1.

2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus

1

1.2 PROPERTIES OF LIMITS

This section presents results which make it easier to calculate limits of combinations of functions or to show
that a limit does not exist. The main result says we can determine the limit of "elementary combinations" of
functions by calculating the limit of each function separately and recombining these results for our final answer.

Main Limit Theorem:

If lim f(x) = L and lim g(x) = M ,

x "a x "a

then (a) lim {f(x) + g(x)} = lim f(x) + lim g(x) = L + M

x "a x "a x "a

! (b) lim!{f(x) – g(x)} = lim f(x) – lim g(x) = L – M

x "a x "a x "a

! (c) lim k f(x) ! = !

k lim f(x) = kL
x "a x "a

! (d)
!
lim f(x).g(x) !
= { lim f(x)}.{ lim g(x)} = L.M
x "a x "a x "a

! ! lim f (x)
f (x) L
(e) lim = x "a = M (if M ≠ 0 ) .
x "a g(x)
! ! lim
x "a
g(x)
!

lim { f(x) }n n n
(f)
x "a
=
{ lim f(x) }
x "a
= L

!
n
(g) lim n f (x) = n lim f (x) = L (if L > 0 when n is even)
x "a x "a
! !

The Main Limit Theorem says we get the same result if we first perform the algebra and then take the
!if we take the limits first and then perform the algebra: e.g., (a) the limit of the sum equals the sum
limit or
of the limits. A proof of the Main Limit Theorem is not inherently difficult, but it requires a more precise
definition of the limit concept than we have given, and it then involves a number of technical difficulties.

2 2
Practice 1: For f(x) = x – x – 6 and g(x) = x – 2x – 3 , evaluate the following limits:

(a) lim {f(x) + g(x)} (b) lim f(x)g(x) (c) lim f(x)/g(x) (d) lim {f(x) + g(x)}
x "1 x "1 x "1 x "3

(e) lim f(x)g(x) (f) lim f(x)/g(x) (g) lim { f(x) }3 (h) lim 1# g(x)
x "3 x "3 x "2 x "2

! ! ! !

! ! ! !
1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
2

Limits of Some Very Nice Functions: Substitution

As you may have noticed in the previous example, for some functions f(x) it is possible to calculate the
limit as x approaches a simply by substituting x = a into the function and then evaluating f(a), but
sometimes this method does not work. The Substitution Theorem uses the following Two Easy Limits and
the Main Limit Theorem to partially answer when such a substitution is valid.

Two Easy Limits: lim k = k and lim x = a .

x "a x "a

Substitution Theorem For Polynomial and Rational Functions:

If
! P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials
! and a is any number,

P(x) P(a)
then lim P(x) = P(a) and lim = Q(a) if Q(a) ≠ 0 .
x "a x "a Q(x)

The Substitution Theorem says that we can calculate the limits of polynomials and rational functions by
substituting!as long as the substitution does not result in a division by zero.
!
3 2 x 3 # 7x x 2 # 2x
Practice 2: Evaluate (a) lim 5x – x + 3 (b) lim 2 (c) lim 2
x "2 x "2 x + 3x x "2 x # x # 2

Limits of Other Combinations of Functions

! ! !
So far we have concentrated on limits of single functions and elementary combinations of functions. If we
are working with limits of other combinations or compositions of functions, the situation is slightly more
difficult, but sometimes these more complicated limits have useful geometric interpretations.

Example 1: Use the function defined by the graph in Fig. 1 to evaluate

(a) lim { 3 + f(x) } (b) lim f(2+x) (c) lim f(3–x) (d) lim f(x+1) – f(x)
x "1 x "1 x "0 x "2

Solution: (a) lim { 3 + f(x) } is a straightforward application of part (a) of the Main Limit Theorem:
x "1

! ! lim { 3!+ f(x) } = lim 3 !+ lim f(x) = 3 + 2 = 5 .

x "1 x "1 x "1

!
(b) We first need to examine what happens to the quantity 2+x , as x→1 ,

!before we can consider

! the limit!of f(2+x). When x is very close to 1, the
value of 2+x is very close to 3, so the limit of f(2+x) as x→1 is equivalent
to the limit of f(w) as w→3 (w=2+x), and it is clear from

the graph that lim f(w) = 1 : lim f(2+x) = lim f(w) = 1 (w represents 2+x).
x "3 x "1 x "3

! ! !
 1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
3

In most cases it is not necessary to formally substitute a new variable w for the quantity 2+x, but it
is still necessary to think about what happens to the quantity 2+x as x→1.
(c) As x→0, the quantity 3–x will approach 3 so we want to know what happens to the values of f
when the variable is approaching 3: lim f(3–x) = 1 .
x "0

