EEE 103

Introduction to Power Systems

Load Flow Analysis

Prof. Rowaldo D. del Mundo

Prof. Ivan Benedict Nilo C. Cruz

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute

University of the Philippines Diliman
EEE 103 – Introduction to Power Systems

4. Load Flow Studies

4.1 Power Flow through Short Transmission Lines

4.2 The Load Flow Problem
4.3 Solutions to Simultaneous Algebraic
Equations
4.4 Gauss-Seidel & Newton-Raphson
4.5 Information from a Load Flow Study
4.6 Principles of Load Flow Control

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POWER FLOW THROUGH

SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES

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Power Flow Through

Short Transmission Lines
Let us consider a short transmission line. The
single-phase equivalent circuit is shown below:
Z = (r + jxL )L = |Z| ∠θ
+• • +
I
Vs = |Vs| ∠α s IR V = |V | ∠0
R R

-• • -
IS = I R = I VS = ZI + VR
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We calculate for the current I and its conjugate I* :

v (VS ∠α ) − (VR ∠0 )
I =
( Z ∠θ )
v∗ (VS ∠ − α ) − (VR ∠0 )
I =
(Z∠ −θ )
We calculate the single-phase complex power at the
sending and receiving ends:
v v∗
SS = (VS ∠α ) ⋅ I
v v∗
S R = (VR ∠0) ⋅ I
The direction of power flow will be inherent in the direction
of the current I, i.e., SS is the supplied power when
positive, and SR is the load power when positive.
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Looking at the
v sending-end
v∗ complex power:
S S = (VS ∠α ) ⋅ I
v (VS ∠ − α ) − (VR ∠0 )
S S = (VS ∠α ) ⋅
(Z∠ −θ )
v ⎛ VS2 ⎞ ⎛ VS ⋅VR ⎞
S S = ⎜ ∠θ ⎟ − ⎜ ∠ (α + θ ) ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
Getting the real and imaginary (reactive) components:
⎛ VS2 ⎞ ⎛ VS ⋅VR ⎞
PS = ⎜ ⋅ cos θ ⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ cos (α + θ ) ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
⎛ VS2 ⎞ ⎛ VS ⋅VR ⎞
QS = ⎜ ⋅ sin θ ⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ sin (α + θ ) ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
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If we assume the line reactance is much greater than the

line resistance, i.e., xL >> rL, then we can neglect rL. This
means θ = 90° and Z = X, which when we substitute in
the previous equations yield:
⎛ VS2 ⎞ ⎛ VS ⋅ VR ⎞
PS = ⎜ ⋅ cos 90° ⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ cos (α + 90° ) ⎟
⎝ X ⎠ ⎝ X ⎠
⎛ VS ⋅ VR ⎞
PS = ⎜ ⋅ sin α ⎟
⎝ X ⎠
⎛ VS2 ⎞ ⎛ VS ⋅ VR ⎞
QS = ⎜ ⋅ sin 90° ⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ sin (α + 90° ) ⎟
⎝ X ⎠ ⎝ X ⎠
⎛ VS2 ⎞ ⎛ VS ⋅ VR ⎞
QS = ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ cos α ⎟
⎝ X ⎠ ⎝ X ⎠
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Looking at the receiving-end complex power:

v v∗
S R = (VR ∠0) ⋅ I
v (VS ∠ − α ) − (VR ∠0 )
S R = (VR ∠0) ⋅
(Z∠ −θ )
v ⎛ VS ⋅VR ⎞ ⎛ VR
2
⎞
S R = ⎜ ∠ ( −α + θ ) ⎟ − ⎜ ∠θ ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
Getting the real and imaginary (reactive) components:
2
V ⋅
⎛ S R V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
PR = ⎜ ⋅ cos ( −α + θ ) ⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ cos θ ⎟
R

⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
2
⎛ VS ⋅VR ⎞ ⎛ VR ⎞
QR = ⎜ ⋅ sin ( −α + θ ) ⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ sin θ ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
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If we assume the line reactance is much greater than the

line resistance, i.e., xL >> rL, then we can neglect rL. This
means θ = 90° and Z = X, which when we substitute in
the previous equations yield:
2
⎛ VS ⋅ VR ⎞ ⎛ VR ⎞
PR = ⎜ ⋅ cos ( −α + 90° ) ⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ cos 90° ⎟
⎝ X ⎠ ⎝ X ⎠
⎛ VS ⋅ VR ⎞
PR = ⎜ ⋅ sin α ⎟
⎝ X ⎠
2
⎛ VS ⋅ VR ⎞ ⎛ VR ⎞
QR = ⎜ ⋅ sin ( −α + 90° ) ⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ sin 90° ⎟
⎝ X ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
2
V ⋅
⎛ S R V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
QR = ⎜ ⋅ cos α ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟
R

⎝ X ⎠ ⎝ X ⎠
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Observations
1.  Since we assumed that the transmission line consists
of pure reactance, real power is not dissipated in the
line and PS = PR.
2.  If the transmission line resistance is non-negligible, we
will have to use the “unsimplified” equations.
3.  Maximum real power transfer occurs when α = 90°.
4.  Real power transfer is more sensitive to the difference
between phase angles of the supply voltage and the
load voltage.
5.  Reactive power transfer is more sensitive to the
difference between magnitudes of the supply voltage
and the load voltage.
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THE LOAD FLOW PROBLEM

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The Load Flow Problem

Basic Electrical Engineering Solution
How do you determine the voltage, current, power, and
power factor at various points in a power system?

