MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT V
Recommended Books:

1. J. Schiller, Mobile Communications, Addison Wesley

2. Charles Perkins, Ad-hoc Networks, Addison Wesley.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 1

 Motivation for Ad-hoc Networks
• Mobile hosts such as notebook computers featuring
powerful CPUs, large main memories and disk space,
multimedia capabilities and colour displays are now quite
common in everyday business and personal life.
• At the same time network connectivity options for use
with mobile hosts have increased dramatically, including
support for a growing number of wireless networking
products based on radio and infrared.
• Natural desire and ability to share information between
mobile users:
– Employees in a conference room
– Friends in an airport terminal
– Search and rescue teams
– Military data acquisition operations in hospitable terrain
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 2
 Ad-hoc Networks

• A collection of wireless mobile hosts dynamically

forming a temporary network without the use of
any existing network infrastructure or centralized
administration.
• Due to the limited transmission range of wireless
network interfaces, multiple network “hops” may
be needed for one node to exchange data with
another across the network.
• Need a dynamic routing protocol that can
efficiently find routes between two nodes.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 3
 Ad-hoc Routing

Source

Destination

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 4

 Ad-hoc Routing Challenges
• Correct and efficient route establishment between a pair of nodes so
that messages may be delivered in a timely manner.
• Keep up with high degree of node mobility.
• Conserve power- power aware routing(Battery constraints)
• Wireless medium challenges:
– Links may not be bi-directional
– High error rates (Hidden Terminal Problem)
– Redundant paths
– Limited BW
– Multicast Limited wireless transmission range
• Broadcast nature of the wireless medium
– Hidden terminal problem
• Packet losses due to transmission errors
• Mobility-induced route changes
• Mobility-induced packet losses
• Potentially frequent network partitions
• Ease of snooping on wireless transmissions (security hazard)

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 5

 Ad-hoc routing protocols history
• DARPA (Defence Advanced Research Projects) packet radio
networks in early 1970s was the first attempt.
• Since then numerous protocols have been developed:
– Table-driven
• Attempt to maintain consistent up-to-date routing information from each
node to every other node in the network.
• DSDV, CGSR, WRP
• Substantial traffic and power consumption caused by periodic updates but
routes are always available.
– Source-initiated On-Demand
• When a node requires a route to destination it initiates a route discovery
process within the network.
• AODV, DSR, TORA, ABR, SSR…
• MANET (Mobile ad hoc networking) has been formed within the
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) to develop a routing
framework for IP-based protocols in ad hoc networks.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 6
 The characteristics of Ad-hoc Network

• Self-creating
– not rely on a preexisting fixed infrastructure
• Self-organizing
– no predetermined topology
• Self-administering
– no central control
• creating a network “on the fly”
• Infrastructure less
• No fixed routers
• Highly mobile
• Changing topology
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 7
 The characteristics of Ad-hoc Network

• Link instability
• Resource poor
• Limited energy resources
• Limited wireless transmission range
• Broadcast nature of the wireless medium
• Hidden terminal problem
• Packet losses due to transmission errors
• Mobility-induced route changes
• Mobility-induced packet losses
• Battery constraints
• Potentially frequent network partitions
• Ease of snooping on wireless transmissions (security
hazard)
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 8
 Advantages / Disadvantages Of Ad-hoc
Network
Advantages:
– Can be created and used “any time, anywhere”
• No preexisting fixed infrastructure is prerequisite
– Intrinsically fault-resilient
• No fixed topology
Disadvantages:
– Energy-constrained nodes
– Bandwidth-constrained, variable-capacity
wireless links
– Dynamic topology

