UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY 1
COURSE CODE: CEC103

YEAR I- SE MESTER I
THEORY/PRACTICAL
Version 1: December 2008
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page

Content

WEEK ONE

1. Sketch of site layout showing how to set out a simple residential building foundation
and superstructure

1.1 Site plan

1.2 Example: practical to set out site

FIG: 1.1: Site plan showing boundaries and adjacent roads

FIG: 1.2: Site plan with landscaping

WEEK TWO

2. Execution of foundation trench and casting concrete

2.1 Trench excavation

2.2 Timbering of trench excavation

2.3 Trench preparation for concrete foundation

FIG: 2.1: Timbering in trench excavation

WEEK THREE

3. Mixing of concrete

3.1 Batching

3.2 Mixing

3.3Handling
3.4 Placing

3.5 Specifying concrete

3.6 Example:

FIG: 3.1. concrete mixer

FIG: 3.2. placing of concrete

FIG: 3.3. a model mobile concrete mixer

FIG: 3.4. a wheelbarrow

WEEK FOUR

4. Setting out of a simple resdential building block wall super structure

FIG: 4.1. Setting out of block wall superstructure

WEEK FIVE

5. Plumbing of pipes for waste water as drainage

5.1 System of drainage

5.2 Choice of pipes

5.3 Setting out of drainage system
5.4 Laying of pipes

5.5 Jointing of pipes

5.6 Drainage test

FIG: 5.1. Couplings and vents

FIG: 5.2. Drainage system

WEEK SIX

6. Laying of blocks/bricks in different bonds

6.1 Purpose of bonding

6.2 Choice of brick bond

6.3 Choice of mortar.

6.4 Principles of bonding of brickwork
6.5Types of bond
6.6 Setting out bonds
FIG: 6.1. Stretcher bond

FIG: 6.2. English bond

FIG: 6.3. Flemish bond
FIG: 6.4. Header bond
FIG: 6.5. Brick bonds
FIG: 6.5. A brick wall

WEEK SEVEN

7. Identification of construction wood types and their sizes

7.1 Construction wood types:

7.2 common sizes of timber

FIG: 7.1. Internal structure of wood

FIG: 7.2. Sawn wood

WEEK EIGHT

8. Preparation of piece of wood by hand and machine

8.1 Hand preparation of member

8.2 Machine preparation

WEEK NINE

9. LAYOUT OF A STANDARD CARPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP

9.1 standard carpentry and joinery workshop

9.2 example: 1

FIG: 9.1: Standard carpentry and joinery workshop

FIG: 9.2: Standard carpentry and joinery workshop

FIG: 9.3: Standard carpentry and joinery workshop

FIG: 9.4: Standard carpentry and joinery workshop

WEEK TEN

10. Preparation for joints in wood work

10.1 Types of joints

10.2 Example: 1

FIG: 10.1.Halved joint

FIG: 10.2.Halved joints

FIG: 10.3. Bridle joint

FIG:10.4. Mortice and tenon joint

FIG: 14.5. Dowelled mortice and tenon joints

FIG: 14.6. The secret haunch mortice and tenon

FIG: 14.6. The secret haunch mortice and tenon

FIG: 14.7. Wedged mortice and tenon

WEEK ELEVEN

11. Making use of metal dogs/fastening and gusset plate

11.1 Gusset plate

Fig: 11.1. 25mm gusset plate

Fig: 11.2. Timber girder truss with gusset plate

Fig: 11.3. Gusset plate in truss roof

Fig: 11.4. Timber king post trusses with gusset

Fig: 11.5. Gusset plate

Fig: 11.6. Gusset plate

Fig: 11.7. Gusset assembly for trusses

11.1.0 Metal dogs

FIG: 11.8. Iron dogs

WEEK TWELVE

12. Construction of wooden floor

12.1 Types of wooden floor

12.2 Method of construction:

12.3 Floor joists suitable for domestic floor loadings

FIG: 12.1: Double floor

FIG: 12.2: Framed floor

WEEK THIRTEEN

13.0.0 Nails, screws and bolts

13.0.1Nnails
13.0.2 Screws

13.0.3 Raw bolt

FIG: 13.1. Different types of nails

13.1.0 Construction of wooden sills

13.1.1 Window sills

FIG: 13. 2. Construction of window sill

WEEK FOURTEEN

14.0.0 construction of centres for arches

14.0.1 construction
figure: 14.1. segmental arch centre

FIG: 14.2.Costruction of semicircular arch centre

FIG: 14.3. Construction of turning piece

14.1.0 Construction of timber shores

14.1.1 Method of construction

FIG: 14.5. Raking shore
FIG: 14.6. Dead

14.2.0 construction of panel doors

14.2.1 Manufacture of paneled doors

FIG: 14.7. Four panel door
FIG: 14.8. Three panel door
FIG: 14.9. Panel doors
FIG: 14.10. Panel doors

14.4.0 Construction of door and window frame

14.4.1 Door frames
14.4.2 Window frames.
WEEK FIFTEEN

15.0.0 Construction of simple and built-up roofs

15.0.1 Design of roof

15.0.2 Construction method

FIG: 15.1. Untrussed roofs

FIG: 15.2. Trussed roof
15.1.0 Construction of straight flight of stairs

15.1.1 Setting out one paper

15.1.2 Setting out and construction in workshop
15.1.3 Assembling the parts of stair

FIG: 15.4. Straight flight stair plan

FIG: 15.5. Wooden straight flight stair
FIG: 15.6. Wooden straight flight stair
15.2.0 Construction of door casing

15.2.1 Door casing or lining

15.2.2 Example: assembling and installation of door casing
FIG: 15.7-15.15: Construction of window sill
WEEK ONE

1. A SKETCH OF SITE LAYOUT SHOWING HOW TO SET OUT A

SIMPLE RESIDENTIAL BUILDING FOUNDATION AND
SUPERSTRUCTURE
1.1SITE PLAN

A site plan is a drawing of your property showing the property lines and any structures that
currently exist on that land (house, garage, fence, etc) and where your proposed addition,
deck, porch, garage, fence, etc is to be located.

Contents of a site plan

A site plan should include:

• An arrow indicating north

• The scale of the drawing
Draw the site plan to the most appropriate scale, for example, 1” = 10’, 1” = 20’,
1/4” 1’.
• Property lines – For most additions, property lines will need to be physically
located. Additionally, a certificate of survey, signed by a licensed surveyor, will
be required in some cases.
• Adjacent streets and any easements.
• The distance between buildings and between buildings and property lines.
• The dimensions of the existing buildings.
• A clear indication of the proposed addition or alteration.
• Other appropriate items for your project.

For additions, two copies of the site plan must be submitted. An architectural plan and/or
a structural plan may also be required.
Site plan review

A site plan review determines compliance with local ordinances and applicable state
building and mechanical codes. This review is done by a city planner. When the planner
gives approval, the next step is to apply for permits.

Projects that usually do not require a site plan review:

Siding, roofs, window replacement, and miscellaneous repairs do not require a site plan
review. Most electrical, plumbing, and mechanical permits also do not require a site plan
review.

Changes to the site plan

•After your site plan has been approved, any changes to it must also be approved.

A SITE PLAN is a map of your site. It is drawn "to scale" which means that all of the
real life dimensions are reduced to the same degree. Scales can vary, depending on the
size of your site and the size of your paper. A typical scale for a small site might be 1
inch equals 1 foot. The larger the site, the smaller the scale you would use, such as 1/4
inch equals 1 foot

Why draw a site plan?

A SITE PLAN is a very helpful planning tool. When you are able to see the dimensions
and layout of your site on paper it is much easier to calculate the materials you will need
and to see where different activities can occur. The site plan makes your project portable;
you can carry it in your pocket or mail it. You can make copies. Your planning group can
sit around a table and discuss the project over a copy of the plan.
1.2 EXAMPLE: Practical to set out site

Tools:

To measure the site:

Tape measure, or measuring "wheel" and a compass to find north.
To draw the plan:
Graph paper, pencils or pens, ruler (or scale.)

HINT: If you don't have a tape measure you can "pace off" the site. This means that you
walk the places you want to measure with even strides, counting how many strides you
took. Then you measure your stride. If your stride is 3 feet long, and you paced twenty
strides along the front of a building, the building is 60 feet long. You can also use your
feet and hands as measuring tools. For example, if you know your feet are ten inches long
you can measure the width of a sidewalk by placing one foot after the other, counting and
multiplying.

When you go out to a site to take measurements and notes, do a "rough draft." You don't
need to draw straight lines or make it neat, just get the information you need.

Measuring

• Measure the length and width of the lot, or the portion of the lot you want to work
on.
• Locate important built features such as buildings, sidewalks, streets, fences, etc.
and mark them on your plan.
• Locate natural features, such as trees, large rocks and water and mark them on
your plan.
• Find north. Knowing where north is will be helpful when you want to know how
much sun your site gets. Make a "north arrow" on your plan.
Drawing

Later sit down with your notes and graph paper and draw your site plan. First draw the
outside edges, or boundaries, of the site. Then put in the other features you noticed, such
as buildings, sidewalks, trees and fences. This is a site plan.

Copying

Make some Xerox copies of your plan so you can draw directly on it and try out a few
different ideas. Pass copies around to get feedback on your ideas and to let others
 FIG.1.1: SITE PLAN SHOWING BOUNDARIES AND ADJACENT
ROADS
FIG.1.2 : SITE PLAN WITH LANDSCAPING
WEEK TWO

2. EXECUTION OF FOUNDATION TRENCH AND CASTING

CONCRETE

2.1 TRENCH EXCAVATION

After setting out of building and fixing the profile board, the next operation will be to
excavate the foundations of the building.

For large scale excavation mechanical means are used for digging trenches. Trenches are
the holes dug to receive concrete foundation of building.

When the building is medium size, manual method is employed and the common tools
required here will be diggers and shovels. Excavation should always start from the lowest
side of a site to enable steps be formed incase the site is sloping. Steps enable any volume
of earth removed from a high point of site to be greatly reduced.

Minimum depth of trench should be about 750mm. All earth removed must be packed to
the side. Ensure profile boards are not fully covered up.

The level of the bottom of the trench can be easily checked using spirit level and straight
edge. Ensure that the trench is truly level. Compact hard to ensure that no loose soil is at
the bottom.

•Excavation takes various forms depending upon the type of foundation to be laid.

Strip foundation requires the excavation of strip trenches. Pad or isolated foundations
requires holes to be dug where the foundation are to come only, unless connected by
ground beams, while raft and basements needs the excavation of the whole area of the
building, referred to as bulk excavation.
Excavation in clay, soft chalk or other soils likely to be affected by exposure to the
atmosphere should, whenever practicable, be concreted as soon as they are dug. When
this is not possible, it is advisable to protect the bottom of the excavation with a 75mm
layer of lean concrete blinding, or to leave the last 50 to 75mm of excavation until the
commencement of concreting.

2.2 TIMBERING OF TRENCH EXCAVATION

When trenches are being excavated to a depth likely to cause the caving in of the sides,
they must either be given some form of temporary support or the sides sloped to provide
self support. The support given to the sides of the trench depends upon the depth of the
trench and the soil conditions. Vibration and loads from traffic or other causes, position
of water table, and climatic conditions and the time for which the excavation is to remain
open also affect the decision.

Weak soil requires more elaborate temporary supports. Most temporary support takes the
form of timbering the sides. As timbering is only meant to support the sides of the trench
until all foundation work is complete. Over timbering should always be avoided so that
progress of the work is not hampered in any way

In relatively shallow trenches in firm soil it may be possible to dispense with timbering
or, as it is sometimes termed, planking and strutting. The most that would be required, are
pairs of 175×38mm poling boards, spaced at about 1.8m centres, and strutting with a
single 100×100mm strut. Alternatively adjustable steel strut may be used.

Most of the timber used for timbering is soft wood, often red or yellow. The various
members required are.
Poling boards. These are boards 1.00 to 1.50m in length (depending on the depth of
excavation) and they vary in cross-section from 175×38 to225×50mm.The boards are
placed vertically and abut the soil at the sides of the excavation.

Walings. These are longitudinal members running the length of trench other excavation
and they support poling boards. They vary in size from 175×50 to 225×75mm.

Struts. These are usually square timbers, either 100×100 or 150×150mm in size. They
are generally used to support the waling which, in turn, hold the poling boards in
position. Struts are usually spaced at about 1.8m centres to allow adequate working space
between them.

Sheeting. This consists of horizontal boards abutting one another to provide a continuous
barrier when excavating in loose soils. A common size for the sheeting is
175×50mm.

FIGURE.2.1. TMBERING IN TRENCH EXCAVATION

Where the ground is unstable due to groundwater it may be necessary to enclose the
excavation with steel-sheet piling. The piling is made in variety of sections of different
strengths to resist a range of pressures. The pile sections are usually driven by a double-
acting steam-operated pile hammer.

Some work in waterlogged ground has been made possible by freezing which solidified
the loose ground and prevented water flowing into the working area. Freezing is normally
undertaken by drilling a series of vertical boreholes of about 150 to 175mm diameter at
approximately one metre intervals around the perimeter of the work. The boreholes are
lined with 100 to150mm diameter freezing tubes closed at the bottom end. An inner tube
is then inserted with a bottom left open. Cooled brine solution is fed into the inner tube
and return to the next cooling tube or the refrigeration plant from the outer tube. The
constant passage of the brine solution with a temperature lower than the freezing point of
water gradually freezes the groundwater.

Other processes include the use of compressed air, soil stabilisation and grouting of the
soil. All these methods are very costly.

2.3 TRENCH PREPARATION FOR CONCRETE FOUNDATION

After excavation, leveling and compaction of the trench bottom, pegs are set in the trench
to indicate the level and the thickness of the concrete in the trench.

The normal thickness of concrete in a foundation should be 225mm and first peg is
driven from one end of the trench 225mm height. Spirit level and straight edge is then
used to set all other pegs in the trench. Pegs are best set along the centre line of the
trench.

