A W A MANUAL

Chapter 4

Surge Pressure
Surge pressure is the result of a change in fluid velocity in a closed conduit. This change
in flow causes waves to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin. The
waves, in turn, cause increases or decreases in pressure as they travel along the line.
These pressure changes are variously referred to as water hammer, surge, or transient
pressure.
Surge pressure or water hammer is independent of the internal working pressure
created by the fluid in the line and is proportional to the velocity change and wave
speed. Therefore, surge pressure must be added to the internal working pressure to
determine the total pressure experienced by the pipe when surges occur.
The phenomenon of water hammer is extremely complex and cannot be covered
in depth in this manual. Only the fundamentals of elastic wave theory and specific
data pertaining to the properties of concrete pipe are discussed. For a more detailed
understanding of water hammer, the references listed at the end of this chapter should
be consulted.

EQUATIONS AND VARIABLES

The critical time period T, for a piping system is the time required for a transient wave
to travel in the piping system to a point of reflection and return to the point of origin.
The value of T,may be determined from

. T,.= 2Lla (Eq 4- 1)

Where:
T, = critical time period, sec
L = the distance that a transient wave travels in the piping
system between its origin and reflection point, ft
a = wave speed, ftlsec

The term critical period is used because the change in flow velocity, which oc-
curs in a time period equal to or less than T,, will cause the maximum pressure rise
for a particular surge event. The pressure rise from a fluid velocity change occurring
within the critical period is illustrated in Figure 4-1.Pressure waves from changes

27
Copyright (C) 2008 American Water Works Association All Rights Reserved
28 CONCRETE PRESSURE PIPE

initial Energy - Grade Line

(Fnctionless System)
I ItLC--t

a = Surw Wave Speed

h = Pressure Change Due 10 Surge
V, = InRiaI Veloclty

A. One-Pipe System at Pump Shutdown B. Negative Pressure Wave Travels Down Pipeline
Until L/a Seconds

C. System Condition at L/a Seconds D. System Condition Between L/a and 2L/a Seconds

E. System Condition at 2L/a Seconds-Assume Valve F, System Condition at 2L/a and 3L/a Seconds
Closes Instantaneously

Pressure + h
atx HX
-h
Pressure + h
aty HY
-h
pressure + h
atz Hz
-h
g 41 g g &
lL 1LL 1AL
a a a a a a a
Time

G. System Condition Between 3L/a and 4L/a Seconds H = lnltlal Head at Given Point on the Pipeline

H. Pressure Versus Time For Pipeline

NOTE While the surge wave duration is shorter near the reservoir, the magnitude of the surge wave is the same throughout the
line The magnitude of the surge wave at any station on the line is not related to the operating pressure at that station when the
surge occurs

Figure 4-1 Idealized surge cycle for instantaneous pump shutdown

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 SURGE PRESSURE 29

in velocity occurring over longer time periods will be reduced by molecular frictional
losses and by overlapping with the lower pressure troughs of returning surge waves.
The pressure rise from a change in fluid velocity occurring within the critical time
period is calculated from

H , = aWi - V f )Ig
Where:
H, = pressure rise due to surge, ft
a = wave speed, ft/sec
= initial fluid velocity, ft/sec
Vf = fluid velocity at time t = T,, ft/sec
g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec2

If flow is completely stopped in t < T, seconds, Vfis equal to zero and the formula
reduces to

Where:
V = initial fluid velocity, ft/sec
and the other variables are as previously defined.

The maximum surge pressure that will be encountered by a line is a function of

the maximum velocity that can be achieved by the system and the wave speed associ-
ated with the piping material. The maximum pressure surge will occur in situations
in which flow is moving at the maximum velocity and is stopped by the closing of a
quick-acting valve, the failure of the pump, or other actions that could stop the flow in
a time that is less than the critical time T,. The speed of the surge wave in a pipeline
is determined by the type and thickness of the material from which the pipeline is con-
structed, the pipeline diameter, and the liquid being transported by the line.
The wave speed a of a hydraulic transient may be determined from the following
formula:

Where:
a = wavespeed,fUsec
EL = bulk modulus of the liquid, psi (300,000 psi for water)
p = mass density of the fluid, lb-s2/ft4(1.94 lb-s2/ft4for water)
D = inside diameter of the pipe, in.
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pipe wall, psi
t = transformed pipe wall thickness, in.