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 9

Application for Ad-Hoc Network
• Military operations
• communication in a hostile environment
• disaster recovery, as well as search and rescue
(Emergency operations)
• rapid deployment of a communication network
where infrastructures don’t exist or have been
damaged
• Sporadic happenings coverage
• Civilian environments
– taxi cab network
– meeting rooms
– sports stadiums
– boats, small aircraft
• policing and fire fighting
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 10
Desirable Properties of MANET
• DISTRIBUTED OPERATION
• LOOP FREE
• DEMAND BASED OPERATION
• UNIDIRECTIONAL LINK SUPPORT
• SECURITY
• POWER CONSERVATION
• MULTIPLE ROUTES
• QUALITY OF SERVICE SUPPORT
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 11
 Classification of Routing Protocols
• Centralized vs. Distributed
In centralized algorithms, all route choices are made at a central node, while
in distributed algorithms, the computation of routes is shared among the
network nodes.
• Static vs. Adaptive
Another classification of routing protocols relates to whether they change
routes in response to the traffic input patterns. In static algorithms, the route
used by source-destination pairs is fixed regardless of traffic conditions. It
can only change in response to a node or link failure. This type of algorithm
cannot achieve high throughput under a broad variety of traffic input
patterns. Most major packet networks uses some form of adaptive routing
where the routes used to route between source-destination pairs may
change in response to congestion
• Reactive vs. Proactive
In proactive method, the routes to all destinations are computed a priori. In
order to compute routes in advance, nodes need to store the entire or
partial information about link states and network topology. In order to keep
the information up-to-date, nodes need to update their information
periodically or whenever the link state or network topology changes In
reactive method, the route to a destination may not be known in advance
and it is computed only when the route is needed. When a source needs to
send packets to a destination, it first finds a route or several routes to the
destination. This process is called route discovery.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 12
Ad-hoc Network Routing Protocols
Ad-hoc Routing Protocols

Reactive Protocols
DSR TORA AODV

Proactive Protocols DSDV OLSR WRP

Hybrid Protocols
ZRP

Hierarchical Protocols
CBRP GSR

Geographical Protocols
LAR GLS

Power Aware Protocols

PARO EADSR

Multicast Protocols
CBM NZR

Geocasting Protocols
Geo LBM
TORACOMPUTING
UNIT- V MOBILE 13
 Proactive Protocols
• Proactive: maintain routing information independently of
need for communication
• Update messages send throughout the network
periodically or when network topology changes.
• Low latency, suitable for real-time traffic
• Bandwidth might get wasted due to periodic updates
• Pro-active (Table-driven) (DSDV (Highly Dynamic
Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector routing protocol)
, IARP (Intrazone Routing Protocol/pro-active part of the
ZRP)
• They maintain O(N) state per node, N = #nodes
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 14
 On-Demand or Reactive
Routing
• Reactive: discover route only when you need it
• Saves energy and bandwidth during inactivity
• Can be bursty -> congestion during high activity
• Significant delay might occur as a result of route
discovery
• Good for light loads, collapse in large loads
• Reactive (On-demand) (AODV (Ad hoc On Demand
Distance Vector routing protocol) , DSR (Dynamic
Source Routing protocol) , IERP (Interzone Routing
Protocol/reactive part of the ZRP) , DYMO (DYnamic
Manet On-demand routing protocol) , TORA
(Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm routing protocol)
)
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 15
 Hybrid Routing
• Proactive for neighborhood, Reactive for far
away (Zone Routing Protocol, Haas group)
• Proactive for long distance, Reactive for
neighborhood (Safari)
• Attempts to strike balance between the two
• Hybrid (Pro-Active/Reactive) :- e.g. ZRP (Zone
Routing Protocol)

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 16

 Hierarchical Routing
• Nodes are organized in clusters
• Cluster head “controls” cluster
• Trade off
– Overhead and confusion for leader election
– Scalability: intra-cluster vs intercluster
• One or Multiple levels of hierarchy
• Hierarchical :- CBRP (Cluster Based Routing
Protocol) , GSR (Global State Routing protocol) ,
DDR (Distributed Dynamic Routing Algorithm)
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 17
 Geographical Routing