Iron pegs are best used but wooden pegs can also be used. Wooden pegs must however
be removed after placing the concrete and before the concrete has hardened to prevent
wood material rotting in the concrete and creating weak points.
WEEK THREE

3. MIXING OF CONCRETE

3.1 BATCHING

Concrete can be batched by volume or weight.

Batching by volume. This method is usually carried out using an open bottom box called
a gauge box. A 25-kg bag of cement has a volume of approximately 0.02m3.For a 1:2:4
mix a gauge box is filled once with cement, twice with fine aggregate and four times with
coarse aggregate, the top of the gauge box being struck off level each time.

If the fine aggregate is damp or wet its volume will increase by up to 25% and therefore
the amount of fine aggregate should be increased by this amount. This increase in volume
is called bulking.

Batching by weight. This method involves the use of a balance which is linked to a dial
giving an exact mass of the materials as they are placed in the scales. This is best method
since it has a greater accuracy and the balance can be attached to the mixing machine.

•Tools required are gauge box, head pan/wheel barrow and shovel/mixer.

3.2 MIXING

•Hand Mixing. This should be carried out on a clean hard surface. The materials should
be thoroughly mixed in the dry state twice before the water is added. The water should be
added slowly and mixed at least three times.

•Machine mixing. The mix should be turned over in the mixer for at least two minutes
after adding the water. The first batch from the mixer tends to be harsh since some of the
mix will adhere to the sides of the drum. This batch should be used for some less
important work such as filling in weak pockets in the bottom of the excavation.
FIGURE: 3.1. CONCRETE MIXER FIGURE: 3.2. PLACING OF
CONCRETE

•Ready mixed. This is used for large batches with lorry transporters up to 6m3 capacity.
It has the advantage of eliminating site storage of materials mixing plant, with the
guarantee of concrete manufactured to quality – controlled standards. Placement is
usually direct from the lorry, therefore site- handling facilities must be co-odinated with
deliveries.

FIGURE: 3.3. A MODEL MOBILE CONCRETE MIXER

3.3HANDLING

If concrete is to be transported for some distance over rough ground, the runs should be
kept as short as possible since vibration of this nature can cause segregation of the
materials in the mix. For the same reason concrete should not be dropped from a height
of more than 1m. If this is unavoidable a chute should be used.
 FIGURE: 3.4. A WHEELBARROW

3.4 PLACING

If the concrete is to be placed in a foundation trench, it will be levelled from peg to peg or
if it is to be used as an oversite bed, the external walls could act as a levelling guide. The
levelling is carried out by tamping with a straight edge board. This tamping serves the
dual purpose of compacting and bringing the excess water to the so that it can evaporate.
Concrete must not be over-tamped as this will not only bring the water to the surface but
also the cement past which is required to act as matrix. Concrete should be placed as soon
as possible after mixing to ensure that the setting action has not commenced. Concrete
which dries out too quickly will not develop its full strength; therefore new concrete
should be protected from the drying winds and sun by being covered with canvas, straw,
polythene sheeting or damp sawdust. This protection should be continued for at least
three days since concrete takes about twenty-eight days to obtain its working strength.

3.5 SPECIFYING CONCRETE

•Concrete can be specified by any of the four following methods.

•Designed mix. The mix is specified by a grade corresponding to required characteristic

compressive strength at 28days.There are 12 grades from C7.5 to C60, the C indicates the
compressive strength in N/mm2 or MPa. Flexural (F) strength grades may also be
specified as F3, F4 or F5 i.e. 3, 4 or 5 N/mm2. Also the requirement must specify the
cement and aggregate content and maximum free water/ cement ratio.

•Prescribed mix. This is a recipe of constituents with their properties and quantities used
to manufacture the concrete. The specification must be made for.

The type of cement

 Type of aggregates and their maximum size

Mix proportions by weight

Degree of workability

•Prescribed are based on established data indicating conformity to strength, durability and
other characteristics.

Example.

•1:3:6/40mm aggregate.

•1:2:4/20mm aggregate.

•Standard mix. Mixes are produced from one of five grades, ranging from ST1 to ST5,
with corresponding 28 days strength characteristics of 7.5 to a limit of only 25N/mm2.
Mix compositions are specified as in prescribed mix.

•These mixes are most suited to site production, where the scale of operations is
relatively small. Alternatively, they may be used where mix design procedures would be
too time consuming, inappropriate uneconomical.

•Design mix. This mixes are selected relative to particular applications and site
conditions, in place of generalizations or use of alternative design criteria that may not be
entirely appropriate. Grading and strength characteristics are extensive and vary with
application.

•General (GEN), grade 0-4, ranging from 7.5 to 25N/mm2 characteristic strength. For
foundations, floors and external works.

•Foundations (FND), graded 2, 3, 4A and 4B with characteristic strength of 35N/mm2.

These are particularly appropriate for resisting the effects of sulphates in the ground.

•Paving (PAV), graded 1 or 2 in 35 or 45N/mm2 strengths, respectively. A strong

concrete for use in driveways and heavy duty pavings.
•Reinforced (RC) and prestressed concrete grade 30, 35, 40 and 50 corresponding with
characteristic strength and exposures ranging from mild to most severe.

•Quality control is of paramount importance in this mix. Therefore, producers are

required to have quality assurance product conforming to BS EN ISO 9001.

3.6 EXAMPLE:

•Prepare mixing bay by mixing and spreading weak concrete to form mixing slab on
which the materials are mixed. Before this, the materials i.e river sand called fine
aggregate and gravels called coarse aggregates are stored on clean surface.

•The mixing slab is then set out and the concrete mixed, placed, properly compacted and
leveled. The materials are then carefully measured using gauge box, head pan or any
suitable container are placed on the slab. The cement is then mixed with the material
before adding water.

Suitable mixes for different jobs are:-

1: 3:6 - Mass concrete
1:2:4 - Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete is any concrete with reinforcement for additional strength.

•For manual mixing, first measure the fine aggregate and mix dry with the cement
thoroughly according to the job. Spread the material and spread coarse aggregate all over.
Mix about two times dry. Then add water and start mixing thoroughly, at three times.

•For mechanical mixing, first measure and poor the fine aggregate into the mixer, add the
cement required and mix for about two minutes. Ensure thorough mixing. Add coarse
aggregate and thoroughly mix before adding water. Finally mix and serve. Clean all tools
and equipment at the end of work.
PLACING AND COMPACTING OF CONCRETE FOUNDATION

•Concrete shall be thoroughly mixed on clean hard surface or using mechanical method
before placing.
The tools required when placing include shovels, trowels, wooden or iron rammer or
mechanical rammer, straight edge, wheel barrows, head-pans or mechanical dumpers.

•Concrete must be carefully transported from the mixing point to the trench to prevent
separation of the coarse aggregate, fine aggregate from the cement which is known as
segregation. Using two men for mixing, six labourers with head pans and either one or
two with wheel barrows, the foundation project for a simple building can be completed
within a short time.

• Place and spread the concrete. When it has reached or covered the required depth, the
rammer or poky vibrator is used to compact the concrete. The straight edge can also be
used to ensure true surface. After twenty-four hours, the member should be cured by
wetting it with water to Ensure strength development.

Students are required to write a report on concrete mix, handling, placing and
compacting.
DIAGRAME
WEEK FOUR

4. SETTING OUT OF A SIMPLE RESDENTIAL BUILDING BLOCK

WALL SUPER STRUCTURE

•After laying the foundation concrete, wall construction commences according to the
setting out plans. The common tools required for wall construction include:

- Trowel - Tape
- Spirit level - Straight edge
- Line - Head pan
- Batten - Shovels
- Steel square
- Cutting axe

•The types of blocks used for wall construction are:-

- 225 x 225 x 450 = for erecting external walls
- 150 x 225 x 450 = For erecting external walls and partitions
- 100 x 225 x 450 = For erecting partition walls only
- 102.5×215×60 brick = For erecting external and partition walls
- Other decorative blocks are required for fancy work only.

•The most important aspect of block-laying are:-

- Lining = straightness of wall
- Level = true horizontal surface
- Plumbing = true vertical surface

•To set out the corner walls,

- Set up lines, along the wall lines from the profile boards either from the internal
or external part.

- Spread mortar (mixture of cement and sand only) at the corner points.
- Use straight edge and spirit level to plumb down the line and mark on the mortar.
- Place the block and check against the line using same tools.

- After ensuring proper setting of the blocks at the corners, level them and erect two
or three layers at each corner and partitions. Fill the joints properly.

- Stretch line in-between the corner blocks and set the straight line blocks to fill the
spaces. Ensure the blocks are truly straight and level. Lines can be used both at
the top and sides of the wall during the block-laying to ensure true level and
plumb of the block wall, The spirit level bubble must always be in the centre of
the glass and likewise bubble must also be at the centre for true plumb line. i.e
true vertical alignment of the blocks

- The walls should be properly set up and erected in the trench; this is erected up
until the building is out of the trench.

- The blocks should be taken out of the ground at least 150mm above the ground
level. This level represents the ground floor level.
FIGURE: 4.1. SETTING OUT OF BLOCK WALL SUPERSTRUTURE

•Students are required to write a report on how to set out a block wall
superstructure.
DIAGRAME
WEEK FIVE

5. PLUMBING OF PIPES FOR WASTE WATER AS DRAINAGE

5.1 SYSTEM OF DRAINAGE

SEPARATE SYSTEM:
In these systems, the rainwater is kept separate from the foul water from the house. The
rainwater is collected and either discharged into water tanks to be used later or discharged
into water course. The system can be of great benefits In areas where rainfall is scanty.

COMBINED SYSTEM
This is an alternative system whereby water from roofs and paved areas together with the
effluent of sanitary fittings are collected together and discharged into a sewer. The
advantage of this system is that, the storms water gives an effective flushing to the drain.

5.2 CHOICE OF PIPES

All the pipes are suitable for use below ground, but the strength of a pipeline may
become a limiting factor under loading conditions. In these situations ri.gid pipes with
flexible joints should be used, and short lengths pipe in ground subject to severe
settlement. Where pipes are laid above ground, special attention should be paid to
structural support and protection against mechanical damage, frost and corrosion.

Rigid pipes.Vitrified clay pipes. Manufactured to Bs65 and 540 with nominal bores of 75
to 900mm and lengths of 300mm to 1.50m. Clay pipes are resistant to attack by wide
range of substances, both acid and alkaline. It is very popular although the traditional
joint made of two rings of tarred yarn and with socket and spigot filled with cement
mortar is increasingly displaced by mechanical or flexible joints. This is liable to damage
by settlement. Further more the short pipe lengths produce a larger number of joints.

Concrete pipes. These are suitable for use with normal effluents but may be attack acid
or sulphate in the effluent, or in the surrounding soil. Concrete pipes are used mainly for
large pipes of 225mm diameter and upwards, and with these sizes external wrappings of
glass-fibre laminate are available which reinforce the pipe and protect them from external
attack. Concrete pipes to BS 556 are supplied either reinforced or unreinforced in lengths
of 900mm to 5m. Prestressed concrete pipes are also available complying with BS 5178.

Asbestos cement pipes. These are made to BS 3656. They are used for drainage
purposes and have the same shortcoming as concrete pipes.

Cast iron pipes. These can be supplied with spigot and socket joints to BS 437 for
caulking with lead or a proprietary material, or as pressure pipes with flexible joints to
BS1211, which are more much more satisfactory for use in difficult or waterlogged
conditions or ground subject to large movement. The coating on these pipes gives good
protection against corrosion and a reasonable life with average ground conditions and
normal effluents. They can be laid at any depth on account of their great strength. Cast
iron pipes are made in varying lengths, but the most commonly used length is around
3.6m. Ductile iron pipes are covered by BS 4772.

Flexible pipes. Pitch-impregnated fibre pipes. Made to BS 2760, they are becoming
increasingly popular due to their suitability for use with normal domestic and most trade
wastes.

They are manufactured in nominal bores of 50 to 225mm and standard lengths are 1.7,
2.5 and 3m. They are more economical than clay pipes where long lengths are involved
and in bad ground conditions.

Unplasticised PVC pipes. Manufactured to BS 4660, they are 110 and 160mm nominal
sizes and are golden brown in colour. They are suitable for domestic installations and
surface drainage. UPVC pipes are available in 1, 3, and 6m lengths. They should not be
use for effluent at high temperatures and they become brittle at low temperatures and
therefore handling with care. They are light in weight.

Reinforced plastic pipes. These are made of thermosetting resin and have advantages of
light weight and resistance to corrosion and effluents with high temperature.

5.3 SETTING OUT OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The setting out of the trench is much simpler than setting out for building foundation,
because the drain line follows a straight course as much as possible. Sight rails pegs and
travelers are needed for the setting out operation. Travelers are T-shaped wooden tools
used in a similar way to boning rods.

The centre line of the drain pipe is marked out by wooden pegs driven into the ground
starting from the building outlet. A rail, which is a horizontal piece nailed to two vertical
member, is erected across the trench at the position of the first manhole or inspection
chamber near the building. The height of the rail is fixed at a suitable known level above
the invert level of the pipe. The positions of inspection chambers are then marked out
along the line by driving four pegs into the ground.

Excavation can commence after the setting out. Shallow trenches in firm soils up to 1.3m
deep do not need supports. The trench is excavated to constant fall from the building. To
ensure that this is done, a series of traveler are placed at the bottom of trench and the top
sighted to the sight rail. The length of the vertical piece of the traveler is the same as the
height of the sight rail measured from the invert level of the pipe.

The rails are erected at the inspection chamber positions or at changes of direction. This
gives an acceptable gradient. The sighting of the travelers is done from the lower rail
through to the upper one. The pipes are kept in a straight line by means of a line stretched
from one inspection chamber to the next.

5.4 LAYING OF PIPES

Rigid pipes must have an even bed laid to the required slope, this bed is usually 150mm
thick concrete. The bed is to prevent the pipes fracturing when the trench is backfilled
and compacted.

