Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Advanced Mechatronic Systems, Melbourne, Australia, November 30 - December 3, 2016

Dynamics Modelling and Linear Control

of Quadcopter

Pengcheng Wang1 Zhihong Man2 Zhenwei Cao3 Yong Zhao5

Jinchuan Zheng4
Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology Department of Research and Development
Swinburne University of Technology Lishui CA Steer-By-Wire Technology Co.Ltd.
Melbourne, Australia Lishui city, Zhejiang, China
[email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]; [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract – In this paper, a cascade PID feedback control PID, PI-D and I-PD controllers are compared and examined
algorithm is proposed to stabilize the attitude of a quadcopter so with respect to the best performance [5]. Optimized PID control
that the balancing state can be ensured in spite of disturbances. A method is proposed in [6], two simulations are carried out with
mathematical model of quadcopter dynamics is developed by respect to optimized PID and Back-step controller. Other kinds
applying Newton-Euler method. It reveals the exact relationships
among all the variables involved. Both linear and nonlinear state-
of control strategies are also mentioned in such as H infinity [7],
space equations are derived afterwards, which are essential for the linear quadratic optimal control, back-stepping control [8],
controller design and further development. The simulations are sliding mode control [9] and so on.
also carried out to demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of Many people have emphasized the merits of PID control
the cascade PID algorithm compared with classic PID control method in their papers [10] [11] [12], and it is true that the PID
scheme. control technique has been widely used in many areas and
Keywords— quadcopter; cascade PID; Newton-Euler method; provides an effective performance in controlling unstable
dynamics systems. Nonetheless, the drawback of PID control method is
when the disturbance results a large error in the system, the
I. INTRODUCTION
transient response of systems in terms of settling time,
The multi-rotor helicopter has experienced a remarkable overshoots and steady-state response will be compromised
development over last decade, the most commonly used and which presents a weaker robustness [13]. Especially in the
studied one is the quadcopter which is also known as a quadcopter system, the external disturbances always cause a
quadrotor. It has drawn a lot attention from engineers and large tracking error, which raises the difficulty of controller
researchers due to its simple mechanical structure and a massive design [14]. Hence, a robust cascade PID algorithm is proposed
growth in applications. Recently, the quadcopter becomes one to improve the stability by lowering the system sensitivity to the
of the most popular studied systems in control area. It severs as external disturbances. In addition, the mathematical models of
an excellent test-bed for investigating the behavior of multiple- quadcopter dynamics are usually derived from Euler-Lagrange
input multiple-output (MIMO) systems. In general, there are or Newton-Euler methods [15] [16], the latter is employed and
two types of quadcopter configuration, which are the plus and the dynamics of motors are taken into account during the
cross structures respectively. In this paper, the dynamics modelling for maximum accuracy and feasibility [17]. In
modelling and controller design are based on the latter section III, the proposed cascade PID controller is developed
structure. The quadcopter is seen as an under-actuated system based on the linear model of the system. In section IV, the
which has six degrees of freedom (three translational and three simulations of cascade PID and a parallel structure PID
rotational) [1], but with only four independent inputs (the speed controllers are both performed.
of each motor), this brings the strong coupling of rotational and
translational dynamics . Due to the under-actuated properties of
quadcopters, maintaining its balancing state or a desired attitude
becomes more challenging. Therefore, the control algorithm
design is very important and modelling a more realistic
dynamic model of a quadcopter is also crucial.
Over the last decade, various control methodologies have
been proposed to investigate the attitude control problem of
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). Both linear and nonlinear
control schemes are involved. In [2] [3] [4]the model-based PD
and Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) control schemes are
applied to an indoor micro quadcopter. The PID algorithm in Fig. 1 Quadcopter aerial vehicle
three structures are considered to formulate the control tasks,