Copyright (C) 2008 American Water Works Association All Rights Reserved
30 CONCRETE PRESSURE PIPE

= 4,720 ftls, and Eq. 4-4 becomes

For water, (144E,/~)O.~

4.720

with variables as previously defined.

Because concrete pressure pipe is a composite structure, the solution of this equa-
tion is not straightforward. The modulus of elasticity of the pipe wall Ep is derived
from the slope of the stress-strain curve of pipe wall material. These curves for con-
crete pressure pipe change in slope over the possible ranges of pressure the pipe may
encounter. Kennison (1955) published a detailed explanation of this theory along with
theoretical values and experimental results.
Calculated values of the surge wave speed for various types and classes of con-
crete pressure pipe range from 2,950 to 4,000 ft/sec (899 to 1,219 m/sec). Design values
for different types of concrete pressure pipe are listed in Table 4-1. In piping systems
where gas bubbles are dispersed throughout the liquid, the wave speed may be greatly
reduced. The reader is referred to Wylie and Streeter (1983) for a more detailed expla-
nation of this phenomenon.

NEGATIVE PRESSURES
The conditions that produce pressure rises from water hammer also cause a reduction
in pipeline pressure when the pressure wave reflects at a boundary. These pressure
reductions, if large enough in magnitude, will result in negative pressures in all or
part of the piping system. However, because of the inherent structural qualities of the
concrete pipe wall, concrete pressure pipe does not collapse from negative pressures
and does not require the special design considerations necessary to guard flexible pipe
against collapse as a result of negative pressures.
If the pressure becomes lower than the vapor pressure of water, extensive vapor
cavities may result. The subsequent positive surge pressures that result from the col-
lapse of the vapor cavity can be extremely high. Pipeline high points are particularly
susceptible to vapor cavity formation, and, therefore? vacuum-release valves are fre-
quently installed at such locations. A surge tank or hydropneumatic chamber can also
be used to prevent vapor cavity formation.

CAUSES OF SURGE PRESSURE

Water hammer can result from any condition that causes a sudden change in the flow
rate of the fluid in the pipeline. The following is a partial list of the causes of water
hammer:
normal pump startup and shutdown
pump power interruption
valve operations
air venting from pipeline during filling
improper operation of pressure-relief valves
operation of large-orifice air and vacuum valves
collapse of vapor cavities caused by negative pressures

Copyright (C) 2008 American Water Works Association All Rights Reserved
 SURGE PRESSURE 31

Table 4- 1 Design values-surge wave velocities,fusee (m/sec)

AWWA Description 100 (689) 150 (1,034) 200 (1,379)

Prestressed concrete Lined 3,500-3,750 (1,067-1,143) 3,400-3,775 (1,03&1,151) 3,350-3,850 (1,021-1,173)
pressure pipe, steel cylinder
cylinder type (ANSI/
AWWA C301-type Embedded 3,025-3,625 (922-1,105) 3,000-3,650 (914-1,113) 2,9753,675 (907-1,120)
pipe) cylinder

Concrete water pipe, 3,175-3,875 (968-1,181) 3,325-3,925 (1,013-1,196) 3,450-3,975 (1,052-1,211)

bar-wrapped steel
cylinder type (ANSI/
AWWA C303-type pipe)

Pump startup and shutdown, pump power failure, and valve operations are some-
times the only operational situations investigated to determine the magnitude of water
hammer. Pipeline filling and operation of its pressure-relief valves are occasionally
overlooked water hammer sources that should be considered.
During pipeline filling, air in the line may escape through some type of a control
structure (e.g., an air-release or discharge valve). The viscosity of air is much less than
water, so air can escape at a high rate through the air-release valves, allowing the
water to enter the pipeline at an equal rate. Air-release valves generally have a float
valve that snaps shut instantaneously when all of the air has been released. Depend-
ing on the physical characteristics of the system, the magnitude of the velocity change
can result in very high surge pressure. In most cases, pipeline surge-pressure damage
will not occur if line filling is performed at a rate of flow equivalent to a full pipe veloc-
ity of 1ft/sec (0.3 d s e c ) or less.
The operation of a pressure-relief valve may cause water hammer. When the sys-
tem becomes overpressured, the valve is designed to open and relieve line pressure by
releasing fluid from the pipeline. Most relief valves are quick opening but close at a
controlled rate. If the size of the valve is large in comparison to the pipeline size and
is improperly adjusted, or if the valve closure rate setting is not correct (especially in
pipelines during the testing phase), the quick action of the relief valve may cause a
sudden and extreme change in fluid velocity, thus creating water hammer.

