS COULD RESULT

Cessna does not support modifications to Cessna airplanes, whether by

Airplanes require maintenance on a regular basis. As a result, it is essential

Reissue - 1 June 1998

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL (AIM). This Federal Aviation

NOTICES TO AIRMEN (Class II). This is a publication containing current

AIRPORT FACILITY DIRECTORY, ALASKA and PACIFIC CHART

FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS (FARs). The FAA publishes the FARs

Reissue - 1 June 1998

Reissue - 1 June 1998

It is virtually impossible to leave stress on the ground. Therefore, when more

Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a serious argument, death of a

Reissue - 1 June 1998

Reissue - 1 June 1998

Extensive research has provided a number of facts about the hazards of

There is simply no way of alleviating a hangover. Remember that the human

DRINKING THE RIGHT FLUIDS

Beginning a flight in a rested, healthy condition is of prime importance. Proper

Reissue - 1 June 1998

Although a deterioration in night vision occurs at a cabin pressure altitude as

The altitude at which significant effects of hypoxia occur can be lowered by a

Reissue - 1 June 1998

Current regulations require that pilots use supplemental oxygen after 30

Hypoxia can be prevented by avoiding factors that reduce tolerance to altitude,

When using oxygen systems that do not supply "pressure

Pilots are encouraged to attend physiological training and susceptibility testing

Smoking in the cabin of the airplane exposes other passengers to high

Reissue - 1 June 1998

Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia are similar. Moreover,

Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sore throat, or a nasal

Reissue - 1 June 1998

In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to light, a process called dark

Reissue - 1 June 1998

Pilots planning to engage in aerobatic maneuvers should be aware of the

Physiologically, humans progressively adapt to imposed strains and stresses,

Reissue - 1 June 1998

Abbreviated checklists can be used in place of the airplane

CHECKLIST ARRANGEMENT (ORGANIZATION OF

Reissue - 1 June 1998

Emergency checklists are provided for emergency situations peculiar to a

Reissue - 1 June 1998

AIRPLANE CENTER-OF-GRAVITY RANGE

There are several different weights to be considered when dealing with

LOCATING THE LOAD

To determine the center-of-gravity (C.G.) of an airplane, a pilot must have an

The weight of an object should be carefully determined or calculated. All

Reissue - 1 June 1998

The word "moment," as used in airplane loading procedures, is the product of

Figure 1. Computing the Center-of-Gravity