Module 3

Polynomial Functions

What this module is about

This module is about graphs of polynomial functions of degree greater
than two. The graph of a first degree-polynomial is a line. The graph of a second-
degree polynomial is a parabola. The graph of a third degree- polynomial
typically has both a minimum point and a maximum point. The number of
maximum and minimum points is at most one less than the degree of the
polynomial. The graph of a polynomial function of degree n has n – 1 turning
points.

The lessons were presented in a very simple way so it will be easy for you
to understand and be able to do the graphs of the polynomial functions of degree
greater than two without difficulty.

What you are expected to learn

This module is designed for you to:

1. identify the function represented by a graph.

2. draw the graphs of polynomial functions of degree greater than 2.

3. identify the degree of a polynomial function, its zeros, x-intercepts and

turning points based on its equation and graph.
 How much do you know
A. Identify whether the function represented by the graph below is linear,
quadratic or polynomial.

1. 2.
Y
Y

X
X

3. 4.

Y Y

X
X

5.
Y

2
 B. From the graph and equation, find the following: degree, number of zeros,
number of x-intercept and the number of turning points.

1. Y

Degree: ____________________
No. of zeros: ________________
No. of x-intercepts: ___________
X No. of turning points: __________

2. Y Degree: _____________________
No. of zeros: _________________
No. of x- intercepts: _________ __
No. of turning points: __________

3.
Y Degree: ______________________
No. of zeros: __________________
No. of x-intercepts: _____________
No. of turning points: ___________

3
 Y
4.
Degree: _________________
No. of zeros: _____________
No. of x-intercepts: ________
No. of turning points: ______
X

Y
5.
Degree: ______________
No. of zeros: __________
No. of x-intercepts: _____
X No. of turning points: ____

C. Draw the graph of the polynomial function f(x) = (x + 3)(2x + 1)(x – 1)(x – 3).
Determine the following after drawing the graph:

a. behavior of the graph

b. zeros and the y-intercept of the function.
c. interval where G(x) ≥ 0.

What you will do

Lesson 1

Graphs of linear and Quadratic Functions

You have learned that the graph of a first-degree polynomial is a line and a
second-degree polynomial is a parabola. At this point, recall the very important
steps that are undertaken in the construction of a graph. The first step you
usually take is to prepare a table of values for x and y that satisfy the given

4
equation. These ordered pairs are points that lie on the curve described by the
equation. You then plot the points described by the ordered pairs in the table.

Examples:

1. Graph the line determined by the equation 4x - y = -2. The values of x and y
is seen in table 1.1 while the graph is seen in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1
Table 1.1
Y
X Y
-2 -6
0 2
1 6
2 10

Note that the values of x and y are obtained by direct substitution. See
these computations.

if x = -2, then y = 4x + 2 if x = 0, then y = 4x + 2

= 4(-2 ) + 2 = 4( 0 ) + 2
= -8 + 2 =2
= -6

if x = 1, then y = 4x + 2 if x = 2, then y = 4x + 2
= 4( 1 ) + 2 = 4( 2 ) + 2
=4+2 = 8 + 10
=6 = 10

You have seen that the graph of a linear function is a slanting continuous
line. A linear function is of the form f(x) = mx + b. The variable m is the slope of
the line, m ≠ 0, and b is the y-intercept. The zero of the linear function is the
value of the independent variable that makes the value of the function 0. It is the

5
x-intercept of the linear function. If the function is y = mx + b, the zero of y is the
value of x such that mx + b = 0. The function is increasing when m 〉 0, and
decreasing when m 〈 0. You have learned that the domain of a linear function is
the set of real numbers and the range is also the set of real numbers.

In the function y = 4x + 2, the degree is one, it has one x-intercept and

one zero. It has no turning point since the graph is a slanting line.

Another function that you have learned is the quadratic function whose
graph is a parabola that opens upward when a 〉 0 and downward when a 〈 0. A
quadratic function is a function that can be described by an equation of the form
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0. The vertex (h, k) of the parabola is the
turning point of the graph of a quadratic function.