In less important jobs, a concrete bed may not be necessary, especially if the ground is
firm and stable. A well consolidated earth bed is all that is required, but the back filling
and compacting should be done with a lot of care.
A concrete bed is not required by the regulations for cast iron pipes and where its
provided, a 100mm thick is sufficient.

5.5 JOINTING OF PIPES

The jointing of pipes made with sockets and spigots is achieved by inserting the spigots
into the socket caulking with tarred hemp or yarn and then making the joint with 1:1
cement and sand mortar.

Where this type of joint is used, the drain must not be tested until the cement has gained
sufficient strength. This period should be at least twelve hours after jointing. The purpose
of caulking the joint with yarn is to centre the spigot in the socket and to prevent mortar
falling into the bore of the pipe during the process of jointing.

Cast iron pipes are jointed by inserting a ring of yarn or lead wool into the jointing space
and then running in molten lead and caulking. A flexible joint can be obtained by using a
rubber ring.

PVC jointing methods use pre-formed socket or loose couplings, and this is made by a
rubber ring or using a solvent and adhesive. Pitch fibres pipes are jointed by means of
external couplings in polypropylene. Asbestos cement pipes also have tapered ends which
are joined using coupling and rubber rings.
 FIGURE: 5.1. COUPLINGS AND VENTS

5.6 DRAINAGE TEST

•Drains can be tested in three ways. These include:

Hydraulic Test
This is the most reliable method of testing drains. The test is performed by blocking
the lower end of the section of drain to be tested by inserting an expanding plug or
air flatted bag and then filling the portion of the system with water up to the level of
the gullies which should also be plugged or stopped with one of the devices made
specially for this purpose. The filling of water is carried out by attaching one end of a
length of rubber tubing to the nipple of the drain stopper or plug at the upper end and
connecting the other end to a container holding water at the required head. 600mm
head of water should be removed when applying this test.

A leakage is indicated by a drop in the leveled water in the container, and the drain
pipes are covered. The points of leakage are easily noticeable.
Fifteen minutes should elapse before the water level is observed to allow for any
absorption that might take place.

Smoke Test
This test is performed by forcing air- laden smoke into the section of the system
under test from a special smoke box, the smoke is produced by burning oily waste in
the smoke box. The smoke is forced through the lower end of the drain and vent
pipes. Soil pipes as well as traps should be left unsealed until the smoke emerged
from them, this ensured that the drain under examination is full of air – laden smoke.
A few strokes of the bellows of the smoke machines will set up a slight pressure in
the system and the dome over-the smoke box should rise and remain in the position
if there are no leakages
The advantage in this system is that any smoke escaping through a leakage is easily
visible.
Air test
This test is particularly suitable for soil pipes. Plug all soil and vent pipes and
gullies. The air is then pumped into the drain through a T-piece air pipe and one arm
is attached to one of the stoppers as in water test. The other arm is connected to u-
gauge containing water. The rubber tubing may be made to pass under a water seal
instead of connecting to a stopper.

When the pressure is applied, the water in one arm of the gauge will be depressed
and the other elevated. The difference in level of the water will register the head
pressure and if the water in the gauge remains still, the drain is satisfactory. A fall
indicates leakage. The disadvantage of the air test is that the point of leakage is not
easily detected as in the two previous tests
FIGURE: 5.2. DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Students are expected to write a report on setting out of drainage system, laying and
jointing of pipes, and tests carried out to ensure water and air tightness of the drainage
system.
WEEK SIX

6. LAYING OF BLOCKS/BRICKS IN DIFFERENT BONDS

•To build or construct a wall of brick or blocks, it usually follows the pattern of laying
the bricks or blocks In some regulation arrangement. The brick /blocks courses or rows in
a wall are arranged to ensure that each brick/block overlaps or bear upon two or more
bricks / immediately below it. The process of laying the bricks across each other and
binding them together is called bonding. The amount of overlap and the part of the brick
used determine the pattern or bond of brick work.
6.1 PURPOSE OF BONDING
•The main purpose of bonding is to provide maximum strength, lateral stability and
resistance to side thrust, and it distributes vertical and horizontal load over a large area of
the wall. A secondary purpose of bonding is to provide appearance (decoration).
6.2 CHOICE OF BRICK BOND
•The choice of any brick bond defends on the following factors.
1. Prevailing environmental or site conditions.
2. Thickness of the wall.
3. The purpose for the wall construction i.e either strength or decoration
6.3 CHOICE OF MORTAR.
1. Cement and sand mortar (1:4). This is use for load bearing wall and water works
2. Lime, cement and sand mortar (1:1:4, 1:1:6). This use for building construction
work.
6.4 PRINCIPLES OF BONDING OF BRICKWORK
1. The correct lap should be set out and maintained by introduction of:
(a) A closer next to the quoin header.
(b) A three-quarter bat starting the stretcher course.
2. There should be no straight joints in a wall.
3. The perpends or cross-joints in alter courses should be kept vertical.
4. Closer should never be built in the face of the wall except next to the quoin
header.
5. The tie bricks at junctions or quoins should be well-bonded to secure the walls
together.
6. The bricks which are laid in the interior of thick walls should be laid header wise
as far as possible.
7. Sectional bond should be maintained across the wall, that is, the bond on the back
should be in line with the bond on the face side of the wall.
8. To achieve the maximum strength in a wall, all the joints in the interior of the
wall should be kept filled or flushed in with mortar in every course. This can be
done by mixing a quantity of mortar to a grout or slurry and running it into the
joints between the bricks which have been laid in the wall.

6.5TYPES OF BOND
•STRETCHER BOND: This consists of all bricks laid as stretchers on every
course with the courses laid half-bond to each other; this is affected in a plain wall
with stopped ends by introducing a half-bat as the starting brick to alternate
courses. Usually only used in walls of a half-brick in thickness.

FIGURE: 6.I. STRETCHER BOND

•ENGLISH BOND: This consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers

with a closer placed next to the quoin header to form the lap. There is, however, a
variation where a closer is not used in the header course, and the lap is formedby
 starting each stretcher course with a three-quarter bat. Such variation is not very
common. It is considered one of the strongest bonds. It is suitable for the
construction of load-baring walls and for places where strength is of utmost
importance.
•FLEMISH BOND: This consists of alternate headers and stretchers, with the
headers in one course being placed centrally over the stretcher in the course
below. A closer is placed next to the quoin header to form the lap. Flemish bond
is said to give a more attractive face appearance than English bond as it appears
less monotonous. It affords a saving in facing bricks because of the header.
English bond requires approximately eighty-nine facing bricks per square metre,
while Flemish bond requires only seventy –eight facings. The header face of
many bricks is dark, and they are separated in this bond as against the English
where they are continuous.

FIGURE: 6.2. ENGLISH BOND

FIGURE: 6.3. FLEMISH BOND

•HEADER BOND: In this bond the arrangement shows the header face of every brick,
with 215 mm thickness. The bond is formed by three-quarter bats at the quoin. It is rarely
in use, because it has now attractive finish (too many joints). It is used in footing courses
or walling curved on plan.

FIGURE: 6.4. HEADER BOND

•Garden Wall Bond: This is designed to reduce the number of header faces to facilitate
a fair finish both sides in walls where appearance is important. There is one course of
header bricks to every three courses of stretchers in English garden wall bond, and one
header to every three stretchers in each course of Flemish garden wall bond.
FIGURE: 6.5. BRICK BONDS
6.6 SETTING OUT BONDS
In some cases it may be difficult to apply the standard patterns to the quoin, junction
walls and stopped ends. The reason is that consistency of bonding is impossible to
maintain. For example when setting out English and Dutch bonds for walls of 1 and 2
bricks in thickness, the pattern is the same on both faces, whereas on one 1 1/2 and 2 1/2 –
brick walls the pattern is different. That is headers on one face and stretchers on the other.

Any rules concerning bonding can be applied as far as practicable. A general rule for
quoins, stopped ends and junction walls in English and Dutch bonds is that where a wall
changes direction, so the bond will also change, that is if there are stretchers on one face
then the adjoining face will be headers. This is however , cannot be applied in every case,
as in a 1 1/2

-brick junction wall adjoining a 2-brick such as 1 ½ and 2 bricks in thickness. There must
be two adjoining faces having similar bonds.
One rule, however, should always be applied. When setting out quoins or junction walls,
care should be taking to ensure correct trying in the walls at the internal angles to achieve
the maximum resistance against cracking due to shrinkage or uneven settlement.
Quoins
The bonding arrangements to quoin vary according to the bonds which are used and the
sizes of the walls comprising the corners.

FIGURE: 6.5. A BRICK WALL

WEEK SEVEN

7. IDENTIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION WOOD TYPES AND

THEIR SIZES

7.1 CONSTRUCTION WOOD TYPES:

Timber is divided into two classes: The coniferous trees, known as softwoods, and the
deciduous trees, known as hardwoods. A tree consists of three main parts: the stem, and
the crown. The root fixes the tree in the ground and takes in moisture form the soil. The
stem or trunk stores food-stuffs, conducts these to the leaves and provides strength and
rigidly to the tree. Te timber which man has used since the earliest ages is, of curse, cut
form the trunk. The crown consists of branches, twigs and leaves in which the chemical
process essential t growth takes place.

Softwoods: These are usually evergreen with needle-pointed leaves and are cone-bearing.
Hardness trees have board leaves, which in most cases are shed at the end of the growing
seasons. There are certain exceptions, one example being the holly tree which is
evergreen throughout the year.
A tree consists of three main parts: the stem, and the crown. The root fixes the tree in the
ground and takes in moisture form the soil. The stem or trunk stores food-stuffs, conducts
these to the leaves and provides strength and rigidly to the tree. Te timber which man has
used since the earliest ages is, of curse, cut form the trunk. The crown consists of
branches, twigs and leaves in which the chemical process essential t growth takes place.

Hardwoods: These bear fruit in which the seeds are to be found, the chestnut of the
horse-chestnut, the acorn of the oak, and the berries of the holly tree are examples.

The terms “softwood” and ‘hardwood’ are by no means accurate in every case; they are
however, generally descriptive and established terms in the trade. Some hardwoods are as
soft as, or even softer than, the nominally softwood, whilst some softwoods are harder
than many hardwoods.

Most of the timber used by the carpenters and joiners in the construction of building is
softwood. This is mainly of the pine and fir class, and through they are to be found in
many parts of the world, the chief sources of pine are the forest of Canada, North
America, Scandinavia, and Russia. The forest belts providing the hardwoods are to be
found in the tropical zones, namely: central and south America, West Africa, regions of
India, Burma, and Malaya and Eastern Australia.

Advantage of Wood

Wood has the following advantage:

i. Very high strength compared to its weight
ii. Easily worked and shaped
iii. Easily erected, dismantled, and modified to suit changing conditions
iv. Warmth to the touch and richness and variety in natural colour an texture
v. Wide variety of species to suit differing requirements
vi. Good thermal insulation
vii. High fire endurance-does not suddenly lose its strength, distort, or expand and
thus increases the time for escape, salvage, and fire-fighting.

The timber expert has to know many more than those given, and he h as to be able to
identify the family, group, species, and variety. General appearance, texture, colour,
smell, weight, etc, are useful I distinguishing different kinds of timber, but identification
is more reliable if it is based on the structural features of the timber. For this purpose a
hand magnifying glass or microscope is necessary to examine samples of the timber,
specially cut with a sharp knife as shown in or by a machine called a microtome.

Structure

Softwood timber is composed of many tubular cells cemented together called tracheids,
these have wall of wood substance and the rising sap passed from one tracheid to anther
thought the softer texture within the cell walls, known as pits, A parts from transporting
the moisture drawn up from the roots, the trachelds in the structure of softwoods give
strength to the tree.
A further series of cells, termed parenchyma rays, pass from the outside of the tree
towards the pith and are formed of a pity substance. These cells, which are shorter than
the tracheids store reserves of food which can be passed to any part of the tree which
requires them. The rays are often used as a means of identifying timbers. Resin canals
sometimes occur in softwoods. These are placed in a horizontal ad vertical direction.

The structure of hardwoods is more complicated than that of softwoods. The main feature
of the structure is the presence of large cells or vessels which pass the moisture up the
tree from the roots to the leaves. Along with the large vessels are rays parenchyma cells
and fibres. The latter serve to give strength to the tree.

There are two types of hardwoods: Ring-porous, and diffuse-porous, In ring-porous

timbers large cells are produced during the early part of the growth ring and these
become smaller in size as the season progresses. In diffuse-porous timbers the cells are
generally the same size within the growth ring.

Annual or growth rings

These are formed by the early spring-wood and are arranged in roughly concentric
formation round the pith, as each growing season an additional sheath of tissue is
produced around the tree, increasing the diameter and pushing the bark outwards. In
softwoods which have been grown slowly, the timber will have more growth rings than
one which as been grown quickly, resulting in much stronger timber, the age of a tree can
be determined by counting these rings of annual growth.

There are many more large cells and fewer fibres in a slow-grown ring-porous hardwood.
This means that a weaker timber is produced than is the case with hardwood which is
fast-grown.

Medullary raysThese exist in all woods. They are seen as lines or the transverse section,
radiating form the pith to the bark and running with the grain of the tree. Generally, these
rays are not easy to see without the use of a lens or microscope, except in certain
hardwoods, particularly oak. It is these rays which give many hardwoods their rich
decorative figuring.

Sapwood and heartwood

New wood formed on the outside, next to the bark, is called sapwood. Every part of
wood in any tree has, therefore, been sapwood at some time. As this contains all the
food-stuffs, it is liable to

attack from fungi or insect for this reason. Sapwood, properly treated, can be made
immune from such attack, and should not be discarded on this account

Heartwood, is the growth of earlier years and is the inner portion of the tree trunk. It is
darker in colour and the more mature wood. It serves mainly to give strength to the tree
trunk.