CONTROL OF WATER HAMMER

Studies of surges should be conducted during the pipeline design stage. Once the gen-
eral layout of the system has been completed, the length, diameter, thickness, material,
and capacity of the pipe and the type and size of pumps can be established.
When analyzing surges, the designer generally first computes the hydraulic
grade line for the ultimate operating mode of the system. The maximum working pres-
sure at any point along the line is determined as the difference in elevation between
the hydraulic grade line and the pipeline. Then, using the maximum volume of flow
the pumping system can discharge or is expected to be able to discharge in the future,
the maximum velocity is computed for the selected pipe diameter. Calculating surge
pressure based on instantaneous stoppage of this flow will yield the maximum surge
the system can expect to experience if the pipeline is designed without surge controls
and if vapor cavity formation is prevented.
Concrete pressure pipe designs provide an allowance for water hammer that is
generally adequate, but the design should be checked to be sure the pipe design pro-
vides an adequate allowance for surge. If not, either the pipe design should be ad-
justed to provide enough surge allowance to withstand the conditions that might be

Copyright (C) 2008 American Water Works Association All Rights Reserved
32 CONCRETE PRESSURE PIPE

encountered or suitable remedial or control devices should be provided. The latter

method is almost always less costly. It is important to note that there is no single
device that will cure all surge difficulties. Only by a study of both normal operating
conditions and possible emergency conditions can methods be determined to provide
proper control.
It is not feasible to make general recommendations on the type, size, and appli-
cation of surge-control equipment for all systems. Several possible solutions should
be considered for any individual installation, and the one selected should be the one
that gives the most protection for the least expenditure. Surges can often be reduced
substantially by using bypasses around check valves, by cushioning check valves for
the last 15-20 percent of the stroke, or by adopting a two-speed rate of valve stroke.
Water hammer resulting from power failure to centrifugal pumps can sometimes
be held to safe limits by providing flywheels or by allowing the pumps to run back-
ward, as long as (1)the reverse pump flow does not produce motor backspin speed
greater than recommended by the motor manufacturer, and (2) the motor cannot be
reenergized during backspin. Otherwise, the electric motor coupling should be de-
signed to automatically disengage if pump backspin is permitted. Air-inlet valves may
be needed, or the preferred solution may be to use a surge tank, a surge damper, or a
hydropneumatic chamber.
It is essential to coordinate all the elements of a system properly and to ascertain
that operating practices conform to the requirements for safety. As changes take place
in the system demand, it may be necessary to review and revise the surge conditions,
particularly if the capacity is increased, additional pumpage or storage is added, or
booster stations are planned.
The surge wave theory has been proven in actual practice, and design engineers
should take the initiative in making surge studies and installing surge-control devices
without waiting for serious failures to occur. The time and effort spent on a surge study
in advance of the final design is the least expensive means of avoiding problems from
excessive surge pressures.

REFERENCES
Angus, R.W. 1937. Water Hammer . 1951. Water Hammer Control. Jour.
in Pipes, Including Those Sup- AWWA, 43(12):985-1000.
plied by Centrifugal Pumps; Parmakian, J. 1963. Water Hammer Analy-
Graphical Treatment. In Proc. of the sis. New York: Dover Publications.
Znst. Mech. Engrs., 136:245. Rich, G.R. 1951. Hydraulic Transients (En-
Chaundhry, M.G. 1979. Applied Hydraulic gineering Societies Monographs). New
Transients. New York Van Nostrand York McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Reinhold Company. Wylie, E.B., and V.L. Streeter. 1983. Fluid
Kennison, H.G. 1955. Surge-Wave Velocity Transients. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Feb
- Concrete Pressure Pipe. Paper pre- Press.
sented at the ASME Annual Meeting in
Chicago, Ill.
Kerr, S.L. 1948. Practical Aspects of Water
Hammer. Jour. AWWA, 40(6):599-605.

Copyright (C) 2008 American Water Works Association All Rights Reserved