2. Draw the graph of the quadratic function y = x2 – 4x + 4.

Solution: Find the vertex of the function.

a = 1 b = -4 c=4

−b 4ac − b 2
h= = 2 k= = 0 The vertex is (2, 0).
2a 4a

Table 1.2

X -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16

Figure 1.2

6
 Try this out
A. Identify at least three points of the given linear function. Then use these
points to draw the graph of the function.

1. y = 5x – 8
2. y = -2x + 3
3. 2x + y – 3 = 0

B. Determine the vertex, find some representative points then draw the graph

4. y = x2 – 7
5. y = x2 - 6x + 9

Lesson 2A

Graphing Polynomial Functions

In graphing a polynomial function, the technique of finding and plotting as

many point as possible will be helpful. But there are theorems concerning roots of
polynomial equations that will be of great help to obtain the sketch of the graph of
the polynomial function.

The graph of a third-degree polynomials or a cubic polynomial, has both

maximum and minimum points. The number of maximum and minimum points is at
most one less than the degree of the polynomial. The graph of a polynomial
function of degree n has n – 1 turning point.

When you graph higher degree polynomial functions, the rational zero
theorem and Rene Descartes’ rule can help you find any integral zeros. If there are
many possibilities to try, it is also useful to know the upper bound and lower bound
for the zeros. An upper bound for the real zeros of a polynomial function is a
number greater than or equal to the greatest real zero of the function. Similarly, a
lower bound is a number less than or equal to the least real zero of the function.

7
 Upper and Lower Bound Theorem let a polynomial function be divided by x – c.

• If c 〉 0 and all the coefficients in the quotient and remainder are

nonnegative, then c is an upper bound of the zeros.
• If c 〈 0 and the coefficients in the quotient and remainder alternate in sign,
then c is a lower bound of the zeros.

Example:

Find the upper and lower bounds of the zeros of P(x) = 2x4 + 5x3 - 3x2 - 9x + 1.

Solution:

It is important to emphasize that c is not restricted to integers. It can be

any real number. however, integers are used in illustrative examples for
convenience in the computation.

Test c = 1 for upper bound

2 5 -3 -9 1 1

2 7 4 -5
2 7 4 -5 -4

The third entries are not all positive. So, 1 is not an upper bound.

Test c = 2

2 5 -3 -9 1 2

4 18 30 42
2 9 15 21 43

The third entries are all positive, so 2 is an upper bound.

Test c = 3

2 5 -3 -9 1 3

6 33 90 243
2 11 30 81 244

8
 The numbers 3, 4, 5, … are upper bounds. The number 2 is said to be the
smallest integral upper bound. This means that there is no zero of P(x) larger
than 2.

Test c = -3

2 5 -3 -9 1 -3

-6 3 0 27
2 -1 0 -9 28

The third entries are alternating in signs, so -3 is a lower bound.

If the test for c = -4, -5, -6, … are made, the third entries are alternating.
The numbers -4, -5, -6, … are lower bounds. The number -3 is said to be the
largest lower bound. This means that there is no zero of P(x) smaller that -3.

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Another information that may be helpful in graphing polynomial functions

is the knowledge of the maximum number of positive and negative roots. This
information can be provided by the application of Descartes’ Rule of signs.

The rule makes use of the number of variations in sign of the coefficients
of the polynomial from left to right. The terms must be arranged in descending
powers of x. A polynomial is said to have a variation in sign if two consecutive
terms have opposite signs.

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Let p(x) = 0 be a polynomial equation with real coefficients, the leading

coefficient an 〉 0, and is arranged with descending powers of x.

• The number of positive roots of p(x) = 0 is either equal to the number of

variations of signs in p(x), or is less than that number by an even counting
number.

• The number of negative roots of p(x) = 0 is either equal to the number of

variations in signs in p(-x), or is less than that number by an even counting
number.

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Example:

Determine all possible combinations of number of positive and negative

roots of the given polynomial function.

1. f(x) = 2x4 + 5x3 -2x2 - 4x + 5

f(x): + + - - + 2 variations

f(-x): + - - + + 2 variations

No. of positive roots No. of negative roots Total number of roots

2 2 4

f(x) = 0 has either 2 positive roots and 2 negative roots.