FIGURE: 7.1. INTRENAL STRUCTURE OF WOOD

Pitch
This is centre of the tree and represents the fist growth Bark

This outer covering of corky tissue serves to protect tree against external injury and
extremes of temperature. The outside of the bark is termed the cortex and that between
the cambium layer and the cortex, the bast.

It is not proposed to consider the chemical component of tree in detail here. It may be
sufficient to indicate that cellulose is the chef structural component contained in the cell
walls, while resins, colouring matter, alkaloids, tannins, etc. are other substance to be
found.

Grain
This term is very loosely when applied to timber and should not be confused with its
texture. Grain refers to the direction of the fibres and other woody elements, while texture
refers to the arrangement, fineness or coarseness, and distribution of these elements.
Thus, fine textured timber has element which are small and close together. When they are
larger an spaced wider apart the term coarse in applied.

Straight grain refers in timber where the fibres are parallel with the surface; such timber
is relatively strong and easy to work. Cross grain is a deviation of the fibres of ht timber
from a line parallel to the edges of the wood. Diagonal-grained timber is a result of
improper conversion so that fibres are inclining to the edges of the timber; this reduces
strength and is sometimes referred to as oblique grain. Spiral-grained timber has fibres
which take a more or less spiral course in a particular direction. Interlocking grains as
fibres partly-spiraling which are in-clined in opposite directions and are often known as
wild grain. Curly grain and wavy grain indicates wave-like stripes on the surface of the
timber due to the fibres changing direction, and is valued because of it highly decorative
appearance. Short grain indicates that the timber may fracture due to fibres lying in a
certain direction. End grain refers to the section of a cross-cut surface, showing the
arrangement of the exposed fibres.
Figure is the pattern on the surface of the timber and is due entirely to the structure of the
wood. Straight-grained timber has only a plain figure whereas wavy or interlocked-
grained timber produces a finely marked and attractive figure.

The method of conversion affects the nature of the figure. Quarter sawing in the case of
oak used for such purpose as paneling and furniture, where appearance is most important,
discloses on the surface the medullary rays which gives the silver grain or rich figure.

A compete list of commercially used timbers is outsider the scope this book, but the
following short descriptions are of varieties in extensive use. The standard name of the
timber is given first, followed by alternatives.

FIGURE: 7.2. SAWN WOOD

Softwoods

Douglas fir (British Columbian pine, Oregon pine) average weight 528.66kg/m3.
available I logon lengths and large sections; straight-grained and resilient: easy to work
by hand or machine. Reddish brown to pinkish brown in colour. Being one of the hardest
softwood it can take heavy, continuous wear. The strongest, for its weight, of any
softwood in the world, with a high resistance to acids and decay, has good gluing an high
insulation qualities. Used of first-class joinery. Large quantities of plywood are made
from Douglas fir.

Hemlock, western

(pacific hemlock, British Columbian hemlock) average weight 480-60kg. It ranks high in
strength and durability and has a fine uniform texture. Straight-grained, stiff yet easily
worked, and light brown in colour. Easy to work by hand or machine and good for
gluing. Its smooth clear surface takes stain, paint, and varnish without difficulty used for
interior journey work, built-in furniture, agricultural and timber buildings.
Larch, European average weight 592.74kg/m3. one of the most valuable and most used
home grown timber reddish brown in colour, very strong and durable; resinous; straight-
grained. The larch grown to a height of 30-48m or more, with a girth of 4-570m in some
trees. Used for all kinds of carpentry work, fencing gates, posts, garden furniture,
flooring, and railway sleepers.

Parana pine average weight 544-68kg/3. This South America softwood had an even
texture and is straight-grained. It is unsuitable for exterior work, being brittle and mot
durable. The colour is from light to darkish brown with some reddishness. Suitable for all
classes of interior joinery but is inclined to split on nailing. Takes screw, glue, and paint
well.

Hardwoods
Afrormosia (kokrodua) average weight 688-86kg/m3 . This wood resembles teak in
appearance, but has a finer grain. It is very durable and well. it is suitable for high-class
joinery, ship and carriage work. Care should be taken when use on outside work in direct
contact with ironwork to avoid staining.

Agba (Nigeria cedor, pink mahogany) average weight 480-60kg/m3. this West African
timber grow up to 60-960m in height.

American whitewood (canary whitewood, yellow poplar) average weight 528-66kg/m3 .

Essentially a wood for interior work to be painted. It takes glue, nails an screws well and
is easy to work. Ther tree grow to a height of 45.700-60.960m and up to 3.048m in
diameter. The colour varies according to the age of the wood, between quite yellow and
grey, it is not particularly strong and will deteriorate quickly in damp situations.
Botanically whitewood is a hardwood, but in workability it is to all intents and purpose a
softwood.

Beech, European average weight 720-kg/m3. This is one of the most used hardwood in
this country, large quantities being imported form central and southern Europe. The
timber is hard, close-grained and durable, with a fine texture. It is used extensively for
furniture. Particularly chair-making wooden planes, handles of the woodworker saw other
tools, block and parquets flooring. It shows silver grain and is used for veneers on this
account. Colour reddish yellow or light brown.

Birch average weighty 672-90kg/m3. From Europe generally, also Canada and other
regions of North America. European birch is used principally of plywood. Large
quantities form Finland and Sweden are imported into this country. Colour white to light
brown. Straight-grained and medium texture. Similar to beech in many ways but is more
inclined to warp.

Black bean average weight 720-90kg/m3. chocolate brown with greyish brown streaks
giving an attractive rich appearance to the wood. Similar to French walnut in colour, hard
to work. For new south Wales and queensland, the timber is excellent for veneers high-
class joinery, paneling and furniture.

7.2 COMMON SIZES OF TIMBER

• 25×300×3600

• 50×300×3600

• 50×50×3600

• 50×75×3600

• 50×150×3600

• 100×100×3600
WEEK EIGHT

8. PREPARATION OF PIECE OF WOOD BY HAND AND

MACHINE

•Timber is often purchase in random lengths and nominal sizes. It has to be prepared
according to the size and length required.

•Timber is sawn to the required size and planed to provide a smooth finish. The planning
will reduce the size of timber and certain allowances are made to provide for this.

8.1 HAND PREPARATION OF MEMBER

•In this operation, planning, sawing, thicknessing, grooving and gluing is done by hand
tools.

Steps involved are:

•Mark out the member using marking tools e.g. try square and pencil

•The member is sawn to length and width by a cross-cut saw and circular hand saw to
reduce its length, width and thickness

•The member is planed using a jack plane

•The member is ready for further treatment

8.2 MACHINE PREPARATION

• A cutting list, In duplicate, is prepared by the “setter-out” (the joiner who doe the
setting out). If, for example, two doors (as numbered on the setting out rod ) are to be
made of the type illustrated, the sizes and the amount of timber, etc, will be as stated in
the specimen cutting list (or materials sheet). A copy of this list is sent to the machine
shop.
•The timber required for this job is sent into the shop and deposited near the circular
sawing machine. This operator or sawyer who will do the cutting out will then examine
the timber and cut out the members to the required sizes. After being sawn to length on
the cross –cut-sawing, and sawn to width and thickness on the ordinary circular saw, the
pieces are faced and edged on the hand –fed planning machine, in order to ensure •that
they are not in twist or winding. Next, the pieces are planed to the required width and
thickness on a thicknessing machine. They are then marked out for further machine
operations consisting of mort icing on the mort icing machine, tenoning on the tenoning
machine, and grooving on the vertical spindle moulding machine.
•The tenons are cut to form the haunches either on the band sawing machine, or a small
type circular sawing machine. The panels, after being dealt with on the panel planning
and thickening machines, and cut accurately to the finished sizes (with at least 2mm
clearance all-round) may be finished on the sand-papering machine. The materials is then
ready to be sent, along with the cutting list, to the joiners shop for assembly.
•The whole machine preparations are planning the timber, reducing it to the correct
widths and thicknessing various members,
WEEK NINE

9. LAYOUT OF A STANDARD CARPENTRY AND JOINERY

WORKSHOP

9.1 STANDARD CARPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP

The planning of the workshop should be made for smooth operation without creating
hazard and there by observing safety rules. The machines should be arranged according
to the sequence of operations, by allowing free flow operation. The other method is by
batching. It is necessary to remember timber shed within or outside the working
environment, tools stored easily accessible to workers, toilets, boots, office for the
supervisors, first aid box, progress reports and bar charts and dispatch or show-room are
some of the essential things required.
i) The location which should be accessible by roads, rail or by sea.
ii) The raw materials for the production should be readily available within the area or
not too far from the factory.
iii) Standard equipment which will make production quick and maintain standard.
The machines and materials available in joinery workshop include;-

1. Overhead hand feed circular saw bench.

2. Cross cutting machine.

3. The dimension saw bench.

4. The band saw (Narrow)

5. Surface planer machine.

6. The thicknessing machine.

7. The chain/chisel mortising machines.

8. The tenoning machine.

9. The spindle moulders.

10. Drilling machine (Table and pillar).

11. Sanding machine.

12. Spraying machines.

13. Grinding machine.

14. Router machine.

15. The lathe machine

16. Blower.

17. Bracing machine

18. Presser.
It is very difficult is get a perfect layout for the machines and benches in a workshop
because of the varying nature of the work they are used for. It is a good plan, however, to
arrange the machine in the following groups: first, the cutting-off machines (cross-cut
and rip saws), next the planning machines (surface planers, thickeners, and four sides),
then the jointing and finishing machines (mortising, tenoning, and moulding machines,
belt, drum and disc sanders). The joiner’s shop should be near the finishing machines so
that there is no unnecessary waste of time when work is carried operations.

Small workshop layout

Two typical layouts for a small workshop employing about eight men are given. The first
example show the machines shop equipped with one general woodworking machine, one
mortise machine, and one band saw. The joiner’s shop contains three double benches,
with assembly and storage space provided at the end of each bench. The foreman the
bench nearest to the office.

It the second example the machine shop contains six machines a cross-cut saw, a rip saw,
a planer and thicknesser, a mortise machine, a spindle moulder, and a band saw. The
joiner’s shop has two double benches and a single setting-out bench which is placed near
the office. The single bench would again probably be occupied by the foremen.
FIGURE: 9.1: STARNDARD CAPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP
FIGURE: 9.2: STARNDARD CAPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP
9.2 EXAMPLE: 1

An example is the layout of medium-sized joinery workshop employing about thirty-six

men and housing sixteen woodworking machines and eight double benches.

FIGURE: 9.3: STANDARD CAPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP

FIGURE: 9.4: STANDARD CAPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP
WEEK TEN

10. PREPARATION FOR JOINTS IN WOOD WORK

There are many different joints that the carpenter and joiner may use. Joints generally fall
into three categories and carry out the following functions:

CATEGORY JOINT FUNCTION

•Lengthening End To increase the effective length

of timber

•Widening Edge To increase the width of wood

or

Manufactured boards

•Framing Angle To terminate or to change

direction

10.1 TYPES OF JOINTS

•An example of timber Joints are; Halved joints, bridle joints, mortice and tenon,
dowelled and wedged mortice and tenon joints.

Halved Joints: In this type of joint one piece crosses over the other.
FIGURE: 10.1.HALVED JOINT

FIGURE: 10.2.HALVED JOINTS

BRIDLE:
These two ‘bridle joints’ are used when a light frame is needed. for example, a
picture frame. One part of the joint fits into the other part and is glued
permanently in position.

FIGURE: 10.3. BRIDLE JOINT

MORTICE AND TENON JOINTS:

Below are two examples of ‘mortice and tenon joints: These are used when making tables
or cabinets and they are very strong when glued together. There are many different types
and a larger feature on this type of joint appears below.

FIGURE:10.4. MORTICE AND TENON JOINT

The common mortice and tenon joint is normally used in the construction of tables and
chairs. The joint is reliable when a suitable glue such as PVA or cascamite is used. The
joint seen opposite can be strengthened in a number of ways including the use of Dowell
rod The problem associated with the basic mortice and tenon is that over time the joint
can come apart especially if it is expected to hold the weight of a person - such as the
joints of a chair.

FIGURE: 14.5. DOWELLED MORTICE AND TENON JOINTS

DOWELLED MORTICE AND TENON JOINTS:

This is another example of a mortice and tenon joint. However, in this example a piece of
dowel rod is drilled through the mortice and the tenon. This help the joint together even
when it is under great pressure. This is used as a joint on chairs and other pieces of
furniture so that the joints do not break apart when extra weight is applied.

This is another way in which dowels can be used to form a joint. Modern pieces of
furniture are often jointed in this way. It is a permanent method but it is not the strongest
joint as the parts can eventually pull apart, especially as the joint becomes old. Modern
glues that are very strong have meant that this joint is often used to quickly fix parts
together.
FIGURE: 14.6. THE SECRET HAUNCH MORTICE AND TENON

THE SECRET HAUNCH MORTICE AND TENON:

If the mortice and tenon joint is to used as part of a frame, a secret or sloping haunch is
used. The tenon does not show on the outer side of the joint and it gives greater gluing
area, adding to the overall strength of the joint.

FIGURE: 14.7. WEDGED MORTICE AND TENON

WEDGED MORTICE AND TENON:

This is a very strong and attractive joint. The tenon has two slots and when it is pushed
into the mortice wedges are tapped into position. The wedges hold the joint together
firmly and they also give the joint an interesting look.

10.2 EXAMPLE: 1

MAKING A MORTICE AND TENON JOINT - THE MORTICE

The construction of a plain mortice and tenon joint is shown. This type of joint has a wide
range of uses and is particularly useful when manufacturing furniture. Several types of
mortice and tenon joint exist. The marking out and cutting of all the mortice and tenon
joints are based in this simple joint. Below is a stage by stage account of the marking and
cutting of the mortice part of the joint.

The mortice gauge is a special type of marking gauge and it is used to mark wood so that
a mortice can be cut into it. The diagram to the above represents a typical mortice and
tenon joint. The mortice is marked out using the mortice gauge although it must be set to
the correct size of mortice chisel very carefully. A mortice chisel is then used to remove
the waste wood.