Sending Line Receiving

End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Solve for:·
VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL 1)  ISR = (SR/VR )*

Load 2)  VD = ISRZL

2 MVA, 3Ph
VOLTAGE DROP = VS - VR 85%PF 3)  VS = VR + VD
4)  SS = VS·(ISR)*

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The Load Flow Problem

Sending Receiving
End
Line
End Solve for:
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
1)  ISR = (SR/VR )*
2)  VD = ISRZL
VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL
S1φ = ( 2,000,000 / 3 )∠ cos −1 ( 0.85 ) 3)  VS = VR + VD
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph 4)  SS = VS·(ISR)*
= 666 ,666.67 ∠31.79 VA 85%PF

VR = ( 13,200 / 3 )∠0 = 7621.02∠0 V

∗
⎛ 666 ,666.67 ∠31.79 ⎞
I SR = ⎜ ⎟ = 87.48∠ − 31.79 A
⎝ 7621.02∠0 ⎠
VD = ( 87.48∠ − 31.79 )(1.1034 + j2.0856 ) = 178.15 + j104.23 V
VS = (7621.02 + j0 ) + (178.15 + j104.23 ) = 7,799.87 ∠0.77 V
VS = 7,799.87 ∠0.77 /1000* 3 = 13.51 k V
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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow From the Real World
Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ?

Load
How do you solve for: 2 MVA, 3Ph
85%PF
1)  ISR = ?
2)  VD = ?
3)  VR = ?
4)  SS = ?

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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of Distribution System
Bus2
I23 , Loss23 = ? Bus3
Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ?
V3 = ?
Utility P3 , Q3 = ?
I24 , Loss24 = ? V4 = ?
Grid P4 , Q4 = ?
V1 = 67 kV Bus4
P1 , Q1 = ? V2 = ? Lumped Load A
P2 , Q2 = ? 2 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load B
How do you solve for 1 MVA 85%PF

the Voltages,
Currents, Power and
Losses?
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The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of Transmission and
Subtransmission System
G Line 1 G
1 2
How do you solve for
the Voltages, Line 2 Line 3
Currents and Power
of a LOOP power 3
system?

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The Load Flow Problem

q  How do you determine the voltage, current, and power
flows, at various points in the power system, under
existing conditions of normal operations?

q  How do you determine the adequacy of the power

system in meeting the demand during contingencies?

q  How about if there are contemplated changes in the

power system? How will you determine in advance the
effects of:
?  Growth or Addition of loads
?  Addition or Decommissioning of generating plants
?  Expansion of the transmission and distribution systems
before the proposed changes are implemented?
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The Load Flow Problem

ANSWER: THE LOAD FLOW STUDY!

Load Flow Analysis simulates (i.e., mathematically

determines) the performance of an electric power
system under a given set of conditions.

Load Flow (also called Power Flow) takes a snapshot of the

electric power system at a given point in time.

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POWER SYSTEM MODELS FOR

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

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Network Models

q  The static components of the power system are

modeled by the bus admittance matrix, [Ybus].
⎡Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1 n ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢Y21 Y22 Y23 Y2 n ⎥
⎢ ⎥
[YBUS] = ⎢Y31
⎢
Y32 Y33 Y3 n ⎥
⎥
⎢     ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢Yn 1 Yn 2 Yn 3 Ynn ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The number of buses (excluding the neutral bus)
determines the dimension of the bus admittance, [Ybus].
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Generator Models
1.  Voltage-controlled generating units to supply a
scheduled active power P at a specified voltage
magnitude V. The generators are equipped with
voltage regulators to adjust the field excitation so that
the units will supply or absorb a particular reactive
power Q in order to maintain the voltage.
2.  Swing generating units to maintain the frequency at
60Hz in addition to the specified voltage. The
generating unit is equipped with frequency following
controller (quick-responding speed governor) and is
assigned as the Swing Generator.

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Bus Types

q  The power system is interconnected through

the busses. The busses must therefore be
identified in the load flow model.
? Generators, shunt admittances, and loads are
connected from their corresponding bus to the
neutral bus.
? Transmission lines, transformers, and series
impedances are connected from bus to bus.

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Bus Types

q  To completely describe a particular bus, four

quantities must be specified:
? Bus Voltage Magnitude, |VP|
? Bus Voltage Phase Angle, δP
? Bus Injected Active Power, PP
? Bus Injected Reactive Power, QP

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Swing Bus
Swing Bus or Slack Bus
The difference between the total load demand plus
losses (both P and Q) and the scheduled
generations is supplied by the swing bus. The
voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified
for the Swing Bus, also called the Slack Bus.
P,Q

+ Specify: V, δ
Swing Bus
V∠δ G Unknown: P, Q
-

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Generator Bus
Generator Bus (Voltage-Controlled) Bus or
PV Bus
The total real power Pp injected into the system
through the bus is specified together with the
magnitude of the voltage Vp at the bus. The bus
voltage magnitude is maintained through reactive
power injection. P,Q

Specify: P, V
+
Generator Bus
V∠δ G Unknown: Q, δ
-

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Load Bus

Load Bus or PQ Bus

The total injected power Pp and the reactive power
Qp at Bus P are specified and are assumed constant,
independent of the small variations in bus voltage.
P,Q

+
Load Bus Specify: P, Q
V∠δ
Unknown: V, δ
-

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Summary of Bus Types

Bus Known Unknown
Type Quantities Quantities

Swing Vp, δp Pp, Qp

Generator Pp, Vp Qp, δp

Load Pp, Qp Vp, δp

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Bus Types
G Line 1 G
1 2
Injected Powers:
PBUS = PGEN – PLOAD Line 2 Line 3
QBUS = QGEN – QLOAD
3
Bus Voltage Generation Load Remarks
No. V (p.u.) δ P Q P Q
1 1.0 0.0 * * 0 0 Swing Bus
2 1.0 * 0.20 * 0 0 Gen Bus
3 * * 0 0 0.60 0.25 Load Bus
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SOLUTIONS TO SIMULTANEOUS
ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

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Numerical Methods
q  Direct Methods
? Cramer’s Rule
? Matrix Inversion
? Gaussian Elimination Method
? Gauss-Jordan Reduction Method
q  Iterative Methods
? Gauss Iterative Method
? Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method
? Newton-Raphson Method
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Iterative Methods
An iterative method (root word: iterate) is a repetitive
process for obtaining the solution of an equation or a
system of equations.
The solutions start from arbitrarily chosen initial estimates
of the unknown variables from which a new set of
estimates is determined.
Convergence is achieved when the absolute mismatch
between the current and previous estimates is less
than some acceptable pre-specified precision index (the
convergence index) for all variables.