(d) lim { f(x+1) – f(x) } = lim f(x+1) – lim f(x) replace x+1 with w
x "2 x "2 x "2

=!lim f(w) – lim f(x) = 1 – 3 = –2 .

x "3 x "2

! Practice 3: ! function defined

Use the ! by the graph in Fig. 2 to evaluate

(a) lim
! f(2x) ! (b) lim f(x–1)
x "1 x "2

(c) lim 3.f(4+x) (d) lim f(3x–2) .

x "0 x "2

Example!2: ! defined by the graph in Fig. 3 to evaluate

Use the function

(a) lim f(3+h)

! ! (b) lim f(3)
h "0 h "0

f (3 + h) # f (3)
(c) lim { f(3+h) – f(3) } (d) lim
h "0 h "0 h
! !
Solution: Part (d) is a common form of limit, and parts (a) – (c) are the steps we need to evaluate (d).

!(a) As h→0, the quantity !

w = 3+h will approach 3 so lim f(3+h) = lim f(w) = 1 .
h "0 x "3

(b) f(3) is the constant 1 and f(3) does not depend on h in any way so lim f(3) = 1 .
h "0

(c) The limit in part (c) is just an algebraic combination

! of the limits
! in (a) and (b):
lim { f(3+h) – f(3) } = lim f(3+h) – lim f(3) = 1 – 1 = 0 .
h "0 h "0 h "0 !
The quantity f(3+h) – f(3) also has a geometric interpretation –– it is the change in
the y–coordinates, the ∆y, between the points (3,f(3)) and (3+h,f(3+h)). (Fig. 4)
! ! !
f(3+h) – f(3)
(d) As h→0, the numerator and denominator of h
both approach 0 so we cannot immediately determine the value
of the limit. But if we recognize that f(3+h) – f(3) = ∆y for
the two points ( 3, f(3) ) and ( 3+h, f(3+h) ) and that h = ∆x
f(3+h) – f(3)
for the same two points, then we can interpret h
∆y
as ∆x which is the slope of the secant line through the two

points. So
 1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
4

f (3 + h) # f (3) "y
lim = lim = lim { slope of the secant line }
h "0 h "x #0 "x "x #0

= slope of the tangent line at ( 3, f(3) ) ≈ –2.

! This limit, representing ! tangent to the graph of f at the point ( 3, f(3) ) , is a

!the slope of line
pattern we will see often in the future.

Tangent Lines as Limits

If we have two points on the graph of a function, ( x, f(x) ) and ( x+h, f(x+h) ), then ∆y = f(x+h) – f(x)
∆y
and ∆x = (x+h) – (x) = h so the slope of the secant line through those points is msecant = ∆x

and the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f at the point ( x, f(x) ) is, by definition,

"y f (x + h) # f (x)
mtangent = lim { slope of the secant line } = lim = lim .
"x #0 "x #0 "x h "0 h
Example 3: Give a geometric interpretation for the following limits and estimate their values for the

! f (1+ h) # !f (1) f (2 + h) # f (2)

function in Fig. 5: (a) lim (b) !lim
h "0 h h "0 h

Solution: Part (a) represents the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f(x) at the

! point ( 1, f(1) ) so !

f (1+ h) # f (1)
lim ≈ 1 . Part (b) represents the slope of the line tangent to the
h "0 h
f (2 + h) # f (2)
graph of f(x) at the point ( 2, f(2) ) so lim ≈ –1 .
h "0 h
!
Practice 4: Give a geometric interpretation for the following limits and
estimate their values for the function in!Fig. 6:

g(1+ h) # g(1) g(3 + h) # g(3) g(h) # g(0)

lim lim lim .
h "0 h h "0 h h "0 h

Comparing the Limits of Functions

! ! !
Sometimes it is difficult to work directly with a function. However, if we can compare our difficult function
with easier ones, then we can use information about the easier functions to draw conclusions about the
difficult one. If the complicated function is always between two functions whose limits are equal, then we
know the limit of the complicated function.
 1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
5

Squeezing Theorem (Fig. 7):

If g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x) for all x near c (for all x close to but not equal to c)

and lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L

x "c x "c

then for x near c, f(x) will be squeezed between g(x) and h(x), and lim f(x) = L .
x "c

! ! 4:
Example Use the inequality –|x| ≤ sin(x) ≤ |x| to determine lim sin(x)
x "0
and lim cos(x) .
x "0 !
Solution: lim |x| = 0 and lim –|x| = 0 so, by the Squeezing Theorem,
x "0 x "0 !
2
lim !sin(x) = 0 . If –π/2 < x < π/2 then cos(x) = + 1 – sin (x) so
x "0

lim cos(x) = lim + 1 – sin2(x) = + 1 – 0 = 1 .