The mortice gauge is normally made from a hardwood such as rose wood with brass
being used for the parts that slide along the stem.

Animated Mortice Gauge

MARKING OUT A MORTICE

STEP ONE: 1

The distance between the fixed spur and the adjustable spur is set
so that it matches the width of the mortice chisel. The width of the
mortice chisel should match the width of the mortice to be cut in the wood.

STEP TWO:
A try square and a marking knife are used mark the lines at the top and bottom of the
mortice.

STEP THREE:

The stock of the mortice gauge is pressed against the side of the
wood. It is then pushed along the wood until the mortice is
marked out correctly.

STEP FOUR: STEP FIVE:

The mortice chisel is then used to The waste wood is then slowly removed,
break the surface of the waste wood this time, by applying more force to the
by gently tapping the handle with a handle of the chisel with the mallet. The
mallet. waste is removed until the entire mortice
hole has been cut.
10.3 EXAMPLE: 2

STEPS IN MAKING HOUSING JOINT

• Members prepared by machine.

• Mark and gauge the width and depth.

• Bore two or more holes to the width and depth of trench.

• Chop the edges of the holes square.

• Using the ‘toe’ of a tenon saw, make two or more saw kerfs to the depth mallet.
• Remove waste wood with a chisel

• Level the bottom of the trench with router.

• Test for fitness by putting the pieces together and removed.

• Prepare final fixing and dress up using slicing or smoothing tools.

Students are required to write a report on joints in woodwork.

WEEK ELEVEN

11. MAKING USE OF METAL DOGS/FASTENING AND GUSSET

PLATE

11.1 GUSSET PLATE

FIGURE: 11.1. 25MM GUSSET PLATE

FIGURE: 11.2. TIMBER GIRDER TRUSS

WITH GUSSET PLATE

FIGURE: 11.3. GUSSET PLATE IN TRUSS ROOF

FIGURE: 11.4. TIMBER KING POST TRUSSES WITH GUSSET
FIGURE: 11.5. GUSSET
PLATE

FIGURE: 11.6. GUSSET PLATE

FIGURE: 11.7. GUSSET ASSEMBLY FOR TRUSSES
11.1.0 METAL DOGS

There are many metal dogs used in carpentry and joinery work. An example
is;

Iron dogs: This the strip of iron bent to form hooks, they are generally use
for temporary work e.g. shores.

FIGURE: 11.8. IRON DOGS

WEEK TWELVE

12. CONSTRUCTION OF WOODEN FLOOR

12.1 TYPES OF WOODEN FLOOR

SINGLE FLOOR: When bridging joists are used to support floor board and the joist in

one continuous length that span from wall to wall is known as single floors. These types

of floors are generally use in domestic buildings and offices of supervisors in

manufacturing companies. The maximum economic span should be about 4.5m long.

Two members are used in constructing the floor:

I. Joist 150mm by 50mm thick or 75mm thick

ii. Floor board 25mm thick

DOUBLE FLOORS: Double floors are rarely used in modern building practice.
The maximum clear span for softwood bridging joists can be considered as 4.8m, and
when the smallest plan dimension of a room exceeds this length it is necessary to
construct a double floor. Here relatively large members, called binders, are introduced to
given intermediate support to the joists.
Frame floors. When the shortest span of the room exceeds 7.2m it is necessary to
constructs a framed floor. This consists of bridging joists, binders, and girders. It is now
common practice to use rolled-steel joist sections for both girders, but in older buildings
the main supporting units were of solid timber or flitched timber members. The bridging
joists are placed the short way of the room that is, parallel to the main girders. The
binders which give support to the bridging joist are themselves supported by the main
girders.
12.2 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION:
The floor is divided into three bays by two 375x175mm solid timber binders. These
support 150x50 mm bridging joists spaced at 375mm centres. The binders may be solid
timber beams, flitched beams, or rolled=steel joists put in position at 2.4 to 3.6m centres
across the shortest way of the room. They are supported at each end on 225 x 162x600
mm stone pads, with an allowance for a free passage of air round the ends of each binder.
Where the ceiling below needs an unbroken surface, ceiling joists are also needed. For
the outer bays, these joists may be supported at one end by fillets nailed firmly to the
sides of the binders, and at the other end by fillets securely fixed to the wall. The joists
for the middle bay are supported on fillets nailed to the binders.
The method of supporting the bridging joists and the ceiling joists are also shown. The
method of supporting the binder, the free passage of air round the beam, and a section
view of the stone pad are also shown here.
At the top are the plan and section of a floor 5.4m wide and 9m long, set out in three 3m
bays.
The details show a section through the floor with the bridging joist notched up to and
over the steel binders, and supported by steel angles. Also shown is a second method
where wood bearers are fixed to the steel binder by bolts, to receive the ends of the joist
which are notched up to the binder.
The bridging joists are lathed and plastered.
Cradling for the steel binder consists of firings which are halved at the joints to form
frames, fixed to the side of each bridging joists, and arranged around the binder to receive
the lath and plaster.
A side view of the steel binder and the cradling are also illustrated.
FIGURE: 12.I: DOUBLE FLOOR FIGURE: 12.2: FRAMED FLOOR
The plan and sectional view of a traditional framed floor is given. This example has
150x75 mm bridging joists, 275x 150mm binders, The sectional views of the flitched
girder and the bridging joists. Also shown is a sectional view of the binder and the
method of supporting the flitched girder.
The framed floor illustrated has a 375 x 125 mm steel girder, 275 x 150 mm solid wood
binders, 150 x 75mm bridging joists, and 100 x 50 mm ceiling joist.
The details show the method of supporting the binders and the fixing of the casing.

Control BCG006
Guidance Note Issued 01/01/2001 Rev B Page 1 of 2
The following table gives details of allowable spans and spacing between joists for the
most commontimber sizes used in floor construction. All the figures are based on normal
floor loadings in dwellings
where the floor construction is typically 18-25mm floor boards/sheets with up to 12.5mm
thick plasterboardand skim underneath. For any other situation these tables may not be
appropriate and you should refer to theApproved Document to Part A of the Building
Regulations or ask your Building Control Officer for advice.
When choosing a joist spacing you should also check that your floorboards (or sheets) are
themselves strong enough to span over the width chosen.

12.3 FLOOR JOISTS SUITABLE FOR DOMESTIC FLOOR LOADINGS

Size of joists Maximum clear span in metres for joist spacing of in mm400mm
450mm 600mm
97 x 50 1.98 1.87 1.54
122 x 50 2.60 2.50 2.19
147 x 50 3.13 3.01 2.69
170 x 50 3.61 3.47 3.08
195 x 50 4.13 3.97 3.50
220 x 50 4.64 4.47 3.91
147 x 75 3.56 3.43 3.13
170 x 75 4.15 3.96 3.61
195 x 75 4.68 4.52 4.13
220 x 75 5.11 4.97 4.64

Timber sizes and construction details

Building Control BCG006
Guidance Note Issued 01/01/2001 Revision B Page 2 of 2

When constructing timber floors, you should also bear in mind the following
points:-
1/ Floors are used to give lateral restraint to walls, and where the joists run parallel to the
wall, straps need to be installed as shown in the details below. Normally these straps need
to be positioned every 2m along the wall, but up to 3m is acceptable where this is to
allow the formation of a stairwell or similar opening in the floor. The galvanized mild
steel straps must have a minimum cross sectional area of 30 x 5mm
2/ Around stairwells and similar openings it is often necessary to use trimmer beams to
support the ends of joists. These details are dealt with separately on guidance note
number 009.
3/ Where joists support a partition wall or under baths they usually need to be 'doubled
up' to
support the increased localised loading.
4/ On joist spans over 2.5m, strutting is required to prevent joists twisting when loaded.
For spans of between 2.5 and 4.5 m only one row of strutting is needed, at the mid span
position. For spans over 4.5 m two rows of strutting will be required, positioned at the
one third and two third span positions. Solid strutting should be at least 38 mm thick
timber extending to at least three
quarters the depth of the joist. For example, 200 x 50mm joists would need at least 150 x
38mm
timber used as strutting. Herringbone strutting should be at least 38 x 38mm timber but
can only
be used where the spacing between the joists is less than three times the depth of the joist.
Hence
for a 150 x 50 joist, herring bone strutting can only be used up to a spacing of 450mm but
for a
200 x 50 joist, a spacing of up to 600mm would be satisfactory.
WEEK THIRTEEN

13.0.0 NAILS, SCREWS AND BOLTS

The commonest fixing carried out by the carpenter and and joiner in building is nailing.
This type of connection may give a joint efficiency as low as 15 percent as a joint
efficiency of the order of 100 percent in the case of adhesives. This is due to the difficulty
of placing A sufficient number of units in the contact area of the member to be joined.

The main reasons for the low efficiency of the rigid bar type of connection, such as the
nailed or bolted joint, are:

•The low shear strength of timber parallel to the grain.

•The non- uniform distribution of bearing stress along the shank of the nail or bolt, e.t.c.
In steel work it is assumed that the bearing stress is uniformly distributed over an area
equal to the plate thickness multiplied by the bolt diameter.

Members joined by together using screws provide a more scientifically designed joint
fastening than that of nailing, but it is more costly. Screws may be position more
accurately, and have a much higher resistance to withdrawal, than nails, and serve as a
much better clamping device. In jointing, where nails or screws would not provide
sufficient strength bolts are employed. These serve mainly as a clamping device.

13.0.1 NAILS

•Oval wire nails are used for carpentry and joinery work, and have less tendency to split
the timber because of their section when driven with the widest dimension in the same
direction as the grain of timber. Their sizes vary from 1”-6” (25mm-150mm).

•Circular nails are used for temporary work.

•Cut clasp nails are used for general purpose.

•Floor brands are used for nailing floor boards and the length varies from 1.5”to 3” (35-
75mm).

•Spikes are wire nails used for securing large members, their length exceed 6” (150mm).

•Joiners brands or springs are used by joiners and their length varies from 1”to 2” (25-
50mm).

•Panel pins are used generally for fine work, the fixing of mouldings, thin panel and
hardboard. •Ring shank nails are used for heavy work (carpentry work).

•Clout nails are used in fixing the ceiling board and laths to the joist.
FIGURE: 13.1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF NAILS

Holding power of nails

A useful guide in obtaining the maximum holding power of nails in use is that the nail
should penetrate the timber into which it is driven by the distance equal to the thickness
of timber it is driven through.

13.0.2 SCREWS

Like nails, screws are made in variety of metals. The mild steel type is the most common;
copper, brass, stainless steel, and aluminium are others. They have also a number of
different finishes, such as galvanized, sheradized, nickel-plate, brassed, chromed, and
black japanned.

The sizes of wood screws vary between gauge NO. 0, having a shank diameter of
1.56mm, and gauge NO. 32 with a diameter of 12mm. And the length vary from 3.17mm
for the smaller gauges length to 152mm for the thicker screws.

Iron screws are the strongest and cheapest screws and used for ordinary purposes. But
they corrode easily especially in hard wood particularly oak.

Screws are available in various sizes from 1”to 6” (25mm-150mm).

• Flat or countersunk head screws

• Round head screws used for fixing metal to wood.

• Raised head screws also used for fixing metal to wood.

• Coach screws with square or hexagonal head, used for heavy

construction job.

Holding power of screws

Screws develop a greater resistance to withdrawal during the seasoning process of the
timber. This is the case with screws used in doors and windows which have been fixed in
position on the site for some time.

13.0.3 RAW BOLT

These are metal bolt-fixings designed for use in masonry. There are two types to meet
different method of fixing. The bolt and shell and the loose bolt type.

13.1.0 CONSTRUCTION OF WOODEN SILLS

13.1.1 WINDOW SILLS

A window frame is usually less thick than the wall in which it is built, unless the frame is
set flush with the outside face of the wall. Most of the area of a window is glass which
does absorb water and rain runs off it on to the external surface below. To prevent this
rain saturating the brickwork below the window, a sill is constructed. The sill may be of
wood, stone, tiles, brick, sheet metal, e.t.c. which will not absorb moisture. Internal
surface at

the bottom of a window will collect dust and may become damp from moisture which
condenses on the inside face of the glass and runs down.

It is usually to construct an internal sill of some materials which is hard and that can be
cleaned. A timber board, called a window board, is commonly used. Clay or concrete
tiles may also be used.

INTERNAL SILLS OF WOOD WINDOW BOARD: The usual way of finishing the
internal sill of windows is to fix a timber a timber window board. A softwood board is
prepared with one edge rounded and it is fixed to grounds, plugs or fixing blocks in the
brickwork below the window.

It is not generally possible to drive nails through timber and in to brickwork. Most bricks
are too hard to be penetrated by nails, hence the use of grounds, plugs or blocks.

Timber grounds consist of lengths of small section sawn softwood. These grounds are
either nailed to wood plugs driven into brickwork joint or directly into mortar joints, to
provide a level surface to which the window board can be nailed.

Plugs are wedge shaped piece of timber driven into joints between bricks and to which
the window board is nailed.

Fixing blocks offcuts of lightweight aggregate concrete blocks which are built at
intervals into brickwork and into which nails can readily be driven.
FIGURE: 13. 2. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL
WEEK FOURTEEN

14.0.0 CONSTRUCTION OF CENTRES FOR ARCHES

•Centres are wood structures which are used as temporary supports for arches during
construction. Arches are constructed mainly of brick work masonry or concrete and they
may be flat, sequential or semi-circular in shape.
•Centers consist of one or more rib which supports laggings. Laggings are cast to length
equal to the thickness of the wall. They are battens or plywood, nailed on the ribs to form
a platform for the walling.
•Two types of lagging are common i.e. open lagging. The centers are supported or
vertical props.
•Folding wedges are necessary to permit a slight vertical adjustment of levels. The wedge
also allows the center to be ease or lowered and then revolved (easing and striking).
•Ribs form the profile of the arch and are made from sheet materials (plywood) or solid
section joined with metal plates or are built- up of two thicknesses of timber with their
joint s lapping. Ribs provide support and fixing for lagging.
•Struts stabilise the framework by helping to redistribute some of the load placed on the
ribs.
•Ties prevent built-up ribs from spreading and provide affixing for bearers.
•Bearers tie the base of the centre and provide a sole, under which the centre is wedge
and propped.