2. f(x) = x5 - 5x4 - 3x3 + 15x2 - 4x + 20

f(x): + - - + - + 4 variations

f(-x): - - + + + + 1 variation

No. of positive roots No. of negative roots Total number of roots

4 1 5

f(x) = 0 has 4 positive and 1 negative roots.

Graph of Odd-degree Polynomials

The extreme left and right parts of the graph of p( x ) = an xn + an-1 xn-1 + …
+ a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 are:

1. increasing; if n is odd and an 〉 0.

2. decreasing; if n is odd an 〈 0.
The domain and range are the set of real numbers.

10
 Y
f(x) g(x)
Y

X
X

f(x) is a polynomial where n = 3 and an 〉 0

g(x) is a polynomial where n = 5 and an 〈 0

Graph of Even-degree Polynomials

The graph of p( x ) = an xn + an-1 xn-1 + … + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 has

1. decreasing extreme left and increasing extreme right parts, n is even and an 〉
0.

2. increasing extreme left and decreasing extreme right parts, n is even and an 〈
0.

The domain is the set of real numbers and the range is the set of
nonnegaive numbers.
Y Y
F(x) G(x)

X X

F(x) is a polynomial where n = 2 and an 〉 0.

G(x) is a polynomial where n = 4 and an 〈 0.

11
Try this out

A. Find the upper and lower bounds of the zeros of each polynomial function.

1. f ( x ) = x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 5

2. p ( x ) = 6x4 + x3 - 56x2 - 9x + 18

3. q ( x ) = x5 - 4x4 - 9x3 + 3x2 + 16x - 4

B. Describe the graph of each polynomial based on its degree and leading
coefficients.

4. f ( x ) = x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 5

5. p ( x ) = 6x4 + x3 - 56x2 - 9x + 18

6. q ( x ) = x5 - 4x4 - 9x3 + 3x2 + 16x - 4

C. Use the Descartes’ Rule of Signs to determine the possible combinations of

roots for each equation.

7. f ( x ) = x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 5

8. p ( x ) = 6x4 + x3 - 56x2 - 9x + 18

9. q ( x ) = x5 - 4x4 - 9x3 + 3x2 + 16x - 4

Lesson 2B

Graphing Polynomial Functions

To graph polynomial function of degree greater than two, evaluate the

function to determine ordered pairs, then plot the points with this pairs as
coordinates and connect the points to form a smooth curve. The x-coordinates of
the points where the graph meets the x-axis are the zeros of the function. The
information you can get from the given equation of a polynomial function are the
degree and the number of zeros. From the graph, you can determine the number
of x-intercepts, y-intercept and number of turning points. The theorems discussed

12
in the previous lesson concerning the roots of polynomial equations will be of
great help to obtain the sketch of the graph of the polynomial function.

Examples:

1. G( x ) = x3 - x2 - x + 1

a. Determine the behavior of the graph

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.
c. Sketch the graph
d. Determine the interval where G( x ) ≥ 0.

Solution:

a. The degree of the function is 3 which is an odd, it is an odd-powered

function behaving like a line that starts to the right. Since, the leading
coefficient is positive. It is increasing.

b. Using synthetic division

1 -1 -1 1 1

1 0 -1
1 0 -1 0

x2 - 1 = 0
(x + 1)(x – 1) = 0

x+1 = 0 x–1 = 0
x = -1 x = 1

The zeros of the function are -1 and 1 multiplicity 2 and the y-intercept is 1

c. Y

X
-1 1

13
 d. The function G( x ) ≥ 0 when x ≥ -1

e. The graph is tangent to the x-axis at 1, since 1 is a zero of even

multiplicity that is 2.

2. F( x ) = x4 + 2x3 - 5x2 - 6x

a. Determine the behavior of the graph

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. Sketch the graph

d. Determine the interval where G( x ) ≥ 0

Solution:

a. The degree of the function is 4 which is an even, it is an even-powered

function behaving like a parabola opening upward.

Extreme bounds:

1 2 -5 -6 0 -4
-4 8 -12 72
1 -2 3 -18 72

-4 is the largest lower bound.

1 2 -5 -6 0 2
2 8 6 0
1 4 3 0 0

2 is the smallest integral upper bound and a zero.

b. Location of zeros

x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

F(x) 72 0 -8 0 0 -8 0

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 The table reveals the following information:

1. The zeros of F( x ) are -3, -1, 0 and 2.

2. y-intercept is 0.

c. Sketch of the graph.