! x "0 ! x "0
!
1
Example 5: Evaluate lim x.sin( x ) .
! x "0 !
1
Solution: The graph of y = sin( x ) for values of x near 0 is shown in Fig. 8. The y–values of this

graph change very rapidly for values of x near 0, but they all lie between –1 and +1:
1
!
–1 ≤ sin( x ) ≤ +1 . The fact that
1
sin( x ) is bounded between –1 and +1
1
implies that x sin( x ) is stuck between

–x and +x , so the function we are

1
interested in , x.sin( x ), is squeezed

between two "easy" functions, –x and

x (Fig. 9). Both "easy" functions
1
approach 0 as x→0 , so x.sin( x )

must also approach 0 as x→0 :

1
lim x.sin( x ) = 0 .
x "0

!
2
Practice 5: If f(x) is always between x + 2 and 2x + 1, then lim f(x) = ?
x "1
sin(x) sin(x)
Practice 6: Use the relation cos(x) ≤ x ≤ 1 to show that lim = 1. (The steps for
x "0 x
deriving the inequalities are shown in problem 19.)
!

!
1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
6

List Method for Showing that a Limit Does Not Exist

If the limit, as x approaches c, exists and equals L, then we can guarantee that the values of f(x) are
as close to L as we want by restricting the values of x to be very, very close to c. To show that a limit,
as x approaches c, does not exist, we need to show that no matter how closely we restrict the values of x
to c, the values of f(x) are not all close to a single, finite value L. One way to

demonstrate that lim f(x) does not exist is to show that the left and right limits exist but are not equal.
x "c

Another method of showing that lim f(x) does not exist is to find two infinite lists of numbers,
x "c
{a1, a2, a3, a4, . . . } and {b1, b2, b3, b4, . . . } , which approach arbitrarily close to the value c as the
!
subscripts get larger, but so that the lists of function values, {f(a1), f(a2), f(a3), f(a4), . . . } and
{f(b1), f(b2), f(b3), f(b!
4), . . }, approach two different numbers as the subscripts get larger.

 1 if x < 1
Example 6: For f(x) =  x if 1 < x < 3 , show that lim f(x) does not exist.
2 if 3 < x x "3

Solution: We can use one–sided limits to show that this limit does not exist, or we can use the list
method by selecting values for one list to approach 3 from the right and values for the other list to
!
approach 3 from the left.

One way to define values of {a1, a2, a3, a4, . . . } which approach 3 from the right is to define
1 1 1 1
a1 = 3 + 1, a2 = 3 + 2 , a3 = 3 + 3 , a4 = 3 + 4 and, in general, an = 3 + n . Then an > 3
so f( an ) = 2 for all subscripts n , and the values in the list {f(a1), f(a2), f(a3), f(a4), . . . } are
approaching 2 . In fact, all of the f( an ) = 2 .

We can define values of {b1, b2, b3, b4, . . . } which approach 3 from the left by b1 = 3 – 1,
1 1 1 1
b2 = 3 – 2 , b3 = 3 – 3 , b4 = 3 – 4 and, in general, bn = 3 – n . Then bn < 3 so
1
f( bn ) = bn = 3 – n for each subscript n , and the values in the list
1
{ f(b1), f(b2), f(b3), f(b4), . . . } = { 2, 2.5, 2.67, 2.75, 2.8, . . . , 3 – n , . . } approach 3.

Since the values in the lists { f(a1), f(a2), f(a3), f(a4), . . . } and { f(b1), f(b2), f(b3), f(b4), . . . }

approach two different numbers, we can conclude that lim f(x) does not exist.
x "3

!
 1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
7

Example 7: Let h(x) = { 21 if x is a rational number

if x is an irrational number be the "holey" function

introduced in Section 0.4 . Use the list method to show that lim h(x) does not exist.
x "3
Solution: Let { a1, a2, a3, a4, . . . } be a list of rational numbers which approach 3, for example, a1 = 3 +
1, a2 = 3 + 1/2, . . ., an = 3 + 1/n. Then f( an ) always equals 2 so { f(a1), f(a2), f(a3), f(a4), . . . } =
{ 2, 2, 2, . . . } and the f( an ) values "approach" 2. If {b1 , b!
2, b3, b4, . . . } is a list of irrational
numbers which approach 3, for example, b1 = 3 + π, b2 = 3 + π/2, . . ., bn = 3 + π/n. then { f(b1), f(b2),
f(b3), f(b4), . . . } = { 1, 1, 1, . . . } and the f( bn ) "approach" 1. Since the f( an ) and f( bn ) values

approach different numbers, the limit as x→3 does not exist.