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GAUSS ITERATIVE METHOD

FOR A SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS

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Gauss Iterative Method

Given the system of algebraic equations,
a11 x1 + a12 x2 +  + a1n xn = y1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 +  + a2n xn = y 2
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
a31 x1 + a32 x2 +  + ann xn = y3
In the above equation, the x’s are unknown.

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Gauss Iterative Method

In general, the jth equation may be written

as

1 n
xj = ( b j − ∑i =1 a ji xi ) equation “a”
a jj i≠ j

j = 1, 2, … n

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Gauss Iterative Method

In general, the Gauss iterative estimates are:

k +1 y1 a12 k a13 k a1n k

x1 = − x2 − x3 − ... − xn
a11 a11 a11 a11
k +1 y2 a21 k a23 k a2n k
x2 = − x1 − x3 − ... − xn
a22 a22 a22 a22
k +1 y n an1 k an2 k an,n-1 k
xn = − x1 − x2 − ... − x n -1
ann ann ann ann
where k is the iteration count
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Gauss Iterative Method

From an initial estimate of the unknowns (x10, x20,
…xn0), updated values of the unknown variables
are computed using equation “a”. This completes
one iteration. The new estimates replace the
original estimates. Mathematically, at the kth
iteration,

1 n
x k +1
j
= ( b j − ∑i =1 a ji x )
k
equation “b”
a jj i≠ j
i

j = 1, 2, … n
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Gauss Iterative Method

A convergence check is conducted after each
iteration. The latest values are compared with
their values respectively.

Δx = x k k +1
j
−x k
j equation “c”

j = 1, 2, … n
The iteration process is terminated when:

max | Δx | < ε k
j
(convergent)
k = maximum no. of iterations (non-convergent)
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Gauss Iterative Method

Example:
4x1 − x2 + x3 = 4
x1 + 4x2 + x3 = 6
x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 5
Assume a convergence index of ε = 0.001 and
use the following initial estimates:

a) x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.0
0 0 0

b) x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.5
0 0 0

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Gauss Iterative Method

Solution:
a) The system of equation must be expressed
in standard form.
1
x1 k +1
= ( 4 + x2k - x3k )
4
1
x2 k +1
= ( 6 - x1k - x3k )
4
1
x3 k +1
= ( 5 - x1k - x2k )
3
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Gauss Iterative Method

Iteration 1 (k = 0):
1
x1 1 = ( 4 + 0 - 0 ) = 1.0
4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 0 - 0 ) = 1.5
1

4
1
x3 1 = ( 5 - 0 - 0 ) = 1.6667
3
Δx10 = 1 − 0 = 1
Δx20 = 1.5 − 0 = 1.5
Δx30 = 1.6667 − 0 = 1.6667
max Δx30 = 1.6667
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Gauss Iterative Method

Iteration 2 (k = 1):
1
x1 = ( 4 + 1.5 - 1.6667 ) = 0.958333
2

4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 1.6667 ) = 0.833333
2

4
1
x3 2 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.5 ) = 0.833333
3
Δx11 = 0.958325 − 1 = 0.041667
Δx21 = 0.833333 − 1.5 = 0.66667
Δx31 = 0.833333 − 1.6667 = −0.83334
max Δx31 = 0.83334

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Gauss Iterative Method

Iteration 3 (k = 2): 1
x1 = ( 4 + 0.8333 - 0.8333 ) = 1.0
3

4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 0.9583 - 0.8333 ) = 1.0521
3

4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 0.9583 - 0.8333 ) = 1.0695
3

3
Δx12 = 1 − 0.958325 = 0.041667
Δx22 = 1.0521 − 0.833325 = 0.21877
Δx32 = 1.0695 − 0.8333 = 0.23617
max Δx32 = 0.23617

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Gauss Iterative Method

Iteration 4 (k = 3):
1
x1 = ( 4 + 1.0521 - 1.0695 ) = 0.9956
4

4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 1.0695 ) = 0.9826
4

4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.0521 ) = 0.9826
4

3
Δx13 = 0.9956 − 1 = −0.0044
Δx23 = 0.9826 − 1.0521 = −0.0695
Δx33 = 0.9826 − 1.0695 = −0.0869
max Δx33 = 0.0869
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Gauss Iterative Method

Iteration 5 (k = 4): 1
x1 = ( 4 + 0.9826 - 0.9826 ) = 1.0
5

4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 0.9956 - 0.9826 ) = 1.0054
5

4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 0.9956 - 0.9826) = 1.0073
5

3
Δx14 = 1 − 0.9956 = 0.0044
Δx24 = 1.0054 − 0.9826 = −0.0228
Δx34 = 1.0073 − 0.9826 = 0.0247
max Δx34 = 0.0247

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Gauss Iterative Method

Iteration 6 (k = 5): 1
x1 = ( 4 + 1.0054 - 1.0073 ) = 0.9995
6

4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 1.0071 ) = 0.9982
6

4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.0054 ) = 0.9982
6

3
Δx15 = 0.9995 − 1 = −0.0005
Δx25 = 0.9982 − 1.0054 = −0.0072
Δx35 = o.9982 − 1.0073 = −0.0091
max Δx35 = 0.0091

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Gauss Iterative Method

Iteration 7 (k = 6):
1
x1 = ( 4 + 0.9982 - 0.9982 ) = 1.0
7

4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 0.9995 - 0.9982 ) = 1.0006
7

4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 0.9995 - 0.9982) = 1.0008
7