978-1-5090-5346-9 / 16 / $31.00 ©2016 IEEE 498

 II. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING ߬థ ൌ ݈݇௙ ሾሺ߱ଶଶ ൅ ߱ଷଶ ሻ െ ሺ߱ଵଶ ൅ ߱ସଶ ሻሿ
A. Coordinate systems and transformations
߬ఏ ൌ ݈݇௙ ሾሺ߱ଵଶ ൅ ߱ଶଶ ሻ െ ሺ߱ଷଶ ൅ ߱ସଶ ሻሿ
To specify the attitude of quadcopters in space, two frames
have to be introduced which are inertial frame Ƞூ and body
߬ట ൌ ݇௠ ሾሺ߱ଵଶ ൅ ߱ଷଶ ሻ െ ሺ߱ଶଶ ൅ ߱ସଶ ሻሿ (5)
frame Ƞ஻ . Let the position vector of the quadcopter be defined
as ߦ ൌ ሾ‫ݖ ݕ ݔ‬ሿ் ‫ א‬Ƞூ , and its orientation vector described
by Euler angleߟ ൌ ሾ߶ ߠ ߰ሿ் ‫ א‬Ƞூ in terms of roll, pitch and Define ሾ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ݑ‬ସ ሿ் ൌ ሾܶ ߬థ ߬ఏ ߬ట ሿ் , by using
Newton-Euler method, the rotational motion equations can be
yaw angles; then, the linear velocity ȯ ൌ ሾ‫ݓ ݒ ݑ‬ሿ் ‫ א‬Ƞ஻
described as:
and angular velocity ȳ ൌ ሾ‫ݎ ݍ ݌‬ሿ் ‫ א‬Ƞ஻ of the quadcopter ‫ݑ‬ଶ
have the following relationship with position and orientation ‫ܫ‬ƞሷ ൅ൈ ‫ܫ‬ƞሶ ൌ ൥‫ݑ‬ଷ ൩ (6)
vectors: ‫ݑ‬ସ
ߦሶ ൌ ࡾȯ
൜ (1)
ߟሶ ൌ ࡶȳ ‫ܫ‬௫௫ Ͳ Ͳ
‫ܫ‬ൌ቎Ͳ ‫ܫ‬௬௬ Ͳ቏ (7)
ͳ Ͳ െ‫ߠݏ‬ Ͳ Ͳ ‫ܫ‬௭௭
ࡶ ൌ ൥Ͳ ܿ߶ ‫ ߠܿ߶ݏ‬൩ (2)
Ͳ െ‫߶ݏ‬ ܿ߶ܿߠ
Due to the symmetrical structure of the quadcopter, the inertial
matrix I is a diagonal matrix.
ࡾ ൌ
By substituting (7) into (6), the following equation can be
ܿߠܿ߰ ܿ ߰ ߠ ‫ ߶ݏ‬െ ‫߶ ܿ ߰ ݏ‬ ܿ߰‫ ߶ܿߠݏ‬൅‫߶ݏ߰ݏ‬
‫ ۍ‬ ‫ې‬ established:
 