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Since n = 4, the function F( X ) has three turning points.

d. Since n = 4 and an = 1, the extreme left part is decreasing and the

extreme right part is increasing. The function F(x) 〉 0 when x 〈 -3, when
-1 〈 x 〈 0 or x 〉 2.

3. p( x ) = x3 - 4x2 - 4x + 16

a. Determine the behavior of the graph

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.
c. Sketch the graph
d. Determine the interval where p( x ) ≥ 0.

Solution:

a. The degree of the function is 3 which is an odd, it is an odd-powered

function behaving like a line that starts from the right. Since the
leading coefficient is positive, it is increasing.

15
 b. Possible combination zeros: ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8, ±16

Extreme bounds:

1 -4 -4 16 5
5 5 5
1 1 1 21

5 is the least integral upper bound.

1 -4 -4 16 -2
-2 12 -16
1 -6 8 0

-2 is the greatest integral lower bound and a zero.

b. Location of zeros

X -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 0 15 16 9 0 -5 0 21

c. Sketch of the graph.

Y
20

15

10

5
X
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-5

-10

-15

-20

Since n = 3, the function p (x ) has two turning points.

16
 The table reveals the following information:

1. The zeros of p( x ) are -2, 2 and 4.

2. y-intercept is 16.

d. The function p( x ) ≥ 0 if 2 ≥ x < 2 or x > 4.

4. G( x ) = -x5 + 15x3 + 10x2 - 24x

a. Determine the behavior of the graph

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. Sketch the graph

Solution:

a. The degree of the function is 5 which is an odd, it is an odd-powered

function behaving like a line that starts from the left since the leading
coefficient is negative -1. The extreme left and right parts are
decreasing.

b. Possible zeros: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, ±24

The theorems on bounds does not apply for G(x) since the leading
coefficient is negative.

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 0 0 20 0 0 80 180 0

The table reveals that the following information:

1. The 5 zeros are -3, -2, 0, 1 and 4

2. The y intercept is 0.

c. Sketch the graph.

17
 Y

X
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

5. f( x ) = x3 - 3x2 - 5x + 12 using a graphing calculator and approximate its

real zeros to the nearest half unit.

Steps:

To draw the graph:

1. Use the GRAPH Mode input in the function.

2. Press F6 to draw the graph.

From your calculator screen you will see the sketch of the graph like this.
Y

X
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

18
 To determine the zeros of f( x ) = x3 -3x2 -5x + 12

1. Press F5 ( G-Solv )

2. Press F1 ( Root ) to display one root.

3. Press the → arrow key ( 3x ) for other roots.

• Press F5 ( G – Solv ) to use othe features such as finding the y-

intercept and roots.

• Observe the behavior of the graphs when it is odd or even.

Note from the graph that the real zeros of f( x ) = x3 -3x2 -5x + 12, to the
nearest half unit, are -2.0, 1.5 and 3.5.

Try this out

Graph each of the following polynomials.

a. Determine the behavior of the graph

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. Sketch the graph

1. f( x ) = x3 – x2 – 4x +4

2. F( x ) = 2x4 + 9x3 + 11x2 - 4

3. H( x ) = -x4 + 2x3 + 3x2 -2x + 6

4. Graph the function and approximate its real zeros to the nearest
tenth using graphing calculator:

y = 2x4 + 5x3 - 3x2 - 9x + 1

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 Let’s summarize
To graph polynomial function of degree greater than two, evaluate the
function to determine ordered pairs, then plot the points with this pairs as
coordinates and connect the points to form a smooth curve. The x-coordinates of
the points where the graph meets the x-axis are the zeros of the function. The
information you can get from the given equation of a polynomial function are the
degree and the number of zeros. From the graph, you can determine the number
of x-intercepts, y-intercept and number of turning points.

Summary of the characteristics of the graph of polynomial function:

an n Properties of the graph Illustration

+ Even Comes down from the left, Figure 1

goes up to the right

+ Odd Comes up from the left, Figure 2

goes up to the right

- Even Comes up from the left, Figure 3

goes down to the right

- Odd Comes down from the left, Figure 4

goes down to the right

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3 Figure 4

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 What have you learned
A. Indicate whether the graph represents a polynomial function.