3
Δx16 = 1 − 0.9995 = 0.0005
Δx 62 = 1.0006 − 0.9982 = 0.0024
Δx36 = 1.0008 − 0.9982 = 0.0026
max Δx36 = 0.0026

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Gauss Iterative Method

Iteration 8 (k = 7):
1
x1 = ( 4 + 1.0006 - 1.0008 ) = 0.9995
8

4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 1.0008 ) = 0.9998
8

4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.0008 ) = 0.9998
8

3
Δx17 = 0.9995 − 1 = −0.0005
Δx27 = 0.9998 − 1.0006 = −0.0008
Δx37 = 0.9998 − 1.0008 = −0.0010
max Δx37 = 0.0010
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Gauss Iterative Method

The Gauss iterative method has converged at
iteration 8. The method yields the following
solution:

x1 = 0.9995
x2 = 0.9998
x3 = 0.9998

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GAUSS-SEIDEL
ITERATIVE METHOD
FOR A SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS

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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

The Gauss-Seidel method is an improvement over the Gauss
iterative method. As presented in the previous section, the
standard form of the jth equation may be written as follows.

1 n
xj = ( b j − ∑i =1 a ji xi ) j = 1, 2, … n
a jj i≠ j

From an initial estimates (x10, x20,…xn0), an updated value is

computed for x1 using the above equation with j set to 1.This
new value replaces x10 and is then used together with the
remaining initial estimates to compute a new value for x2. The
process is repeated until a new estimate is obtained for xn.
This completes one iteration.
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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

Within an iteration, the most recent computed values are
used in computing for the remaining unknowns. In general,
at iteration k,

k+1 1 n
x j = (b j − ∑ i =1 a ji x iα )
a jj i≠ j

j = 1, 2, … n
where α = k if i > j
= k + 1 if i < j
After each iteration, a convergence check is conducted. The
convergence criterion applied is the same with Gauss
Iterative Method.

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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

An improvement to the Gauss Iterative Method
k +1 y1 a12 k a1n k
x1 = − x2 − ... − xn
a11 a11 a11
k +1 y2 a21 k +1 a2n k
x2 = − x1 − ... − xn
a22 a22 a22
yi aij k +1
k +1 ai,i-1 k +1 ai,i+1 k +1 ain k +1
x i = − xi − ... − xi-1 − xi+1 − xn
aii aii aii aii aii
k +1 yn an1 k +1 an,n-1 k +1
xn = − x1 − ... − xn-1
ann ann ann
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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

Example: Solve the system of equations using
the Gauss-Seidel method. Used a
convergence index of ε = 0.001

4x1 − x2 + x3 = 4
x1 + 4x 2 + x3 = 6
x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 5

x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.5
0 0 0

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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

Solution:
a) The system of equation must be expressed
in standard form.
1
x k +1
1
= ( 4 + x2k - x3k )
4
1
x k +1
2
= ( 6 - x1 - x3 )
k +1 k

4
1
x3k +1 = ( 5 - x1k +1 - x2k +1 )
3
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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

with x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.5
0 0 0

Iteration 1 (k =0): 1
x1 = ( 4 + 0.5 - 0.5 ) = 1.0
1

4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 0.5 ) = 1.125
1

4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.125 ) = 0.9583
1

3
Δx10 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.50
Δx20 = 1.125 − 0.50 = 0.625
Δx30 = 0.9583 − 0.50 = 0.4583
max | Δx20 | = 0.625
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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

Iteration 2 (k = 1):
1
x1 2 = ( 4 + 1.125 - 0.9583 ) = 1.0417
4
1
x2 2 = ( 6 - 1.0417 - 0.9583 ) = 1.0
4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 1.0417 - 1.0 ) = 0.9861
2

3
Δx11 = 1.0417 − 1 = 0.0417
Δx21 = 1 − 1.125 = −0.125
Δx31 = 0.9861 − 0.9583 = 0.0323
max | Δx21 | = 0.125

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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

Iteration 3 (k = 2):
1
x1 3 = ( 4 + 1.0 - 0.9861 ) = 1.0035
4
1
x2 = ( 6 - 1.0035 - 0.9891 ) = 1.0026
3

4
1
x3 3 = ( 5 - 1.0035 - 1.0026 ) = 0.9980
3
Δx12 = 1.0035 − 1.0417 = −0.0382
Δx22 = 1.0026 − 1 = 0.0026
Δx32 = 0.9980 − 0.9861 = 0.0119
max | Δx32 | = 0.0119

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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

Iteration 4 (k = 3):
1
x1 4 = ( 4 + 1.0026 - 0.9980 ) = 1.0012
4
1
x2 4 = ( 6 - 1.0012 - 0.9980) = 1.0002
4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.0012 - 1.0002) = 0.9995
4

3
Δx13 = 1.0012 − 1.0035 = 0.0023
Δx23 = 1.0002 − 1.0026 = −0.0024
Δx33 = 0.9995 − 0.9980 = 0.0015
max | Δx23 | = 0.0024
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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

Iteration 5 (k = 4):
1
x1 = ( 4 + 1.0002 - 0.9995 ) = 1.0002
5

4
1
x2 5 = ( 6 - 1.0002 - 0.9995) = 1.0001
4
1
x3 = ( 5 - 1.0002 - 1.0001) = 0.9999
5

3
Δx14 = 1.0002 − 1.0012 = −0.001
Δx24 = 1.0001 − 1.0002 = −0.0001
Δx34 = 0.9999 − 0.9995 = 0.0004
max | Δx 4 | = 0.001 < ε

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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

The Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method has converged

after only 5 iterations with the following solutions:

x1 = 1.0002
x2 = 1.0001
x3 = 0.9999

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GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD FOR

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Linear Formulation of Load Flow
Equations
The real and reactive power into any bus P is:

Pp + jQp = Vp Ip*
or
Pp - jQp = Vp* Ip (1)

where Pp = real power injected into bus P

Qp = reactive power injected into bus P

Vp = phasor voltage of bus P

Ip = current injected into bus P
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Equation (1) may be rewritten as:
Pp - jQp
_________ (2)
Ip =
Vp*
From the Bus Admittance Matrix equation, the
current injected into the bus are:
Ip = Yp1V1 + Yp2V2 + … + YppVp + … + YpnVn (3)

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3

I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3
I3 = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Substituting (3) into (2)
Pp - jQp
_________ = Y V + Y V + … + Y V + … + Y V (4)
p1 1 p2 2 pp p pn n
Vp *

P1 – jQ1
_________ = Y V + Y V + Y V
11 1 12 2 13 3
V1 *

P2 – jQ2
_________ = Y V + Y V + Y V
21 1 22 2 23 3
V2 *

P3 – jQ3
_________ = Y V + Y V + Y V
31 1 32 2 33 3
V3 *

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Solving for Vp in (4)
P1 – jQ1
_______
Y11V1 = - (___ + Y12V2 + Y13V3)
V1*
1 ⎡ P1 − jQ1 ⎤
V1 = ⎢ V * − Y12V2 − Y13V3 ⎥
Y11 ⎣ 1 ⎦
P2 – jQ2
_______
Y22V2 = - (Y12V2 + ___ + Y13V3)
V2*
1 ⎡ P2 − jQ2 ⎤
V2 = ⎢ V * − Y21V1 − Y13V3 ⎥
Y22 ⎣ 2 ⎦
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

P3 – jQ3
_______
Y33V3 = - (Y13V1 + Y23V2 + ___)
V3*
1 ⎡ P3 − jQ3 ⎤
V3 = ⎢ V * − Y31V1 − Y32V2 ⎥
Y33 ⎣ 3 ⎦
1 P - jQ n
___ _______
p p
Vp = - Σ YpqVq
Ypp Vp* (5)
q=1
q≠p

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution

Generalizing the Gauss-Seidel Load Flow, the

estimate for the voltage Vp at bus p at the kth
iteration is:

P - jQ n
1
k+1 ___ _______ - Σ YpqVqα
p p
(6)
Vp =
Ypp (Vpk)* q=1
q≠p

where, α = k if p < q
α=k+1 if p > q

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

q  Gauss-Seidel Voltage Equations of the form shown in (6) are
written for all buses except for the swing bus. The solution
proceeds iteratively from an estimate of all bus voltages
q  For a Load Bus (Type 3) whose real power and reactive
power are specified, the G-S voltage equation is used directly
to compute the next estimate of the bus voltage.
q  For a Generator Bus (Type 2) where the voltage magnitude
is specified, an estimate of Qp must be determined first. This
estimate is then compared with the reactive power limits of
the generator. If it falls within the limits, the specified
voltage is maintained and the computed Qp is inputted, in the
Gauss-Seidel equation. Otherwise, the reactive power is set
to an appropriate limit (Qmin or Qmax) and the bus is treated
as a load bus in the current iteration.

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and bus
data pertinent to the system are also given. The reactive
limits of generator 2 are -50 MVARS and 50 MVARS. Use base
power of 100 MVA. Solve the load flow problem using Gauss-
Seidel iterative method with a 0.005 convergence index.

G Line 1 G
1 2

Line 2 Line 3

3
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Branch Data
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Zpq (p.u.)
1 1-2 0.08 + j0.24
2 1-3 0.02 + j0.06
3 2-3 0.06 + j0.18

Bus Data
Bus Voltage Generation Load Remarks
No. V (p.u.) δ P Q P Q
1 1.0 0.0 * * 0 0 Swing Bus
2 1.0 * 0.20 * 0 0 Gen Bus
3 * * 0 0 0.60 0.25 Load Bus
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

The Bus Admittance Matrix is:

[YBUS] =
Y11 = 6.25 - j18.75 Y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 Y13 = -5 + j15
Y21 = -1.25 + j3.75 Y22 = 2.9167 - j8.75 Y23 = -1.6667 + j5
Y31 = -5 + j15 Y32 = -1.6667 + j5 Y33 = 6.6667 - j20

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Specified Variables:
V1 = 1.0 δ1 = 0.0

V2 = 1.0 P2 = 0.2 Note the negative sign of P

P3 = -0.6 Q3 = -0.25 and Q of the Load at Bus 3

Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables:

δ20 = 0.0
V30 = 1.0
δ30 = 0.0

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Equations

q  Bus 1: Swing Bus
( k +1)
V1 = 1.0∠0 for all iterations

q  Bus 2: PV Bus

We must first estimate the Q2 for Bus 2 by:
k ∗
P2 − jQ2 = (V k
2 ) ⋅ (Y 21 ⋅V
1
( k +1)
+ Y22 ⋅V 2
(k )
+ Y23 ⋅V 3
(k )
)
Then we substitute the Q2 value (and only the Q2 value) to:
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢⎜ P2 − jQ2k ⎟ − Y ⋅ V ( k +1) − Y ⋅ V ( k ) ⎥
V2( k +1) = ⋅ 21 1 23 3
Y22 ⎢⎜ (V ( k ) )∗ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Equations

q  Bus 3: PQ Bus
The Gauss-Seidel Equation for PQ Bus is straightforward:
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢⎜ P3 − jQ3 ⎟ ( k +1) ⎥
V3( k +1) = ⋅ − Y13 ⋅ V1
( k +1)
− Y23 ⋅ V3
Y33 ⎜ (V ) ⎟
⎢ ( k ) ∗
⎥
⎣⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Iteration 1: k = 0
k
Bus 1: V 1 = 1.0∠0 for all iterations
Bus 2: k ∗
P2 − jQ2 = (V2
k
) ⋅ (Y
21 ⋅V
1
( k +1)
+ Y22 ⋅V
2
(k )
+ Y23 ⋅V 3
(k )
)
Y21 V1k

V20 ⎡ ( −1.25 + j3.75 ) ⋅ (1∠0 ) ⎤ V20 Q20

0 ∗ ⎢ ⎥
P2 − jQ2 = (1∠0 ) ⋅ ⎢ + ( 2.9167 − j8.75 ) ⋅ (1∠0 )⎥ = 0 − j 0
⎢ + −1.6667 + j5 ⋅ 1∠0 ⎥ V30 discard
Y22 ⎣ ( ) ( ) ⎦
Y23 Q20 = 0 (This value is within limits.)