14.0.1 CONSTRUCTION
Start by drawing a full-size outline of half the centre. Remember to deduct the thickness
of the lagging (except for centres for segmental arches)

•Segmental arch of 50mm rise may need only a turning piece but most will requires a
centre consisting of two curved ribs to span the width of the opening and to which
laggings are nailed.
•Semi-circular arch is supported on a centre consisting of two built-up ribs which are
prevented from spreading by the introduction of a tie. The laggings are 25x25 or
plywood. The centre is supported on 50x175 props.

FIGURE: 14.1. SEGMENTAL ARCH CENTRE

FIGURE: 14.2. COSTRUCTION OF SEMICIRCULARARCH CENTRE

FIGURE: 14.3. COSTRUCTION OF TURNING

PIECE
Centres for large arches: Regulations provide that for arches greater them 1.2m span,
braced or trussed centers should be used.

•The centring systems described were mainly for supporting arches in buildings. Arches
which have a span more than 3m are required mainly in large structures as religious
buildings and arched bridges over rivers or roads.
•Large centring systems are generally constructed by much the same methods as are used
for smaller units. Two way of forming large centers are:-
(a) Built-up from two, three or more laminations.
(b) Solid timber framed together with mortise and tenon joints which are secured with
metal fasteners (straps or bolts).
•It is important that large span centring systems should be adequately supported, either by
stout timber shores or by a sufficient number of steel props
FIGURE: 14.4. SEMICIRCULAR ARCH

CENTRE FOR DOMES

Domes constructed of concrete are usually hemispherical in shape. The centering for
those with span of 6m and over would be supported on a platform of steel scaffolding, or
some other steel props systems,
and it is general practice for such structures to be properly supported during
construction. Centre for small domes may be built in two ways i.e. they may either
consist of vertical ribs radiating from the centre of the dome with the curved surface
covered by horizontal boarding or it may be built on circular ribs. The circular ribs would
vary in sizes and would be placed horizontally and covered with vertical boarding.

14.1.0 CONSTRUCTION OF TIMBER SHORES

A shore is a member, generally of timber used temporarily to prop a wall which is either.
(a) Defective and likely to collapse
(b) Liable to collapse when alterations are made to adjacent property.
(c) Liable to collapse when being altered by the removal of its lower portion for
reconstruction.
Shores are the supports or props used in shoring.

14.1.1 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

Raking shores:- This is an inclined struts used to support a wall which shows signs of
failure such as cracks or bulge. The defects may be due to thrusts from one or more
upper floors, or from the roof or because of unequal settlement of its foundation. In its
simplest form the shore consist of struts, together with a suitable support at the foot and
fixing at the head. It consist of an inclined member supported at ground level on a piece
of wood called sole plate and secured at the top by wood needle inserted in the wall. The
angle between the shore and the sole plate must be slightly less than 90o or 87o. The wall
pieces provide a suitable abutment for the shore and fixing for the lower end of the strut
or brace. The wall piece is hold for the needle. The wall pieces are attach to the wall by
metal wall hooks which are driven into the joints of the brick work, one pair being placed
wear the top and bottom and at approximately 2.75m centers. The needle is strengthened
to resist the upward thrust from the shore and by the provision of a wooden cleat nailed to
the wall piece. The head of the shore is notched to fit the underside of the needle, to
facilitate erection and prevents the shore from being blown down in the event of it
becoming loose. A shore would be required at each end of the wall and at 3.0 to 4.5m
centers and can be of single, double or multiple rakers.
FIGURE: 14.5. RAKING SHORE

Dead shores:- These show are used primarily to carry vertical loading of wall, roof and
floor of a building.
The shore should be placed at 2.0m c/c. When these shores are to be used, holes are
made through the wall to be supported and the needles inserted. The dead shores are then
positioned and the folding wedges tightened to take up the loads. When the shoring is
secure, the wall below the needles can be removed and the work of fixing the new beam
carried out. The needles support the wall by the arching effect of masonry. The weights
of various materials to be supported must be decided upon by measurement and
calculation from first principle, adding any superimposed load that may be applied during
the work. A survey should be carried out to establish the location of any underground
services so that they can be protected as necessary.

FIGURE: 14.6. DEAD SHORE

Horizontal or flying shores:- These are commonly used as temporary supports to either;
• Two gable walls adjacent to a building which is to be removed and re-built.
 • A dilapidated wall fronting a relatively narrow street and opposite which a
building is
available as an abutment.

The flying shores are placed at 3 to 4.5m c/c and can be of single or double format. They
are designed, detailed and constructed to the same basic principle as that of raking shores.
Unsymmetrical arrangements are possible provided the basic principle for flying shores is
applied.
Unsymmetrical flying shores- arrangements of flying shores for unsymmetrical situations
can be devised if the basic principles for symmetrical shores are applied. In some cases
the arrangement will consist of a combination of both raking and flying shores principles.

Temporary support determination- the basic sizing of most temporary support follows the
principle of elementary structure design. Reader with this basic knowledge should be able
to calculate such support members which are required particularly those used in context
of the maintenance and adaptation of building such as a dead shoring system

Weight of roof per meter run of wall = 84 x 4 .52 = 3.79.68

Weight of ceiling per meter of wall = 23 x 3.70 = 85.10

Weight of roof per meter of wall = 500 x 3.00 = 1500.0

Total weight supported by needle = 1964.78 x shore centre

= 1964.78 x 2.000

= 3929.56 kg

say = 3930 kg

Needle design:-

w = 3930 kg RA =RB =
W

14.2.0 CONSTRUCTION OF PANEL DOORS

14.2.1 MANUFACTURE OF PANELED DOORS
Panel doors are usually (a) manufactured by machinery or (b) very occasionally prepared

principally by hand.

(a)Machine-Made Doors: As implied on most doors are made by machinery. Mass-

production method have been responsible for a large reduction in the cost of such doors,

and this is the chief reason for the large demand for them. Alterations are constantly

being made to the machines with a view to reducing still further the machine operations

and a corresponding reduction in cost.

The following steps are followed in manufacturing the paneled doors. A cutting list, In
duplicate, is prepared by the “setter-out” (the joiner who doe the setting out). If, for
example, two doors (as numbered on the setting out rod at A,) are to be made of the type
illustrated, the sizes and the amount of timber, etc, will be as stated in the specimen
cutting list (or materials sheet). A copy of this list is sent to the machine shop.

The timber required for this job is sent into the shop and deposited near the circular
sawing machine. This operator or sawyer who will do the cutting out will then examine
the timber and cut out the members to the sizes shown on the sheet in columns “L” “W”
and “I” t (third fourth and fifth column), taking care to select the pieces so that they will
be used to the best advantage. After being sawn to length on the cross –cut-saw, and sawn
to width and thickness n the ordinary circular saw, the pieces are faced and edged on the
hand –fed planning machine, in order to ensure that the are not in twist or winding. Next,
the pieces are planed to the required width and thickness on a thicknessing machine.
They are then marked out for further machine operations consisting of mort icing on the
mortising machine, tenoning on the tenoning machine, and grooving on the vertical
spindle moulding machine. The tenons are cut to form the haunches either on the
bandsawing machine, or a small type circular sawing machine. The panels, after being
dealt with on the panel planning and thickening machines, and cut accurately to the
finished sizes (with at least 2mm clearance all-round) may be finished on the sand-
papering machine. The materials are then ready to be sent, along with the cutting list, to
the joiners shop for assembly.
To facilitate operations, especially in repetitive work (such as the mort icing or
members), improvised aids, called jigs, are used on certain machines. A jig is shaped to
suit the work in hand, and is designed to give a machine operator a measure of safety in
carrying out his work on the machine, and to assist in accurately guiding and controlling
machine tool operations. An application of a jig is given on. In some case, jigs are used in
hand tool operations.

In the manufacture of what is termed a “standard” door the whole of the operations of
planning the timber, reducing it to the correct widths and thickness for the various
members, forming the joints, gluing and finally cramping the members together to form
both the frame and the door to the size of the frame, form the mort ices for the looks
(including the keyhole and hole for the spind) and screwing the hinges to the door and
frame. Most of these mass-produced doors are dowel jointed, and briefly the operations
involved in their manufacture are: The timber is sawn to suitable scantlings and machine
planed; rails are bored, glued and dowelled by a machine in one operation; stiles are
bored; glue is squirted into the dowel holes in the stiles; rail with their projecting dowels
are fitted into the holes in the stiles after the panels have been splipped into the grooves
and finally, the assembled members are cramped together to complete the floor.
FIGURE: 14.7. FOUR PANEL DOOR

(a)Hand –Made Doors- Whilst machinery has eliminated most of the operations which
were formerly performed by hand, there is still a demand for doors and similar
framework which require a certain amount of hand preparation. This applies particularly
to the highest quality framed and paneled doors and those which are not of standard size.
The operations involved are (1) Setting out, (2) forming mort ices and tenons, (3)
assembling gluing and wedging up, and (4) cleaning off.
(1) Setting Out: This is the reproduction on a board (called a setting out rod) of the full
size details of the door, such as may have been prepared by the architect. This rod is
usually of plywood and is from 2.5 to 3mm long, 175 to 280mm wide and 6 to 19 mm
thick. Both edges are planned straight and parallel, and both sides, after being planned
and smooth finishes with fine glass paper, are either chalked or brushed over with a
mixture of whiting and thin glue.

For framed pieces, such as a door, the rod would be set out as shown, which indicates full
size vertical and horizontal sections of the four paneled door, casing etc, illustrated.
Alternatively, the vertical section called the height rod is set out on one face of the
boards, and the horizontal section, called the width rod, is detailed on the reverse. The
reference number of the contract, number of doors required, etc are indicated on the rod.

The pieces of timber used for the various members should be carefully selected to obviate
waste during conversion. If machinery is not available, each piece is cut down by means
of a rip saw and across the grain by a panel saw (described in carpentry). The stuff is then
trued up. This is done by first testing for “winding” or “twist”, a pair of winding strips
(Pieces of carefully dressed mahogany, 350mm by 50mm by 12mm, with parallel edges)
is used for this purpose, one being placed at each end on top and at right angles to the
length of the timber when lying flat on the joiners bench. If these strips are not parallel
when sighting along their upper edge, a jack plane is applied to the stuff until the highest
parts are removed and the surface is perfectly true, as proved by the strips and a straight-
edge. A trying plane, is then used to give a smooth finish. The joiner or setter-out pencils
his characteristic mark, called face side mark, on the face, and this should always point
towards the best edge (door stiles being an exception, when the “best edge” is the outer
edge). This edge, called the face edge, is then dressed by a jack plane, and subsequently
by a trying plane, until it is straight, smooth and at right angles to the dressed face, a try
square, being used to test for squareness. He pencils his face edge mark on the edge, and
this may be a single stroke as a continuation of the face marks. Both face side and face
edge must be perfectly true, as all subsequent gauging and setting out operations are
referred to them. A marking gauge is now used to mark off the width of the members,
this mark being continuous from end to end and parallel to the face edge. A plane is
applied to dress down to the gauge mark to form the back edge; smoothing it is necessary
to saw down the gauge mark, followed by the plane. The piece is gauged to the required
thickness, and the back face is then planed to remove any excess of wood down to the
gauge mark
 FIGURE: 14.8. THREE PANEL DOOR

The whole of the members, having been dressed in this manner, are marked, the position
of the rals, depth of grooves, etc, being transferred to them from the setting our rod. A.
Thus, commencing with the stiles, one is placed on the height rod and the positions of the
rails and 12mm depth of panel grooves are pricked on its face edge. The mort ices for the
rail tenon are then set out on the face edge of the stile. The mort ices for the rail tenons
are then set our on the face edge of the stile. This and the second stile, together with the
muntins, are placed as shown at E. and aided by the try square, the shoulders are squared
down. The muntins are removed and squared all round for the shoulders which are to fit
against the edges of the rails. The mort ice lines are set out on the face edge of the second
stile as shown at F, and as there indicated, tome joiners emphasize the mort ices by
drawing blue pencil lines between the mort ice lines. The mort ice lines are squared over
to the back edge of each stile (see broken lines at F) and the positions of the 9mm thick
edges are marked on the back edge. Note that the length of the stiles exceed slightly that
shown on the rod.
The settings out of the rails from the width rod are similar to that described for stiles. The
setting out for muntins, shoulder and haunches (or haunchings) on the top rail is shown t
K, and the middle rail is shown set out at I, the latter indicating the names applied to the
various lines.

(2) Forming Mort ices and Tenons: The stiles are now mort iced. If a mortising
machine, not available, the mortices are made with a mortise chisel (see Carpentry) and
mallet (4, fig 160, Carpentry). A mortise gauge is used to scribe or mark the mortices on
each edge of the stile, the points of the gauge being set to stuff. These mortices are
always gauge from the face side of each stile. Each mortice is cut half-way through,
commencing at the centre of the back edge and removing the core by small cuts, and the
mortice is completed from the face edge in a similar manner. A core from the face edge
of the back edge to “clean” each mrotice, and a paring chisel is used to finish off. The
50mm deep stub mortices are formed on the rails to receive the tenons at the ends of the
muntins.
To form the tenons, the ends of the rails are gauged from the face side as shown at
B,. The “mortice lines” are ripping sawn down to the “haunch lines”, the “wastes” is
removed, and the “gauge lines” are awn down to the “shoulder lines”. Both ends of each
rail are treated in this manner. The panel groove is then formed, by means of a plough
plane, on the face edge from end to end of each stile, the top or face edge of the bottom
rail, both edges of the middle rail, the bottom or face edge of the top rail, and both edges
of each muntin; the plough iron must be of the proper size, be set at the worked from the
face side of each member. The tenon checks (outer portions) are now removed by using
the tenon saw, to carefully cast down the outside of the shoulder lines (leaving the lines
in) to complete the end, as shown at D,. The tenons on the muntins are formed in a
similar manner.