• This type of protocols acknowledges the influence of physical

distances and distribution of nodes to areas as significant to network
performance. The main disadvantages of such algorithms are:
• Efficiency depends on balancing the geographic distribution versus
occurrence of traffic.
• Any dependence of performance with traffic load thwarting the
negligence of distance may occur in overload
• Nodes know their geo coordinates (GPS)
• Route to move packet closer to end point
• Protocols DREAM, GPSR, LAR
• Propagate geo info by flooding (decrease frequency for long
distances)
• Geographical :- LAR (Location-Aided Routing protocol) , GLS(Grid)
(Geographic Location Service)
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 18
 Power Aware

• Energy required to transmit a signal is

proportional to the square of the distance.
Transmitting a signal half the distance requires
one fourth of the energy and if there is a node in
the middle willing spend another fourth of its
energy for the second half, data would be
transmitted for half of the energy than through a
direct transmission. This however introduces a
delay. e.g PARO (Power-Aware Routing
Optimization Protocol) , EADSR (Energy Aware
Dynamic Source Routing Protocol)

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 19

 Multicast
• When a message needs to be sent to a varying number of
receivers, it is more efficient to multicast the message to a
multicast group instead of unicasting an identical message to
many different receivers. Unfortunately, as noted in (Chiang
et al., 1997) multicast communication is difficult in an Ad-hoc
network. Ad-hoc networks are fundamentally dynamic in
nature; thus, multicast protocols that handle this dynamic
nature are needed. In a static network, multicast protocols
build a tree to route multicast messages. The root of the tree
is either the multicast source or a core, which is strategically
located near the middle of the multicast receivers.
Unfortunately, tree-based approaches for multicast
communication do not work well in an Ad-hoc network
because the tree often changes as the MNs move. Thus,
recent multicast protocols developed for an Ad-hoc network
are based on either flooding multicast messages or on
building a mesh to transmit multicast messages e.g CBM
(Content Based Multicast) , MZR (Multicast Zone Routing)
ODMRP (On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol)
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 20
Geographical Multicast (Geocasting)

• Geographic messaging is the ability to transmit messages to mobile nodes

(MNs) in a particular geographic area (i.e., a geocast region). It is similar to
multicast communication in that a sender intends to distribute a specific
message to a select group of MNs. However, geocast communication
specifies the group of MNs for a message instead of allowing MNs to
specify whether or not they would like to join the group. The ability to send
messages to groups of MNs based solely on their location would enable
emergency messages to be delivered to possible victims and/or rescue
personnel during times of crisis, strategic planning messages to be
distributed to various military groups, and advertisement messages to be
relayed to mobile users as they travel down the street [(Navas and
Imielinski, 1997) and (Navas and Imielinski, 1999)]. Since all mobile users
may not welcome flashing advertisements, each MN would need the option
to ignore Geocast advertisement messages. Obtaining information
pertaining to a particular business without actually inquiring within, i.e.,
accessing a homepage being transmitted by a particular building is a
forthcoming commercial application. Geocast communication will provide
this new technology. Unicast communication occurs when a message is
transmitted to a given geographic point; geocast communication occurs
when a message is transmitted to a defined circle or polygon e.g. LBM
(Location Based Multicast), GeoTORA (Geographical TORA).
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 21
 Differences between Distance vector and Link state Routing
Distance Vector routing protocols are based on Link State routing protocols are based on Dijkstra
Bellman and Ford algorithms. algorithms.

Distance Vector routing protocols are less Link State routing protocols are very much
scalable such as RIP supports 16 hops and IGRP scalable supports infinite hops.
has a maximum of 100 hops.
Distance Vector are classful routing protocols Link State routing protocols are classless which
which means that there is no support of Variable
Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) and Classless Inter means that they support VLSM and CIDR.
Domain Routing (CIDR).
Distance Vector routing protocols uses hop count Cost is the metric of the Link State routing
and composite metric protocols.

Distance Vector routing protocols support Link State routing protocols support contiguous
Discontiguous subnets . subnets.