1. 2.
Y
Y

X X

Y
3. 4. Y
5.
Y

X
X
X

B. Complete the table below:

Functions Degree Number No. of x- No. of turning

of zeros intercepts points
1. P(x) =(x-1)(x+2)(x-1)
2. y= x(x-2)
3. g(x)= x4 – x3- 7x2+x+6
4. P(x)= 2x5 +5x4-2x3-7x2-
4x-12

21
C. For each of the following polynomials,

a. determine behavior of the graph.

b. get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. sketch the graph

d. interval where G(x) ≥ 0

1. P(x) = x4 + x3+ 4x2 + 6x - 12

2. P(x) = -x5 +15x3 + 10x2 - 24x

22
 Answer Key
How much do you know

A.1. linear 2. quadratic 3. quadratic 4. polynomial 5. polynomial

B.

degree No. of No. of x-intercept No. of turning

zeros points
1 2 2 2 1
2 3 3 3 2
3 6 6 6 5
4 2 2 2 1
5 1 1 1 0
Y
C. a. behaves like a parabola that opens upward
−1
b. Zeros are -3, , 1 and 3, y-intercept is 0
2
−1 X
c. f(x) ≥ 0 when x 〈-3, when 〈 x 〈 1 or when x 〉 3
2

Lesson 1
1. 2. 3.
X -1 0 1 X -1 0 1 X -1 0 1
y -13 -8 -3 Y 5 3 1 y 5 3 1

Y Y
Y
X

X X

23
4. (0, -7) 5. (3, 0)

X -1 0 1 X 1 2 3 4 5
Y -6 -7 -6 Y 4 1 0 1 4

Y Y
X

Lesson 2a

A. 1. upper bound: -1 2. upper bound: 4 3. upper bound: 6

Lower bound: -4 lower bound: -4 lower bound: -2

B. 4. n = 3 and an = 1. The extreme left and right parts of the function are
increasing.

5. n = 4 and an = 6. The extreme left part is decreasing and the

extreme right is increasing.

6. n = 5 and an = 1. The extreme left and right parts are increasing.

C. 7.
8.
+ - Imaginary
zeros zeros zeros + - Imaginary
0 3 0 zeros zeros zeros
2 2 0
9.
+ - Imaginary
zeros zeros zeros
3 2 0

24
 Lesson 2B:

1. a. The extreme left and right parts of the function are increasing.

b. Zeros are 1, -2 and 3 and the y-intercept is 4

c.
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Y
y -20 0 6 4 0 0 10
X

d. f(x) ≥0 for all x〉-2

2. . a. The graph comes from the left and goes up to the right..
1
b. Zeros are -1, -2, , and 2. The y-intercept is -4.
2
c.
x -2 -1 0 1 2
y 0 0 -4 18 2 Y

3. a. The extreme left part is decreasing and the extreme right part is increasing.

b. Zeros are -3, -1, 0, and 2. The y-intercept is 0.

c.
Y
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
y 72 0 -8 0 0 -8 0

25
What have you learned

A. 1. not polynomial nos. 2 – 5 are polynomials

B.
Functions Degree Number No. of x- No. of
of zeros intercepts turning
points
1. P(x) =(x-1)(x+2)(x-1) 3 3 3 2
2. y= x(x-2) 2 2 2 1
3. g(x)= x4 – x3- 7x2+x+6 4 4 4 3
4. P(x)= 2x5 +5x4-2x3-7x2- 5 5 5 4
4x-12

C.
1. a. The graph comes from the left and goes up to the right.

b. The real zeros are -2 and 1. The y-intercept is -12. Y

c.
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
y 220 72 0 -14 -12 0
X
d. P(x) ≥ 0 for all x 〉 1 or x 〈 -2

2 a. The extreme left part is decreasing and the extreme right part is increasing.

b. Zeros are -3, -2, 0, 1 and 4. The y-intercept is 0

c.
x -3 -2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 0 0 20 0 0 80 180 0

d. f( x ) ≥ 0 for x 〉 1

26