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Bus 2: (iteration 1, continued)
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢⎜ P2 − jQ2k ⎟ − Y ⋅ V ( k +1) − Y ⋅ V ( k ) ⎥
V2( k +1) = ⋅ 21 1 23 3
Y22 ⎢⎜ (V ( k ) )∗ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
P2 Q20 Y21 V1k
⎡⎛ 0.2 − j 0 ⎞ ⎤
1 1 ⎢⎜ ∗
⎟ − ( −1.25 + j3.75) ⋅ (1∠0 )⎥
V2 = ⋅ ⎢⎜⎝ (1∠0 ) ⎟⎠ Y23 V30 ⎥
( 2.9167 − j8.75) ⎢ 0 ⎥
V2 − ( −1.6667 + j5) ⋅ (1∠0 ) ⎥⎦
Y ⎢⎣
22

V21 = 1.0071∠1.1705o → V21a = 1.0∠1.1705o

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Bus 3: (iteration 1)
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
( k +1) 1 ⎢⎜ P3 − jQ3 ⎟ ( k +1) ( k +1) ⎥
V3 = ⋅ − Y 31 ⋅ V 1 − Y 32 ⋅ V 2
Y33 ⎜ (V ) ⎟
⎢ ( k ) ∗
⎥
⎣⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦
P3 Q3 Y31 V1k
⎡⎛ −0.60 + j 0.25 ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢⎜ ∗
⎟ − ( −5 + j15 ) ⋅ (1∠0 )⎥
V31 = ⋅ ⎢⎜⎝ (1∠0 ) ⎟
⎠ Y V 1a⎥

(6.6667 − j 20) ⎢ 0 32 2
⎥
o
Y33
⎢⎣ V 3 − ( − 1.6667 + j 5 )(
⋅ 1.0∠ 1.1705 ) ⎥⎦
V31 = 0.9799∠ − 1.0609o
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Check for convergence: (iteration 1)
o o
1
Δ V2 = V − V 2
1
2
0
= (1.0071∠1.1705 ) − (1.0∠0 )
= 0.0217 > 0.005
Δ1V3 = V31 − V30 = ( 0.9799∠ − 1.0609o ) − (1.0∠0o )
= 0.0272 > 0.005
Action: Continue iterating.
1a 1 o o
V 2 = 1.0∠1.1705 V3 = 0.9799 ∠ − 1.0609

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Iteration 2: k = 1
k ∗
Bus 2: P2 − jQ2 = (V
k
2 ) ⋅ (Y 21 ⋅V
1
( k +1)
+ Y22 ⋅V 2
(k )
+ Y23 ⋅V 3
(k )
)
Y21 V1k
V21a* ⎡ ( −1.25 + j3.75) ⋅ (1∠0o ) V21a ⎤
⎢ ⎥
P2 − jQ 12 = (1.0∠ − 1.1705) ⋅ ⎢+ ( 2.9167 − j8.75) ⋅ (1.0∠1.1705o ) V31⎥
⎢ ⎥
o ⎥
discard ⎢
Y22 ⎣ (+ −1.6667 + j 5 )(
⋅ 0.9799∠ − 1.0609 )⎦
P2 − jQ 12 = 0.3024 − j 0.0160 Y23

Q21 = 0.0160 (This value is within limits.)

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Bus 2: (iteration 2, continued)
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢⎜ P2 − jQ2k ⎟ − Y ⋅ V ( k +1) − Y ⋅ V ( k ) ⎥
V2( k +1) = ⋅ 21 1 23 3
Y22 ⎢⎜ (V ( k ) )∗ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
P2 Q21 Y21 V1k
⎡⎛ 0.2 − j 0.0160 ⎞ o ⎤
1 ⎢ ⎜ o ⎟ − ( −1.25 + j3.75) ⋅ (1∠0 ) ⎥
V22 = ⋅ ⎢⎝ 1.0∠ − 1.1705 ⎠ Y23 V31 ⎥
( 2.9167 − j8.75) ⎢V 1a* − −1.6667 + j5 ⋅ 0.9799∠ − 1.0610o ⎥
⎣ 2 ( )( )⎦
Y22
V22 = 0.9965∠0.5648o → V22 a = 1.0∠0.5648o
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Bus 3: (iteration 2)
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢⎜ P3 − jQ3 ⎟ ( k +1) ⎥
V3( k +1) = ⋅ − Y31 ⋅ V1
( k +1)
− Y32 ⋅ V2
Y33 ⎜ (V ) ⎟
⎢ ( k ) ∗
⎥
⎣⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦
P3 Q3 Y31 V1k
⎡⎛ −0.60 + j 0.25 ⎞ o ⎤
1 ⎢ ⎜ o ⎟ − ( −5 + j15 ) ⋅ (1∠0 )⎥
V32 = ⋅ ⎢⎝ 0.9799∠1.0610 ⎠ Y32 V22 a ⎥
(6.6667 − j 20) ⎢V 1* o ⎥
⎣
3 − ( −1.6667 + j 5 )(
⋅ 1.0∠0.5648 ) ⎦
Y33
V32 = 0.9791∠ − 1.2218o
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Check for convergence: (iteration 2)
o
2
0.9965 ∠ 0.5648 ( )
Δ V2 = V22 − V21a =
− 1.0∠1.1705o ( )
= 0.0111 > 0.005
o
2 2 1
( 0.9791∠ − 1.2218 )
Δ V3 = V3 − V3 =
− ( 0.9799∠ − 1.0610o )
= 0.0029 < 0.005
Action: Continue iterating.
V22 a = 1.0∠0.5648o V32 = 0.9791∠ − 1.2218o
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Iteration 3: k = 2
k ∗
Bus 2: P2 − jQ2 = (V
k
2 ) ⋅ (Y 21 ⋅V
1
( k +1)
+ Y22 ⋅V 2
(k )
+ Y23 ⋅V 3
(k )
)
Y21 V1k