After the corners of the tenons have been chiseled off, so that they may readily engage in
the mortice, the whole of the members if assembled temporarily to see, if the joints fir
accurately, any necessary adjustments are made, and the framing is put aide pending the
preparation of the panels.
The panels are then made, the dimensions are taken from the rod or framing one face and
edge are planed with the trying plane, and the face and edge marks are put on these. A
panel gauge (see carpentry) is used to mark the required width, the panel is cut along this
line, and the ends are squared and cut off to the exact size. The panel is now mulleted or
gauged; the mullet –a piece of wood grooved to the required size is a slipped along the
edges of the panel to indicate any excessively thick places which are eased by planning.
The four panels are made in this manner, the sides are smoothed by a smoothing plane
glass paper is rubbed across the grains, and the panels are inserted temporarily in the
framing by removing one stile at a time.

(1) Assembling, Gluing and Wedging: Two pieces of scantling or skids are placed on the
bench must be of equal thickness and level. A cramp is necessary to ensure that the
shoulders of the various members fit tightly. One form of cramp called a T-cramp.
(2) A joiner and an apprentice generally work together when gluing up a door. The door
is taken to pieces and both sides of the tenons and the insides of the mortices are
glued; it is at one assembled, the cramp is then used. Commencing at the middle rail,
the cramp is fixed in the position as shown at J; the shoe is slid along to the required
position, the peg is inserted in the appropriate hole, small protecting blocks of wood
are placed between the stiles and the shoe and screw checks, and the cramp is then
screwed up tightly to bring the shoulders right up. The wedges are dipped in glue and
tightly driven in at each end. The cramp is moved to the bottom above, the bottom
wedge at each end being driven first so as to bring the shoulders of the bottom muntin
right up against the rails. The cramp is finally moved to the third position along the
top rail, glued, wedges as inserted and driven home, the top wedge at each end being
fixed first so as to moved the top rail to close the joints between the top muntin and
rails. The camp is removed and the projecting ends of the rails are sawn off.
FIGURE: 14.9. PANEL DOORS

(4) Cleaning off: Any superfluous glue is removed by a chisel from the joints,
commencing on the face side of the door. The trying plane is applied on the muntins to
bring them level with the rails, and the latter are leveled to the face of stiles, any
inequalities at the shoulder being removed. A smooth plane is then used, and if necessary,
the surfaces are scraped before being glass papered. The other side is treated similarly.
The outer edges of the door are not planed, nor are the horns removed, until the door is
being hung in position.

If the door is moulded, the hand operations vary with the type of mould. Thus, if the
panels are to have solid mouldings the face edges of the stiles, rails and muntins will be
moulding, the face edges of the stiles, rails and muntins will be moulded at the required
shape by means of the appropriate moulding plane (see Chap. X, Carpentry) before they
are assembled. The moulded edges of the stiles will be continuous, those on the rails will
be scribed to them and those on them units will be scribed to the rail mouldings. IF
planted moulding is required, they are formed by moulding planes to the required section
on the rod. Moulding are planted in the following manner; The ends of each pieces are
cut to a 45o mitre a mitre block being used for this purpose; the two short lengths for each
panel are placed in position on the door and the two longer pieces are “sprung” into
place; the moulding are nailed to the framing and the nail heads are punched. Each panel
is treated in this manner.

The extensive use of woodworking machinery has eliminated most of the labours
formerly done by hand, and required, many of the operations detailed. Thus, the stiles,
rails and muntins would be cut into lengths and widths by the circular saw; they would be
faced and edged on a surface planer, the tenons would be formed by a tenoning machine
and the mortices by mortising machine. If many of these operations can be done by a
general joiner, there could be prepared on the spindle moulder. After being assembled
and cramped, the door would be given a smooth finish by a sand papering machine

Whilst some of these large and more expensive machines may not be available in the
smaller shops there are comparatively few firm who have not a circular saw and
mortising and tenoning machines, and are thereby enabled to reduce some of the
relatively costly hand labour.

The operation involved in framing casings will understand from the foregoing
description. The manufacture of windows is described on.

CUTTING LISTS OF MATERIAL SHEETS: A cutting list of materials required for each
job gives (1) the reference number of the job, (2) the number, lengths and nominal and
fished sizes of the various members, (3) the kind of timber to be employed and (4) any
special instructions. The various dimensions are taken from the height and width rods.
The list is prepared, in duplicate, by the foreman or setter out, one copy being filed and
the other used by the workmen engaged in preparing the work.
(3)
(4) A typical cutting list or material sheet is given below. It include the particular as the
would be filled in for the two doors (the number indicated on the bottom of the setting
out rod, at,, the preparation of which has just been described, the setting out rods
(height and width) would be prepared from the door shown. The letters “L”, “w” and
“T” stand for length, width and thickness respectively.

No of Description Finished Sizes Timber Remarks

Pieces
L W T W T
4 Stiles 2100 100 38 35 35 Redwood To be put in
2 Top rails 840 100 38 35 35 Redwood hand
4 M. & rails 840 175 38 172 35 Redwood immediately
2 Muntins 1120 100 38 97 35 Redwood
2 Muntins 770 100 38 97 35 Redwood
4 Panels 1020 280 12 - 9 Yellow
4 670 280 12 - 9 pine
Yellow
pine
FIGURE: 14.10. PANEL DOORS

14.4.0 CONSTRUCTION OF DOOR AND WINDOW FRAME

14.4.1 DOOR FRAMES

A door frame consist of three or four timber members rebated for the door or with planted
stops, and joined with mortice and tenon or slot mortice and tenon joists. Door frames are
use for external and internal doors and are built into brick or block walls and secured with
‘’L’’ shaped building-in lugs. The lugs are of galvanized or wrought iron and are screwed
to back of frame through the arm, with the arm built in to horizontal joints. Doors are
hinged on and closed in to the frames.

14.4.2 WINDOW FRAMES.

These are the frames into which the window sashes are fitted and hung. They are set into
the rough opening in the wall and are intended to hold the sashes in place. The members
of the frame are joined with wedged mortice and tenon joints. The post of the frame is
tenon to the head and sill so their ends may project each side of the frame as horns. These
horns can be built into the brickwork in the jambs of the opening as a means of securing
the frame, or they may be cut off on site if the frame is built in flush with the outside face
of brickwork.
When there is a transom in the frame it is joined to the post by means of tenon fitted and
wedged to mortices. Mullions are joined to head and sill with tenons wedged to a mortice
and to transom.
Window frames are usually built in and secured with ‘’L’’ shaped galvanized steel lugs.
The arm is screwed to the back of the frame and the other one built into the jambs.
WEEK FIFTEEN
15.0.0 CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE AND BUILT-UP ROOFS

These can be classified as either;

Flat- pitch from 00-100

Pitched- pitch over 100

Timber roofs may be classified according to their shape. The four most common types
are flat roof, lean-to or pent roof. Span, couple or gable roof and hipped ridge roof.
15.0.1 DESIGN OF ROOF
It is essential that a roof structure should remain rigid. To ensure this a triangular shaped
construction must be used. A triangular shape can not be distorted.
Structural Members: The roof structure must be strong enough to support the weight of
the roof covering with an allowance for snow and wind pressure.
Rafters. In some cases the rafters give direct support to the roof covering while in some
cases purlins give the supports.

The size of rafters varies according to the weight of the roof covering i.e
(1) 50 x 75 and 40 x 100 for light covering
(2) 50 x 100 and 50 x 150 for heavy covering.
The standard spacing for rafters depends on the weight of the roof covering and should be
at least 375 or 450mm centres.

Wall Plate: Should be bedded in to the wall. The wall plates give support to the feet of
the rafters. Alternatively concrete head course or ring beam could be used to support the
rafters feet. Size rangers from 50 x 100 to 15 x 150 and 225x 225 when concrete is used.

The purlins:- Provide intermediate support for the rafter and in some cases the rafters
provide. Support for purlins. The length of the purlin depend upon the spacing of the
rafters. Size rangers form 50 x 75, 75x 150, 75 x 175.
Roofs are classified according to their construction i.e trussed roofs and unstrussed roofs.
UNTRUSSED:- Roofs include those small span roofs on buildings with party walls,
couple roofs, lean –to-roofs and coler roofs. The trussed roofs consist of independent
frames or trusses supporting the roofs members.

FIGURE: 15.1. UNTRUSSED ROOFS

TRUSSED ROOFS:- The type of truss used depends on the span of roof and class of
building. Trusses are necessary on all roofs with clear span of over 7 metres.
 FIGURE: 15.2. TRUSSED ROOF

BUILT-UP TRUSS:- The roof has a simple construction and the timber members are
fastened at the intersections
with nails, bolts or timber connectors. Clear spans of between 7.5m to 15m may
accommodate such roof.
 FIGURE: 15.3. BUILT-UP-TRUSS

15.0.2 CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Sequence of operation:- Preparing members

1. Measure direct from the building

2. Mark out the length of the rafter
3. Cut all rafter
4. Make joints in the wall plates if timber wall plates are used.
5. Where concrete wall plate is in position, make sure provision is made for
enchoring the rafters. This is best achieved by setting hooks of 5mm and rods in
the concrete (formwork) before casting. Another method is to provided bolts and
nots.

After cutting all members to size and are arranged and are persevered by using or coating
all members. With solarium or other preservative 100 fix the wall plates, erect three or
four piers of rafters, followed by the ridge if any and erect temporary support of rakers to
support the members. Next place the purlins in position and fix the remaining rafters.
Prepare the eaves required and fix on the covering.
Wall plates are halved together and nailed using 100mm nails.
Ridge board, rafters and purlins are connected or lengthened by scarf joints and straps.
75mm and 100mm, nails are required to fasten rafters to ridges. 125 and 150 nails are
used for rafters to purlins and rafters to wall plates.
Galvanized round wire nails are used for roof covering.

A simple ridged roof consist of inclined rafters that must on horizontal wall-plates on
top each wall. The top ends of the rafters meet at the horizontal ridges plate or beam.
Horizontal purcline and fixed to the rafters t support roof covering. Heaver under
purline and used to support longer rafters span. Bran or ceiling joists are connected
between the lower ends of opposite rafters to prevent them from spreading and forcing
the walls apart. Collar beans or collar ties may be fixed higher up between opposite
rafters for extra strength.
The rafter tie beans and joist serve to transmit the weight of the roof to the walls
building. There are a number of structural systems employed to facilitate thus, including
the use of wall-plate set at the top of the wall hamone beams, which spreads the weight
down the wall.

Roof trusses for large span structure:

(1) Belfast truss: Is suitable for roofing of factory and storage buildings with large
roof spans. It is cheap and needs less timber than the framed truss.
The curved truss:- Which is sequential in shape consists of a string built up from
2/25 x 150mm members a circular box of 2/25 x 100mm members, and 25/75
struts sandwiched in between bow and beam. When the trusses are set at intervals
of 3.7m along the length of the buildings the purlins are spaced at 600 to 750 c/c
and held in position by the projected strust both sides.

Methods of setting out Belfast truss:-

a. Set out the sequential shape to span and rise.
b. Extend the two ends downward vertical with a lines equal to half span of the roof.
c. Mark out the position of the purlins 600 or 750 c/c.
d. From left, connect all purlin points to the bottom point of the ended line at the
right side.
e. Repeat for right hand side.
f. The crossings within the elevation of the sequent, indicate the struts.
g. The setting out can then be used to prepare and frame the required number of
trusses.

15.1.0 CONSTRUCTION OF STRAIGHT FLIGHT OF STAIRS

15.1.1 SETTING OUT ONE PAPER

In setting out the stair on paper the student should drawn the plan, the nosing (or faces of
risers) being accurately spaced by the accurate application of the scale. The longitudinal
section is then developed from the plan. The height shown in this section can be
expeditiously divided into the requisite the landing levels at 2,600 mm above the ground
floor. Using any convenient scale, place it at an angle on the paper with the zero division
coinciding with the ground floor level (or landing, depending upon the end from which
the scale reads), and carefully tick off the intermediate division 1 to 12 inclusive.
Horizontal lines lightly drawn through these points given the treads, and when connected
with the vertical lines developed form the divisions on the plan the required thirteen steps
are set out. It is advisable to number on the plan the required thirteen steps are set out. It
is advisable to number each step on plan, as shown, and also on the section during its
development. The direction “up” should be indicated on the plan at the foot of the stairs;
this removes ambiguity and facilitates the reading of a drawing, especially, when a stair
consists of several, fights. The rest of the details can be completed without much
difficulty, an adjustable set square being useful for drawing the string, line of noising (to
check for accuracy) and hand rail. The importance of
ensuring adequate headroom is again emphasized.
 FIGURE: 15.4. STRAIGHT FLIGHT

STAIR PLAN

15.1.2 SETTING OUT AND CONSTRUCTION IN WORKSHOP

The fixing and trimming (if any) of the floor joists will have been completed and the
floor boards laid before the construction of the stairs is commenced. As there is usually
some discrepancy between the dimension taken from a plan and those of the building, it
is necessary to obtain the exact total rise and going of a stair from the actual building. A
storey rod is used for this purpose. To obtain the correct height from floor to floor, the
rod, resting on the ground floor, is held vertically (a plum-bob being used to ensure this)
against the end of one of the wall landings joists. The height of the upper floor boards is
carefully marked on the rod and the word “rise” is written below it; the point where the
suspended bob touches the floor is marked. This height is checked by taking a
measurement near to the opposite wall.
The position of the face of the bottom riser is marked on the ground floor (or wall) and
the horizontal distance between this and the “bob” point previously marked is measured
and marked on another face of the storey rod, and the word “going” is written on it. On
being taken to the shop, the “rise” face of the rod is divided into thirteen equal parts,
being the number of risers required. The face of the top riser is to be from the edge of the
landing is marked from one end of the ‘’going’’ face of the rod, and the net going is then
divided in to twelve equal parts. The subsequent operations depends upon divided into
twelve equal parts. The subsequent operations depend upon whether the strings are to
parts. The subsequent operations depend upon whether the strings are to be trenched or
housed by (a) hand or by (b) machine which is most usual