Contain knowledge about the whole network Contain knowledge about neighborhood

Routing only to neighborhood Routing only to routers

Information sharing at regular interval Information sharing when there is change in

topology

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 22

 Global State Routing

• Global State Routing (GSR) is based on Link

State (LS) routing. In the LS routing method,
each node floods the link state information
directly into the whole network (global flooding)
once a link change between itself and its
neighbors is detected. A node gets to know the
whole topology by obtaining link information. LS
routing works well in static topology networks. If
links change quickly at high mobility, frequent
global flooding will lead to huge control
overhead (large amount of small packets).
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 23
 Global State Routing
• Aim:
The knowledge of full network topology as LS routing
should be maintained, but the inefficient flooding
mechanism has to be avoided. Unlike LS, GSR does not
flood link state packets. Instead, every node maintains its
link state table based up-to-date( LS information received
from neighboring nodes) It will periodically exchange its
LS information with its neighbors only (no global flooding).
This means that GSR is MAC (medium access control)
layer efficient as it keeps the overhead of control message
low. GSR still finds accurate and optimal paths. GSR could
be described as being based on LS routing, which has the
advantage of routing accuracy, and the dissemination
method used in DBF, to avoid inefficient flooding like in LS
routing.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 24
 Global State Routing
• Each node maintains:
• a neighbor list containing the list of nodes adjacent to the node ( hop=1 )
• a topology table containing the link state information reported by a
destination and a timestamp indicating the time at which this has been
reported.
• a next hop table containing the next hop to which the packets for this
destination have to be forwarded
• a distance table containing the shortest distance to each destination node
Initially, each node learns about its neighbors by examining each received
packet and thus builds up its neighbor list Each node updates link state
information in its topology table by receiving link state messages from its
neighbors. LS packets with larger sequence numbers replace the older ones
with smaller sequence numbers. So every node learns the entire network
topology. The entire topology map (link state table) is exchanged
periodically with neighbors only, meaning that there is no global flooding.
Then each node computes the shortest paths itself using the newly rebuild
topology map, based on Dijkstra’s algorithm.
• In summary this means that based on the link state vectors, nodes maintain
a global knowledge of the network topology and take their routing
decisions locally.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 25
 Global State Routing
• Advantages
GSR greatly reduces the control overhead as it avoids flooding for
disconnects/reconnects and updates are time triggered than event
triggered. The routing accuracy of GSR is comparable to an ideal LS
scheme and thus superior to the traditional DBF. A bandwidth
function can be used to realize QoS routing.

• Disadvantages
The main disadvantage is the large size of the routing message.
• As the entire topology table is broadcasted with each update, a
considerable amount of bandwidth is consumed.
• The latencyof the link state change propagation depends on the
update period, meaning that it has to be carefully chosen.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 26

 DSDV - Destination-Sequenced Distance
Vector Algorithm
• By Perkins and Bhagvat
• Routes are broadcasted from the “receiver”
– Nodes announce their presence: advertisements
• Each broadcast has
– Destination address: originator
– No of hops
– Sequence number of broadcast
• The route with the most recent sequence is used
• Based on Bellman Ford algorithm
– Exchange of routing tables
– Routing table: the way to the destination, cost
• Each node advertises its position
– Sequence number to avoid loops
– Maintain fresh routes

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 27

 DSDV
• DSDV basically is distance vector with small adjustments to make it better
suited for Ad-hoc networks. These adjustments consist of triggered updates
that will take care of topology changes in the time between broadcasts. To
reduce the amount of information in these packets there are two types of
update messages defined: full and incremental dump. The full dump carries
all available routing information and the incremental dump only carries the
information that has changed since the last dump. Destination-Sequenced
Distance Vector (DSDV) is a variation of the Distributed Bellman-Ford
algorithm modified to address problems inherent to Ad-hoc networks, such
as time dependent topologies. These modifications reduce the looping
properties that would otherwise be present. Since DSDV is table-driven,
each node maintains a routing table with the next hop entry for each
destination and the metric for the link. In addition, each link has a sequence
number associated with it. This sequence number is periodically
incremented by the destination node for the link. Other nodes then choose
the route with highest sequence number, as that is the least stale route to
the destination. If a node detects that a link has broken, it sets the metric to
infinity, and issues a route update to the other nodes regarding the link
status. Other nodes repeat this action until they receive an update with a
higher sequence number to provide it with a fresh route again.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 28