V22 a*
⎡ ( −1.25 + j3.75) ⋅ (1∠0 ) V 2 a ⎤
2
⎢ ⎥
P2 − jQ 22 = (1.0∠ − 0.5648) ⋅ ⎢ + ( 2.9167 − j8.75) ⋅ (1.0∠0.5648o ) V32⎥
⎢ ⎥
o ⎥
discard ⎢
Y22 ⎣ (+ −1.6667 + j 5 )(
⋅ 0.9791∠ − 1.2218 )⎦
P2 − jQ 22 = 0.2253 − j 0.0438 Y23

Q22 = 0.0438 (This value is within limits.)

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Bus 2: (iteration 3, continued)
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢⎜ P2 − jQ2k ⎟ − Y ⋅ V ( k +1) − Y ⋅ V ( k ) ⎥
V2( k +1) = ⋅ 21 1 23 3
Y22 ⎢⎜ (V ( k ) )∗ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
P2 Q21 Y21 V1k
⎡⎛ 0.2 − j 0.0438 ⎞ o ⎤
1 ⎢ ⎜ o ⎟ − ( −1.25 + j3.75 ) ⋅ (1∠0 ) ⎥
V23 = ⋅ ⎢⎝ 1.0∠ − 0.5648 ⎠ Y23 V32 ⎥
( 2.9167 − j8.75) ⎢V22 a* − −1.6667 + j5 ⋅ 0.9791∠ − 1.2218o ⎥
Y22 ⎣ ( )( )⎦
V23 = 0.9991∠0.4158o → V23a = 1.0∠0.4158o
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Bus 3:
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢⎜ P3 − jQ3 ⎟ ( k +1) ⎥
V3( k +1) = ⋅ − Y31 ⋅ V1
( k +1)
− Y32 ⋅ V2
Y33 ⎜ (V ) ⎟
⎢ ( k ) ∗
⎥
⎣⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦
P3 Q3 Y31 V1k
⎡⎛ −0.60 + j 0.25 ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢ ⎜ o ⎟ − ( −5 + j15 ) ⋅ (1∠0 ) ⎥
V33 = ⋅ ⎢⎝ 0.9799∠1.0610 ⎠ Y32 V23 a
⎥
(6.6667 − j 20) ⎢ V 2* o ⎥
⎣ 3 − ( −1.6667 + j5 ) ⋅ (1.0∠0.4158 )⎦
Y33
V33 = 0.9790∠ − 1.2575o
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Check for convergence:
o
3 ( 0.9991∠0.4158 )
Δ V2 = V23 − V22 a =
− (1.0∠0.5648o )
= 0.0027 < 0.005
o
3 3 2
( 0.9791∠ − 1.2575 )
Δ V3 = V3 − V3 =
− ( 0.9791∠ − 1.2218o )
= 0.0006 < 0.005
Action: Stop iterating. The solution has converged.
V23a = 1.0∠0.4158o V33 = 0.9790∠ − 1.2575o
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PRINCIPLES OF
LOAD FLOW CONTROL

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Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control

jX
The complex power delivered to the
bus (Generator Terminal) is
I
Ei∠δ ~ Vt∠0
* ⎡ Ei ∠δ − Vt ∠0 ⎤
Pt + jQt = [Vt ∠0]I = [Vt ∠0]⎢ ⎥
⎣ jX ⎦

⎡ EiVt ⎤ ⎡ EiVt Vt 2 ⎤
Pt = ⎢ sin δ ⎥ Qt = ⎢ cos δ − ⎥
⎣ X ⎦ ⎣ X X ⎦

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Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control
⎡ EiVt ⎤ ⎡ EiVt Vt 2 ⎤
Pt = ⎢ sin δ ⎥ Qt = ⎢ cos δ − ⎥
⎣ X ⎦ ⎣ X X ⎦
Observations:
1.  Real Power is injected into the bus (Generator Operation), δ must
be positive (Ei leads Vt)
2.  Real Power is drawn from the bus (Motor Operation), δ must be
negative (Ei lags Vt)
3.  In actual operation, the numeric value of δ is small & since the
slope of Sine function is maximum for small values, a minute
change in δ can cause a substantial change in Pt

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Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control

⎡ EiVt ⎤ ⎡ EiVt Vt 2 ⎤
Pt = ⎢ sin δ ⎥ Qt = ⎢ cos δ − ⎥
⎣ X ⎦ ⎣ X X ⎦

Observations:
4.  Reactive Power flow depends on relative values of EiCosδ and Vt
5.  Since the slope of Cosine function is minimum for small values of
angle, Reactive Power is controlled by varying Ei
•  Over-excitation (increasing Ei) will deliver Reactive Power into the Bus
•  Under-excitation (decreasing Ei) will absorb Reactive Power from the
Bus

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Principles of Load Flow Control

Capacitor Compensation
The voltage of bus q can be
~ q expressed as
Ipq
p + jQc X pqQq X pq Pq
Eq = V p − −j
PL - jQL Vp Vp
Observations:
1.  The Reactive Power Qq causes a voltage drop and thus largely
affects the magnitude of Eq
2.  A capacitor bank connected to bus q will reduce Qq that will
consequently reduce voltage drop

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Principles of Load Flow Control

Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1 The π equivalent circuit of
q r transformer with the per unit
transformation ratio:
1
s p y pq
a

Observation:
The voltage drop in the 1− a a −1
transformer is affected by 2
y pq y pq
a a
the transformation ratio “a”