A similar argument will work as x approaches any number c, so for every c we have that lim h(x)
x "c

does not exist. The "holey" function does not have a limit as x approaches any value c.

PROBLEMS !
1. Use the functions f and g defined by the graphs
in Fig. 10 to determine the following limits.

(a) lim { f(x) + g(x) } (b) lim f(x).g(x)

x "1 x "1

(c) lim f(x)/g(x) (d) lim f( g(x) )

x "1 x "1

! !
2. Use the functions f and g defined by the graphs

! in Fig. 10 to determine
! the following limits.
(a) lim { f(x) + g(x) } (b) lim f(x).g(x)
x"2 x"2

(c) lim f(x)/g(x) (d) lim f( g(x) )

x"2 x"2

! 3. Use the function h !defined by the graph in Fig. 11 to determine

the following limits.
! !
(a) lim h(2x – 2) (b) lim { x + h(x) }
x"2 x"2
(c) lim h(1 + x) (d) lim h( x/2 )
x"2 x "3

4. Use the function h defined by the graph in Fig. 11 to determine

! !
the following limits.
! !
(a) lim h(5 – x) (b) lim x.h(x – 1)
x "2 x "2
h(3 + x) # h(3)
(c) lim { h(3 + x) – h(3) } (d) lim
x "0 x "0 x
! !

! !
 1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
8

5. Label the parts of the graph of f (Fig. 12) which are described by
(a) 2 + h (b) f(2 ) (c) f(2 + h)

f(2 + h) – f(2) f(2 – h) – f(2)

(d) f(2 + h) – f(2) (e) (2 + h) – (2) (f) (2 – h) – (2)

6. Label the parts of the graph of f (Fig. 13) which are described by
(a) a + h (b) g(a ) (c) g(a + h)

g(a + h) – g(a) g(a – h) – g(a)

(d) g(a + h) – g(a) (e) (a + h) – (a) (f) (a – h) – (a)

7. Use the function f defined by the graph in Fig. 14 to determine

the following limits.

(a) lim f(x) (b) lim f(x) (c) lim f(x)

x "1+ x "1# x "1

(d) lim f(x) (e) lim f(x) (f) lim f(x)

x "3 + x "3 # x "3

! (g) lim+ f(x) ! (h) lim# f(x) ! (i) lim f(x)

x "#1 x "#1 x "#1

! ! !
8. Use the function f defined by the graph in Fig. 14 to determine
! !
the following limits. !
(a) lim f(x) (b) lim f(x) (c) lim f(x)
x "2 + x "2 # x "2

(d) lim f(x) (e) lim f(x) (f) lim f(x)

x "4 + x "4 # x "4
! ! !
(g) lim f(x) (h) lim f(x) (i) lim f(x)
x "#2 + x "#2 # x "#2

! ! !
9. The Lorentz Contraction Formula in relativity theory says the length L of an object moving at v miles
! ! 2
!
v
per second with respect to an observer is L = A. 1– 2 where c is the speed of light (a constant).
c
a) Determine the "rest length" of the object (v = 0). b) Determine lim L .
v "c #

10. (a) lim INT(x) (b) lim INT(x) (c) lim INT(x) (d) lim INT(x)
x "2 + x "2 # x "#2 + x "#2 #

! INT(2 + x) # INT(2)
(e) lim INT(x) (f) lim INT( x/2 ) (g) lim INT(x)/2 (h) lim+
x "#2.3 x "3 x "3 x "0 x
! ! ! !

! ! ! !
 1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
9

11. f(x) = { 1x ifif x1 << 1x and g(x) = { x3 ifif xx ≠= 22 .

(a) lim { f(x) + g(x) } (b) lim f(x)/g(x) (c) lim f( g(x) )
x "2 x "2 x "2

(d) lim g(x)/f(x) (e) lim f(x)/g(x) (f) lim g( f(x) )

x "0 x "1 x "1

!Problems 12 – 15 require a calculator.