 DSDV
• DSDV is a hop-by-hop distance vector routing protocol in
which each node has a routing table for all reachable
destinations , stores the next-hop and number of hops for that
destination. Like distance-vector, DSDV requires that each
node periodically broadcast routing updates. The advantage
with DSDV over traditional distance vector protocols is that
DSDV guarantees loop-freedom. To guarantee loop-freedom
DSDV uses a sequence numbers to tag each route. The
sequence number shows the freshness of a route and routes
with higher sequence numbers are favorable. A route R is
considered more favorable than R' if R has a greater
sequence number or, if the routes have the same sequence
number but R has lower hop-count. The sequence number is
increased when a node A detects that a route to a destination
D has broken. So the next time node A advertises its routes, it
will advertise the route to D with an infinite hop-count and a
sequence number that is larger than before.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 29
 DSDV
• Due to the lack of synchronization between nodes in the network, a time
delay is imposed to prevent nodes from responding immediately based on a
single potentially disruptive update. This settling time allows for the routing
table at each node to stabilize before it begins issuing route updates to
other nodes.
• The main advantage to DSDV is that it maintains a loop-free fewest-hop
path to every destination in the network. However, this protocol also
contains both periodic and triggered route updates. While the triggered
updates tend to be small (allowing quick discovery of invalid links), the each
node‟s periodic update includes its entire routing table. This means the
overhead associated with those updates effectively limiting the number of
nodes in the network. Because DSDV is dependent on periodic broadcasts
it needs some time to converge before a route can be used. This converge
time can probably be considered negligible in a static wired network,
where the topology is not changing so frequently. In an Ad-hoc network on
the other hand, where the topology is expected to be very dynamic, this
converge time will probably mean a lot of dropped packets before a valid
route is detected. The periodic broadcasts also add a large amount of
overhead into the network

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 30

 DSDV
• DSDV Advantages:
• Short delay brought by the proactive feature
• Difficult for the attackers to control the propagation of false
information
• Loop Free Fewest hop path
• DSDV Disadvantages:
• Difficult to scale to large networks
• Computation and communication resources wasted on
unused routes
• Periodic updates
• Maintaining routes in presence of mobility
• Routing information may be expensive and unnecessary

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 31

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

• Source routing - The sender knows the complete hop-by-hop route

to the destination.
• Route cache - Nodes may learn and cache multiple routes to any
destination.
• Composed of 2 mechanisms:
– Route Discovery
– Route Maintenance
• Requires no periodic packets of any kind at any level within the
network- purely on demand.
• Allows uni-directional links.
• Supports internetworking between different types of wireless
networks and mobile IP.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 32

 Route Discovery

• RREQ (Route Request packet)

– Is broadcast when node S needs do send a packet to
D and does not already know a route.
– Each RREQ includes source and destination address,
unique request id and complete route record of all
intermediate nodes.
• RREP (Route Reply packet)
– If a node receives an RREQ for which it is either the
destination or it has a route to the destination in its
route cache it responds with a RREP.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 33

Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 34
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y
Broadcast transmission

[S] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

[X,Y] Represents UNIT-

list of identifiers
V MOBILE appended to RREQ
COMPUTING 35
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S [S,E]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A [S,C] G
H D
K
I N

• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors:

potential for collision
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 36
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
[S,C,G] K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 37
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F,J]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I [S,C,G,K] N

• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D

• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their
transmissions may UNIT-
collide
V MOBILE COMPUTING 38
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
[S,E,F,J,M]
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the route discovery
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 39
 Route Discovery in DSR

• Destination D on receiving the first RREQ,

sends a Route Reply (RREP)

• RREP is sent on a route obtained by

reversing the route appended to received
RREQ

• RREP includes the route from S to D on

which RREQ was received by node D
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 40
 Route Reply in DSR
Y

Z
S RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents RREP control message

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 41
 Dynamic Source Routing
(DSR)
• Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route
included in the RREP