‫ێ‬ ‫ۑ‬
‫߰ ݏ ߠ ܿێ‬ ‫ ߶ݏߠݏ߰ݏ‬൅ܿ߰ܿ߶ ‫ ߶ ܿ ߠ ݏ ߰ ݏ‬െ ܿ ߰ ‫( ۑ߶ ݏ‬3)
‫ ێ‬   ‫ۑ‬ ‫ܫ‬௫௫ ߶ሷ ߠሶ ‫ܫ‬௭௭ ߰ሶ െ ߰ሶ‫ܫ‬௬௬ ߠሶ ‫ݑ‬ଶ
‫ ۏ‬െ‫ߠݏ‬ ܿߠ‫߶ݏ‬ ܿߠܿ߶ ‫ے‬ ቎‫ܫ‬௬௬ ߠሷ ቏ ൅ ൦߰ሶ‫ܫ‬௫௫ ߶ሶ െ ߶ሶ‫ܫ‬௭௭ ߰ሶ ൪ ൌ ൥‫ݑ‬ଷ ൩ (8)
߶ሶ ‫ܫ‬௬௬ ߠሶ െ ߠሶ‫ܫ‬௫௫ ߶ሶ ‫ݑ‬ସ
‫ܫ‬௭௭ ߰ሷ
where ࡾ is a rotational matrix and ࡶ is an angular velocity
transformation matrix which convert attitude and angular speed
Expanding each term leads to,
of the quadcopter from body frame to inertial frame; c and s
represent cosine and sine functions respectively. Small angle ௨ ூ ூ
assumption has been made around hovering condition [18] ߶ሷ ൌ  మ ൅ ೤೤ ߠሶ߰ሶ െ ೥೥ ߠሶ߰ሶ
ூೣೣ ூೣೣ ூೣೣ
which results in cos(.) = 1, sin(.)=0, hence, the angular
velocities in both frames are equivalent. ௨ ூ೥೥ ூ
ߠሷ ൌ  య ൅ ߰ሶ߶ሶ െ ೣೣ ߰ሶ߶ሶ
ூ೤೤ ூ೤೤ ூ೤೤
B. Dynamics of quadcopter
The dynamics model is obtained based on the following ௨ ூ ூ
߰ሷ ൌ  ర ൅ ೣೣ ߶ሶߠሶ െ ೤೤ ߶ሶߠሶ (9)
assumptions: ூ೥೥ ூ೥೥ ூ೥೥
1) the body frame of the quadcopter is rigid and
symmetric; Because of the dynamics of a quadcopter is directly related to
2) the center of the body frame coincides with the the accelerations of the rotational and translational motions, so
center of gravity; Dynamics equations have to be in accelerations form. The
3) the aerodynamics effects are neglected. translational motion equations can be derived by applying
Newton’s Second law:
According to the aerodynamics, the lifting force and moment
are proportional to the square of propeller rotation speed. Ͳ
݉ߦሷ ൌ  ൥ Ͳ ൩ ൅ ࡾ‫ܨ‬஻ (10)
݂௜ ൌ ݇௙ ߱௜ଶ ݉݃
ቊ (4)
߬௜ ൌ ݇௠ ߱௜ଶ Ͳ
‫ܨ‬஻ ൌ ൥ Ͳ ൩ (11)
where ݇௙ and ݇௠ are the aerodynamics force and moment െ‫ݑ‬ଵ
constant. These constants can be determined experimentally.
where ‫ܨ‬஻ is the total forces acting on the quadcopter in body
The attitude and altitude are governed by varying the speed of frame.
four motors independently, thus, the total thrust and torques By substituting (11) into (10), the following equations can be
generated by rotating propellers can be expressed by: obtained:

ܶ ൌ ݇௙ ሾ߱ଵଶ ൅ ߱ଶଶ ൅ ߱ଷଶ ൅ ߱ସଶ ሿ ‫ݔ‬ሷ ൌ

ି௨భ
ሺ‫ ߰ ݊݅ݏ ߶ ݊݅ݏ‬൅ ܿ‫ߠ ݊݅ݏ ߰ ݏ݋ܿ ߶ ݏ݋‬ሻ
௠

499
 ି௨భ
‫ݕ‬ሷ ൌ  ሺ…‘• ߶ ‫ ߠ ݊݅ݏ ߰ ݊݅ݏ‬െ ܿ‫߶ ݊݅ݏ ߰ ݏ݋‬ሻ Occasionally, the dynamics of brushless DC motors are not
௠
taken into consideration or highlighted during the mathematical
௨భ modelling of the quadcopter dynamics [19] [20] [21], which
‫ݖ‬ሷ ൌ ݃ െ ሺܿ‫ߠ ݏ݋ܿ ߶ ݏ݋‬ሻ (12) may degrade the performance of the controller to a certain
௠
degree.
It is noted that the dynamics of quadcopters are highly nonlinear In this paper, a static function is introduced to approximate the
and strongly coupled, so the linearization is performed around dynamics of motors in the linear operating region. For control
an equilibrium point to simplify the mathematical model and purposes, the relation between throttle input and steady-state
decouple its dynamics based on previous assumptions: angular speed of motors is shown as:

௨
߶ሷ ൌ  మ ߱௦ ൌ ሺ݄ܶ‫݈݁ݐݐ݋ݎ‬Ψሻ݇ ் ൅ ܾ (15)
‫ۓ‬ ூೣೣ
ۖ ௨య
ۖ ߠሷ ൌ  where ݇ ் is a conversion coefficient, ܾ is the offset parameter
ூ೤೤
ۖ ௨ర which is a constant.
߰ሷ ൌ  (13)
ூ೥೥
‫۔‬ III. ATTITUDE CONTROL SCHEME
‫ݔ‬ሷ  ൌ  െ ݃ߠ
ۖ In order to maintain the balance or a desired attitude of the
ۖ ‫ݕ‬ሷ  ൌ ݃߶
ۖ ௨భ quadcopter, a classic PID controller is commonly used,
‫ݖە‬ሷ  ൌ ݃ െ  ௠ however, it cannot provide a robust performance, regardless of
whether the controlling target is Euler angle or angular rate
The internal state is defined as: [22]. In general, the control outputs of the classic PID controller
only depend on the error value of the Euler angles, the impact
‫ ܠ‬ൌ ሾ‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬ሶ ߰߰ሶ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ሶ ߶ ߶ሶ ‫ݕݕ‬ሶ ߠ ߠሶሿ் of angular rate to the system transient response is completely
overlooked [23], thus the performance of the controller is
Therefore, the state space form of the linear dynamics model limited. Hence, a new approach has been developed which is
can be represented by: cascade PID algorithm. For a system with multiple sensors
available, a cascade control system can achieve a better
‫ݔ‬ሶ ൌ ࡭‫ ݔ‬൅ ࡮‫ݑ‬ (14) performance than the classic PID controller. The cascade
control is composed of two PI controllers in series, the control
output of the primary controller serves as the set point for the
where
secondary controller, then the output of the secondary controller
Ͳ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ
‫Ͳۍ‬ will feedback and affect the primary controller. For the
Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ې‬ quadcopter, the primary controller designed is an angle
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ ‫ۑ‬ controller, and its control output is the desired angular rate,
Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ which serves as the set point of the secondary controller - the
‫ێ‬ ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬ angular rate controller. The actual angular rate loop operates
Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ݃ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬ much faster than the actual angle loop, which allows it to have
࡭ൌ‫ێ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬ enough time to compensate for disturbances. The cascade
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬ control not only drives the current Euler angle converge to the
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬ desired angle, but also restricts the angular rate during the
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ െ݃ Ͳ‫ۑ‬ convergence. So the transient response of the cascade controller
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ‫ۑ‬ will be much smoother than the classic PID controller, this
‫Ͳۏ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ے‬ control technique can ensure that both Euler angle and angular
rate are measured and controlled in the close-loop system. The
Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ robustness of the quadcopter system can be improved greatly.
‫ۍ‬ଵ ‫ې‬ The design of the cascade PID controller is shown below:
Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ
‫ێ‬௠ ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ ଵ
Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ ூೣೣ ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬
࡮ ൌ ‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ
ଵ
Ͳ‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ ூ೤೤ ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳێ‬ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ‫ۑ‬ Fig. 2 Cascade PID control structure
‫ێ‬ ଵ‫ۑ‬
‫Ͳۏ‬ Ͳ Ͳ
ூ೥೥ ‫ے‬

500
The control algorithm is designed to control the attitude of a IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
quadcopter according to user instructions, the control inputs are Two PID controllers were tested in a simulation
chosen as ሾ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ݑ‬ସ ሿ் , which can be rewritten as: environment. First, a classic PID controller (or angle controller)
was tested followed by an advanced cascade PID controller.
‫ݑ‬ଵ ݇௙ ݇௙ ݇௙ ݇௙ ߱ଶ Four different conditions were considered to examine the
‫ۍ‬ ‫ ۍ ې‬ଵଶ ‫ې‬
‫ݑ‬ െ݇௙ ݈ ൅݇௙ ݈ ൅݇௙ ݈ െ݇௙ ݈ ‫߱ێ ۑ‬ଶ ‫ۑ‬ performance of these two control schemes: (i) taking off; (ii)
቎ ଶ቏  ൌ ‫ێ‬    Ǥ ‫ ێ‬ଶ‫ۑ‬ (16) single roll command; (iii) multiple commands (roll, pitch, yaw);
‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ێ‬൅݇௙ ݈ ൅݇௙ ݈ െ݇௙ ݈ െ݇௙ ݈ ‫߱ێ ۑ‬ଷ ‫ۑ‬
‫ݑ‬ସ ‫ ۏ‬൅݇௠ െ݇௠ ൅݇௠ െ݇௠ ‫߱ۏ ے‬ସଶ ‫ے‬ and (iv) external disturbance injection.