! !
12. Give geometric interpretations !
! for the following !
limits and use a calculator to estimate their values.
arctan(0 + h) # arctan(0)
(a) lim
h "0 h
arctan(1+ h) # arctan(1)
(b) lim
h "0 h
arctan(2 + h) # arctan(2)
! (c) lim
h "0 h
! cos(h) #1
13. (a) What does lim represent on the graph of y = cos(x)?
h "0 h
! cos(h) – 1 cos(0 + h) – cos(0)
(It may help to recognize that h = h )
cos(h) #1
(b) Graphically and using your calculator, determine lim .
! h "0 h
ln(1 + h)
14. (a) What does the ratio h represent on the graph of y = ln(x)?
ln(1!+ h) ln(1 + h) – ln(1)
(It may help to recognize that h = h .)
ln(1+ h)
(b) Graphically and using your calculator, determine lim .
h "0 h
15. Use your calculator (to generate a table of values) to help you estimate
e h #1 tan(1+ c) # tan(1) g(2 + t) # g(2) 2
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim when g(t) = t – 5 .
h "0 h c "0 !c t "0 t
16. (a) For h > 0, find the slope of the line through the points ( h, | h | ) and ( 0,0 ).
(b) For h < 0, find the slope of the line through the points ( h, | h | ) and ( 0,0 ).
! ! |h | |h | !| h |
(c) Evaluate lim# , lim+ , and lim
h "0 h h "0 h h "0 h
17. Describe the behavior of the function y = f(x) in Fig. 16 at each integer using one of the phrases:
(a) "connected and smooth", (b) "connected with a corner",
! ! ! "not connected because of a simple hole which could be
(c)
plugged by adding or moving one point", or
(d) "not connected because of a vertical jump which could
not be plugged by moving one point."
 1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
10

18. Describe the behavior of the function y = f(x) in Fig. 17 at each

integer using one of the phrases: (a) "connected and smooth",
(b) "connected with a corner", (c) "not connected because of a
simple hole which could be plugged by adding or moving one
point", or
(d) "not connected because of a vertical jump which could not be
plugged by moving one point."

sin(" )
19. This problem outlines the steps of a proof that lim+ = 1 . Statements (a) – (h)
" #0 "
π
below refer to Fig. 18. Assume that 0 < θ < 2 and justify why

each statement is true.

!
1 1
(a) Area of ∆OPB = 2 (base)(height) = 2 sin(θ) .

area of the sector (the pie shaped region) OPB

(b) area of the whole circle

angle defining sector OPB θ

= angle of the whole circle = 2π

θπ θ
so (area of the sector OPB) = 2π = 2 .

sin(θ)
(c) The line L through the points (0,0) and P = ( cos(θ),sin(θ) ) has slope m = cos(θ) , so

sin(θ) 1 1 sin(θ)
C = (1, cos(θ) ) and the area of ∆OCB = 2 (base)(height) = 2 (1) cos(θ) .

(d) Area of ∆OPB < area of sector OPB < area of ∆OCB .

1 θ 1 sin(θ) sin(θ)
(e) 2 sin(θ) < 2 < 2 (1) cos(θ) and sin(θ) < θ < cos(θ) .

θ 1 sin(θ)
(f) 1 < sin(θ) < cos(θ) and 1 > θ > cos(θ) .

(g) lim 1 = 1 and lim cos(θ) = 1 .

" #0 + " #0 +

sin(" )
(h) lim+ =1 .
" #0 "
! !

!
1.2 Properties of Limits Contemporary Calculus
11

| x #2 |
20. Use the list method to show that lim does not exist .
x "2 x #2
1
21. Show that lim sin( x ) does not exist.
x "0
! 1 1 1
(Suggestion: Let f(x) = sin( x ) and pick an = nπ so f( an ) = sin( a ) = sin( nπ ) = 0 for every n.
n
1 1 π π
Then
! pick bn = 2nπ + π/2 so f( bn ) = sin( b ) = sin( 2nπ + 2 ) = sin( 2 ) = 1 for every n. )
n

Section 1.2 PRACTICE Answers

Practice 1: (a) –10 (b) 24 (c) 3/2 (d) 0

(e) 0 (f) 5/4 (g) –64 (h) 2

Practice 2: (a) 39 (b) –3/5 (c) 2/3

Practice 3: (a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 1

Practice 4: (a) slope of the line tangent to the graph of g at the point (1, g(1) ): estimated slope ≈ –2

(b) slope of the line tangent to the graph of g at the point (3, g(3) ): estimated slope ≈ 0

(c) slope of the line tangent to the graph of g at the point (0, g(0) ): estimated slope ≈ 1

Practice 5: lim x2 + 2 = 3 and lim 2x + 1 = 3 so lim f(x) = 3 .

x "1 x "1 x "1

sin(x)
Practice 6: lim cos(x) = 1 and lim 1 = 1 so lim =1.
! x "0
! x "0
! x "0 x

! ! !