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INFORMATION FROM A
LOAD FLOW STUDY

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Information from a
Load Flow Study
BASIC INFORMATION
"   Voltage Profile
"   Injected Power (Pp and Qp)
"   Line Currents (Ipq and Ipq)
"   Power Flows (Ppq and Qpq)
"   Line Losses (I2R and I2X)

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Information from a
Load Flow Study
The bus voltages are:
V1 = 1.0∠0°
V2 = 0.9990∠0.4129°
V3 = 0.9788∠-1.2560°
The power injected into the buses are:
P1 - jQ1 = V1* [Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 ]
P1 - jQ1 = (1.0∠0) [(19.7642∠-71.5651°)(1.0∠0°)
+ (3.9528∠108.4349°)(0.9990∠0.4129°)
+ (15.8114∠108.4349°) (0.9788∠-1.25560°)
= 0.4033 - j0.2272
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Information from a
Load Flow Study
P2 - jQ2 = V2* [Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 ]
P2 - jQ2 = (0.999∠-0.4129°)[(3.9528∠108.4349°)(1.0∠0°)
+ (9.2233∠-71.5649°)(0.9990∠0.4129°)
+ (5.2705∠108.4349°)(0.9788∠-1.25560°)
= 0.2025 - j0.04286

P3 - jQ3 = V3* [Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 ]

P3 - jQ3 = (0.9788∠1.256°) [(15.8114∠108.4349°)(1.0∠0°)
+ (5.2705∠108.4349°)(0.9990∠0.4129°)
+ (21.0819 ∠ -71.5650°)(0.9788∠-1.25560° )
= -0.600 + j0.2498
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Information from a
Load Flow Study
Line Currents
Vp ypq Vq
Ipq Iline Iqp

p q
ypo yqo

The line current Ipq, measured at bus p is given by

I pq = I line + I po = y pq ( V p − Vq ) + y poV p

Similarly, the line current Iqp, measured at bus q is

I qp = − I line + I qo = y pq ( Vq − V p ) + yqoVq
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Information from a
Load Flow Study
The branch currents are:

I pq = I line = y pq ( V p − Vq ) I qp = − I line = y pq ( Vq − V p )
I12 = y12 [V1 - V2] I21 = y12 [V2 – V1]

I13 = y13 [V1 – V3] I31 = y13 [V3 – V1]

I23 = y23 [V2 – V3] I32 = y23 [V3 – V2]

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Information from a
Load Flow Study
Power Flows
The power flow (Spq) from bus p to q is

S =P + jQ = V I*
pq pq pq p pq

The power flow (Sqp) from bus q to p is

S =P + jQ = V I *
qp qp qp q qp

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Information from a
Load Flow Study
The branch power flows are:
P12 – jQ12 = V1* I12 P21 – jQ21 = V2* I21

P13 – jQ13 = V1* I13 P31 – jQ31 = V3* I31

P23 – jQ23 = V2* I23 P32 – jQ32 = V3* I32

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Information from a
Load Flow Study
Line Losses
The power loss in line pq is the algebraic sum of the power
flows Spq and Sqp

Sloss = Ploss + jQloss = S pq + Sqp

= Vp I *
pq
− Vq I *
pq

= (V p + Vq )I *
pq

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Information from a
Load Flow Study
The line losses are:
P12(Loss) – jQ12(Loss) = (P12 – jQ12) + (P21 – jQ21 )

P13(Loss) – jQ13(Loss) = (P13 – jQ13) + (P31 – jQ31 )

P23(Loss) – jQ23(Loss) = (P23 – jQ23) + (P32 – jQ32 )

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Information from a
Load Flow Study
Other Information:
"   Overvoltage and Undervoltage Buses
"   Critical and Overloaded Transformers
and Lines
"   Total System Losses

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USES OF LOAD FLOW STUDIES

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study
1) Take any line, transformer or generator out of service.
2) Add, reduce or remove load to any or all buses.
3) Add, remove or shift generation to any bus.
4) Add new transmission or distribution lines.
5) Increase conductor size on T&D lines.
6) Change bus voltages.
7) Change transformer taps.
8) Increase or decrease transformer size.
9) Add or remove rotating or static var supply to buses.
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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
IEEE 14-Bus System

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q  Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
Removal of Line
4-5

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
IEEE 14-Bus System

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q  Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
Removal of
generator at Bus
2

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
IEEE 14-Bus System

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q  Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
Removal of
rotating VAR
supply at bus 3

From 1.010 pu

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q Sensitivity
Analysis
Example
IEEE 14-Bus System

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q  Sensitivity
From 14.9 MW +
5.0 MVAR;
V: from 1.035 pu

Analysis Line 9-14: From

50% loading

Example
Increase in P and
Q at bus 14

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q  Analysis of existing conditions:
? Check for voltage violations (undervoltage/overvoltage).
? Check for transformer overloading/line overloading.
? Check for system losses.
q  Analysis for correction of power quality issues:
? Voltage adjustment at the delivery points
? Transformer tap changing
? Capacitor compensation:
ü  Compensation for Peak Loading
ü  Check for overvoltages during Off-Peak conditions
ü  Optimize capacitor allocation and capacitor switching

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q  Analysis for Expansion Planning:
? Construction of new substation
? Addition of capacity to existing substation
? Construction of new feeder segment
? Extension of existing feeder segment
? Addition of parallel feeder segment
? Replacement of conductors in existing feeder segments
? Conversion of entire feeder circuits from one voltage
level to another voltage level
? Addition of generators

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Uses of Load Flow Studies

q  Contingency Analysis:
? Reliability of the Transmission, Subtransmission, and
Distribution Systems
Reliability denotes that not only is the power system working, but
that it is working properly. That is, no physical and technical
constraints must be violated – i.e., voltage must be well regulated and
within acceptable range, load limits of the transformers and the lines
must not be exceeded, and power balance must be satisfied.

q  System Loss Analysis:

? Identification of lossy components in the power system.

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