FIGURE: 15.5. WOODEN STRAIGHT

FLIGHT STAIR

(a) Hand Trenching: A pitch-board, a tread templet and a riser remplet are required
for setting out a string for the trenching or housing. One form of pitch-board. It
consists of a thin wood set square having a rise and going equal to the dimensions
taken from the storey rod; this is tongued into a thicker board of width equal to
the required margin and this is housed to a wood base at right angle. It is shaped
to the required nosing and of a tapered width equal to the thickness of a tread and
wedge. Similarly, the riser templet is equal in equal in width to the combined
thickness of a riser and wedge. The length of the strings should be slightly in
excess of the pitch edge multiplied by the number of steps, together with the
portions required to trimmed off to accurate length on the job and the skirting
fitted to them.
A brief description of the setting out is given at the top. After the string has been
dressed, the noising line is pencil marked at the required distance from the upper
edge. The compasses are set to the length of the pitch edge and thirteen divisions
are pricked off along this line. Commencing at one end and with the base of the
pitch-board pressed against this edge of the string, the outside of the first riser and
going is knife marked along the “rise” and “going” edges. Still maintaining the
 board in this position, the riser temple is placed against it with the corner of end b
coinciding with b’ marked on the board, and the back or wedge-line is marked;
the tread templet is then placed as shown against the board with its mark a at the a
point of the pitch-board, and the nosing and underside or tread wedge-line
marked. The pitch-board is then slid along the string and the housing for the next
step is marked off in a similar manner.
Three or four holes are sunk with a brace and bit near the noising of each step and
tangential to the outer faces, and the wood between is chiseled out; this permits of
the use of the tenon saw for forming cuts along the marked lines, after which the
remaining core is removed by a chisel and the bottom of the trenching finally
leveled with a router plane (see carpentry) to give a 12mm sinking. The second
string is then set out and the housing formed as described.
(b) Machines Trenching – Simple appliances are now available for the rapid setting
out and complete trenching of straight strings. Machines, called stair trenchers,
are also obtainable, the latest types of which will cut the tenches of two strings in
less time than it normally takes a man to set out one.
A simple device consists of a metal grooved templet which is graduated to permit
of its adjustment to the required rise and going. The only setting out line required is that
shown at M, which is pencil marked at the required distance from the lower or back edge
of the string. The templet is clamped to the string in the desired position, and the trenches
for the first riser and tread are routed out by means of a cutter which is easily
manipulated between the slotted or grooved guides. A pencil mark is then made at the
intersection between the gauge line M and the to of the tread cut, the templet is slid along
until the outside of the riser guide intersects this mark, the appliance is again clamped and
the trenches for the riser and tread of the second step are routed. This is repeated until the
trenching of the string is completed.
A similar device can be attached to a spindle moulder and the trenching of a string
can be automatically completed at one setting.
The stair trencher referred to on consists, briefly, of a vertical cutter spindle, the
cutter of which travels within guides (adjusted to the required going and rise) as it forms
the trenches in both strings during a continuous operation.
15.1.3 ASSEMBLING THE PARTS OF STAIR
There are several methods employed in assembling the various parts of a stair, depending
upon local practice, if mass –produced, etc. In one method all the treads are first fixed to
the strings, followed by the risers is framed together; the steps are then fitted in the
trenches of one string, after which the second string is fitted and cramped.

The sequence of operations in the first method are: After the strings have been trenched
and the treads and risers have been prepared (i.e. tongued, grooved, nosed, cut square to
correct length and dressed), the first and last treads are housed into the corresponding
trenches of both strings, cramped after being tested for sequence nailed and wedged. The
strings are now placed with their front or upper edges resting on the bench and the
remaining treads are inserted between the trenches, each being tested, cramped and glue
wedged in turn. After the outer ends wedged. The treads and risers are then screwed (in
best work) or nailed and glue blocks are fitted ot the inner angels. The treads may also be
skew screwed or nailed ot the string Scotia moulding, if required are glued and sprigged
to the trenches.

FIGURE: 15.6. WOODEN STRAIGHT

FLIGHT STAIR

In the second method the steps are made separately before being fixed to the string. One

simple appliance, called a cradle, which is employed to ensure that the riser is fitted at

right angles to the read, is illustrated in; as shown, its consist of two angle brackets each
comprising a bearer to which a leg is firmly fixed, Each upright or leg is notched on its

inner edge where it joins the horizontal bearer, the size and shape of the notch being

similar to the noising of the tread (and Scotia, if needed). The brackets are screwed to the

top of the bench, at about 600mm apart, the horizontal members being parallel to each

other and at right angles to the base of a try square used for ensuring squareness. The

tread, outer face downwards, is placed on the bearers with the noising engaged in the

notches of the upright. The upper tongued edge of the riser is glued and fitted into the

groove of the tread as the riser is held against the uprights. The blocks are then glued and

fitted to the inner angle. If required, the Scotia is glued and inserted before the riser is

fitted. The sketch shows the tread, riser and Scotia in position. The Scotia and the nosing

of the tread are subsequently worked to the desired mouldings. When the glue is

sufficiently dry, the step is carefully removed and allowed to set. After all the steps have

been formed in this manner, and the noising and sections have been moulded, the next

operations is to fix them to the strings. A string with its trenched face uppermost is placed

on the bench and each step is placed vertically witch its lower end fitted into the trench.

When all the trench. When all the steps have been housed, the second string is placed in

position with the upper ends of the steps.

15.2.0 CONSRUCTION OF DOOR CASING

15.2.1 DOOR CASING OR LINING

Whilst external doors are hung to solid frames, it is customary to fix internal doors to
casings or linings which provide a suitable finish to the opening, Casings are fixed to
either (a) pallets, (b) Plugs or (c) grounds.
 (a) Pallet pieces or slips 9mm thick, are built into the bed joist at the jambs of the
openings shown and at intervals as describes. This method of fixing is very
general.
(b) A cheaper and less satisfactory method is to plug the jambs. Wood plugs (which
should be of hardwood but are driven into holes formed in the mortar joints by
means of the plugging chisel and hammer. The plugs are driven tightly up to
their shoulders and would take the place of the pallets shown at D. those
indicated at D would be used for the fixing of architraves.
(c) Grounds- As implied, the purpose of these is to provides ground work for the
casings and architraves. The method of fixing is only adopted in the best
practice. The simplest form consists of 19mm thick (or thickness or plaster)
pieces of undressed timbers, called rough ground, (as distinct from wrought
grounds) and usually 75mm wide, although this depends upon the thickens of
the architraves. They provide a continuous means of fixing for the casings
such as is not afforded by plugs or pallets. One edge is sometimes splayed to
afford key for the plaster. The jamb grounds are fixed in true alignment on
each face of the walls to plugs at intervals, and the head or soffit grounds are
nailed to the lintel. They project about 19mm beyond the of the floor. In good
work the head grinds are haunched tenoned and wedged to the jamb grounds.
The above preparation is all that is necessary for ½ brick thick walls.
For thicker walls, however, 50mm wide by 19mm or 25mm thick short horizontal
hacking piece are fixed to the edges of the grounds. These cross pieces provides extra
means of fixing the wider casing and, if the ends are dovetailed and fitted into the notches
formed in the grounds they are effective in preventing the grounds from expanding and
twisting when the absorb moisture from the plaster which is applied subsequently to the
walls. The backings are fixed near to the top and bottom of the jambs, and at about
300mm intervals; they are also nailed to wood lintels.

(1) Plan Casing: These are usually prepared from 32mm thick boards, and are
suitable for openings in walls which do not exceed 1-brick thick. They may be
either single rebated. Or double rebated, Alternatively, in cheap works, a 12 ro
 16mm thick stop is nailed to the casing, when the thickness of the latter may
be reduced to 25mm. Double rebating a wide casing gives it a balanced
appearance which is noticeable when the door is open. The soffit casing is
grooved or trenched to receive the tongues formed on the jamb lining. This
groove extends to the outer edge when softwood and subsequently polished,
the groove in the soffit does not extend right across but is stopped to house the
abbreviated tongue, as shown by thick broken lines.
(2) Skeleton Casing: This type consists of a Skelton jamb and soffit framing
comprising 75mm by 32mm stuff to which 12 or 16mm thick boards or stops
are nailed to give the appearance of a double rebated lining. The short rails of
the framing are tenoned to the long members, and the latter of the soffit
framing are tenoned to the jam framing. The short rails should coincide with
the backing and be nailed to them after the long members have been secured
to the rough ground; the stops are then nailed to the framing. An alternative
detail is shown at M. to introduce a dressed or wrought ground which requires
only a small architrave. Skeleton linings for thick walls are cheap and
effective, although there is a danger of the wide stops splitting if the shrink
excessively, as movement is restricted when they are securely fixed at their
edges.
(3) Framed Casing, This is the best form of lining for openings in thick walls. It
consists of paneled jamb and soffit frames, and the construction conforms to
the principles of paneled door construction. The treatment of the panels should
be in keeping with the design of the door. This casing is fixed to the grounds
and backings, as described for a skeleton lining.
Casing secured to grounds are less liable to damage during the subsequent
building operations than those fixed to plugs or pallets, as they are not fixed to
the grounds until after the plastering has been completed.
Although internal doors to casings, there are certain exceptions. Thus heavy
internal doors (such as the framed ledged breced and battened type), as used
for warehouses, etc, are sometimes hung with traps and gudgeon hooks fixed
in jam stones, and the casings are then dispensed with. Another exception is
 shown where a frame and not a casing is used. Internal coal-house, etc, doors
are often fixed to frames instead of ceasing.

15.2.2 EXAMPLE: ASSEMBLING AND INSTALLATION OF DOOR CASING

The key to a great looking door casing, and a great looking door, is perfectly mitered
corners. If a new door is installed that needs a casing around it or to replace the casing
around an existing door, completely assemble the casing before installing it. This
technique can also be used on window casings.

The first thing to do is to make sure that doorjamb is square by holding a carpenter's
square in the 2 upper corners. If the corners are perfect right angles (90 degrees), you will
be able to cut even 45-degree miters to assemble the casing. If they are not right angles,
cut miters slightly more or slightly less than 45 degrees to make them fit the doorjamb.

FIGURE.15.7. CONSTRUCTION OF
WINDOW SILL

Measure the height from the floor to the lower edge of the top piece of the jamb on both
the left and right sides to make sure the height is uniform. If one side is higher than the
other, cut that side longer than the other. Make note of the measurements. Now measure
the width of the doorjamb from the inner edges. Make note of the width measurement.

FIGURE.15.8. CONSTRUCTION
OF WINDOW SILL
Next, determine how much of the edge of the doorjamb is required to show (or reveal).
Usually about ¼" of the doorjamb is exposed all the way around. The other ½" of the
jamb is covered by the door casing. If it is decided to reveal ¼" all the way around, add
½" to the width measurement and ¼" to the height measurement of each side.

FIGURE.15.9. CONSTRUCTION
OF WINDOW SILL

The miter cuts are trickier than the straight cuts. Using a miter saw, cut the top piece first
using the calculated dimensions from step 3. Then cut the corresponding miters on the
side pieces. Remember, if you do not have 90 degree corners, you will need to cut the
miters slightly greater or less than 45 degrees. Make sure the mitered corners fit together
tightly.

FIGURE.15.10. CONSTRUCTION OF
WINDOW SILL

Measure and mark the left and right pieces to length. Use the measurements that were
calculated in step 3. Make the straight cuts.

FIGURE.15.11. CONSTRUCTION
OF WINDOW SILL
To confirm the measurements and miter cuts, hold the casing pieces in position. Make
sure the amount of door jamb that is visible is uniform all the way around and the corners
are tight.

Now the corners need to be assembled before the final installation. Lay the pieces flat on
ground. Glue both mitered surfaces on one of corners. Use a corner clamp to hold the 2
pieces together, making sure your miters are lined up correctly and front surfaces of both
pieces are flush. Let the glue set before proceeding.

From the top casing piece, drill 2 pilot holes through the top edge and into the side piece.
Be careful that you do not drill through the face of the casing. Use long (3-1/2" x 6),
flathead wood screws to hold the 2 pieces tightly together. Remove the clamp. Repeat
this process on the other corner.

FIGURE.15.12. CONSTRUCTION OF
WINDOW SILL

Take the assembled casing and position it over the doorjamb. Make sure that reveal is
even all the way around the doorjamb. Using finishing nails, tack the upper corners to the
doorjamb. Do not drive the nails all the way in, just in case you need to reposition the
casing. Nail the top casing piece to the doorjamb. Starting in the upper corners and
working the way down, nail the side pieces of the casing to the doorjamb.
 FIGURE.15.13. CONSTRUCTION OF
WINDOW SILL

To hold the outer part of the new casing in place, nail the outer edge to the surrounding
stud frame (through the drywall). Now retrace the steps and use a nail set to sink each
nail about 1/16" below the casing surface. Use wood filler to fill in the nail head holes.

FIGURE.15.14. CONSTRUCTION OF
WINDOW SILL

Once the casing is installed, you may find that irregularities in the doorjamb or walls
have prevented the casing from sitting tightly against these surfaces. You can remedythis
by applying a thin bead of latex caulk to fill in the gaps. Dip your finger in warm soapy
water and run it over the caulk to smooth it out.

FIGURE.15.5. CONSTRUCTION OF
WINDOW SILL

Once the caulk and wood filler have dried, you can paint and finish your new casing.