The cascade PID control algorithm of roll motion is represented

in the discrete time form as follows:

݁଴ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ߶ௗ௘௦௜௥௘ௗ െ ߶௔௖௧௨௔௟

߶ሶௗ௘௦௜௥௘ௗ ൌ  ݇௣ ݁଴ ሺ‫ݐ‬௞ ሻ ൅ ݇௜ σ௞௜ୀଵ ݁଴ ሺ‫ݐ‬௜ ሻܶ௦
݁ଵ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ߶ሶௗ௘௦௜௥௘ௗ െ ߶ሶ௔௖௧௨௔௟
‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ  ݇௣ ݁ଵ ሺ‫ݐ‬௞ ሻ ൅ ݇௜ σ௞௜ୀଵ ݁ଵ ሺ‫ݐ‬௜ ሻܶ௦ (17)

where ݇௣ is Proportional gain; ݇௜ is Integral gain; ܶ௦ is

Sampling time of microcontroller. Fig. 3 Stabilization of PID control
The attitude of the quadcopter in terms of roll, pitch, and yaw
angles are mapped to the PWM signals of the microcontroller.
These are proportional to the throttle in equation (15). Then the
desired attitude angles become the input of the cascade PID
controller, the manipulated values from the output of the
controller then feed into equation (15) to calculate the desired
rotating speed of the motors. Therefore, the corresponding
thrust and torque can be determined based on equation (16)
afterwards, so that the expected states which include Euler
angles and angular rates can be achieved. Three cascade PID
controllers are designed, one for each axis referring in particular
to roll, pitch, and yaw motion.

The PID parameters are selected based on the experience of

engineers and researchers [22], some adjustments of PID Fig. 4 Stabilization of cascade PID control
parameters have been made to adapt the quadcopter system.
The procedures of tuning PID parameters are shown below.
Fig.3 and 4 have shown that both classic and cascade PID
x First, increase the Proportional gain of outer loop controllers are capable of stabilizing the quadcopter and keep it
(angle control) to stabilize the quadcopter until there at a certain level. The difference is that cascade PID controller
is a little bit oscillation. converges the tracking error to zero much faster than the
x Second, slightly increase the Integral gain of outer former.
loop (angle control) to eliminate the angle error, and
reduce the Proportional gain to reduce the overshoot.
x Then, tune the Proportional gain of inner loop
(angular rate control) until the quadcopter start
oscillating.
x Next, slightly increase the Integral gain of inner loop
(angular rate control) to eliminate the angular
velocity error, and reduce the Proportional gain to
reduce the overshoot.
x Finally, repeat the procedures above until the
quadcopter is stable and insensitive to some external
disturbances

Fig. 5 Response of rolling command with PID control

501
 Fig. 6 Response of rolling command with cascade PID control Fig. 9 Disturbance rejection with PID control

Under a single roll command condition, the performance of two

controllers is compared in Fig.5 and 6, it has noted that the
cascade PID controller has the stronger tracking ability and the
faster reaction speed than classic PID controller.

Fig. 10 Disturbance rejection with cascade PID control

From the results of Fig. 5 to Fig. 10, it is extremely obvious that

the cascade PID control makes the system has a great command
following ability without compromising robustness with regard
to large external disturbances.

Fig. 7 Roll, pitch, and yaw command with PID control On the basis of simulation results, it has seen that the
cascade PID control scheme reduced the overshoot of the
system, and the response speed of the quadcopter is increased
dramatically. This resulted in the quadcopter system being more
stable and robust when the attitude changes. Stable flight is also
guaranteed without large drifts.

V. CONCLUSION
A robust cascade PID control algorithm has been developed
based on the dynamic model of a quadcopter in this paper. The
main advantage of the cascade PID control scheme is its strong
robustness against to external disturbances. In addition, classic
and cascade PID control schemes have been compared to
demonstrate the effectiveness of the designed controller. The
simulation results of quadcopter attitude control are given to
Fig. 8 Roll, pitch ,and yaw command with cascade PID control support the proposed control algorithm. To conclude, the
cascade PID control scheme provides an excellent performance
boost to the quadcopter system. The future work will be focused
on developing sliding mode control algorithms with a nonlinear
dynamic model, so that the robustness and performance of the
quadcopter system against parameter uncertainties and external
disturbances can be improved.

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