• When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire

route is included in the packet header
– hence the name source routing

• Intermediate nodes use the source route included in

a packet to determine to whom a packet should be
forwarded

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 42

 Data Delivery in DSR
Y

DATA [S,E,F,J,D] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Packet header size grows with route length

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 43
 DSR
N1-N2-N5-N8
N2
RREP
N1-N2-N5-N8 N1-N2-N5-N8
N5 N8
N1-N2
N1 Destination
N1-N2-N5
N1 N1-N3-N4
N1-N3-N4 N1-N3-N4-N7
Source
N1 N4 N7
N1-N3-N4
N1-N3-N4-N6
N1-N3
N3 N6

RREQ
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 44
 Route Maintenance

• Hop-by-hop acknowledgement
– Link-level acknowledgement IEEE 802.11
– Passive acknowledgement (Overhearing)
– DSR specific acknowledgement
• RERR (Route Error packet)
– Informs the source of any broken link.
– Source removes any routes containing broken link from route cache.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 45

 Additional Optimizations

• Packet Salvaging
– An intermediate node can use an alternate route from its own cache in case of a
failed link.
• Gratuitous route repair
– A source node receiving an RERR packet piggybacks the RERR in the following
RREQ.
– Helps clean up cashes of other nodes in network.
• Promiscuous listening
– When a node overhears packet checks to see whether it could be routed via
itself to gain a shorter route and sends a gratuitous RREP to source.
– Learn different routes without participating in routing process.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 46

 DSR Optimization: Route Caching
• Each node caches a new route it learns by any means
• When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S also
learns route [S,E,F] to node F
• When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for
node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S
• When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], node F
learns route [F,J,D] to node D
• When node E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route [E,F,J,D]
to node D
• A node may also learn a route when it overhears Data
• Problem: Stale caches may increase overheads

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 47

 DSR Advantages

• Routes maintained only between nodes

who need to communicate
– reduces overhead of route maintenance
• Route caching can further reduce route
discovery overhead
• A single route discovery may yield many
routes to the destination, due to
intermediate nodes replying from local
caches
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 48
 DSR Disadvantages

• Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing
• Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network
• Care must be taken to avoid collisions between route requests propagated
by neighboring nodes
– insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ
• Increased contention if too many route replies come back due to nodes
replying using their local cache
– Route Reply Storm problem
– Reply storm may be eased by preventing a node from sending RREP if it hears
another RREP with a shorter route
• An intermediate node may send Route Reply using a stale cached route,
thus polluting other caches
• This problem can be eased if some mechanism to purge (potentially) invalid
cached routes is incorporated.
• For some proposals for cache invalidation,
– Static timeouts
– Adaptive timeouts based on link stability

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 49

 Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance
Vector Routing (AODV)
• Discovers routes on-demand.
• Uses traditional routing tables, one entry per destination
that are dynamically established at each intermediate
node.
• Use „hello‟ messages for local connectivity management.
• Sequence numbers maintained at each destination to
determine freshness of routing information and to
prevent rooting loops.
• Timer-based states in each node regarding utilization of
individual routing table entries.
• Expanding ring search optimization.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 50
 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing
(AODV)
• DSR includes source routes in packet headers
• Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade performance
– particularly when data contents of a packet are small

• AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing tables at the

nodes, so that data packets do not have to contain routes

• AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are maintained
only between nodes which need to communicate
• Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner similar to DSR

• When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a reverse path

pointing towards the source
– AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links

• When the intended destination receives a Route Request, it replies by

sending a Route Reply (RREP)

• Route Reply travels along

UNIT- the reverse
V MOBILE path set-up when Route Request 51
COMPUTING
is forwarded
 Path Discovery
• Every node maintains two separate counters:
– Node sequence number – Maintain freshness information of
route
– Broadcast id – Incremented for every new RREQ
• RREQ (Route Request packet)
– <Source and destination address ,source and destination
sequence number, broadcast id, hop count>
– Each node that cannot satisfy the RREQ rebroadcasts to its own
neighbours after increasing hop count.
– Each node keeps expiration timers to remove old RREQ and
routes from its cache.
• RREP (Route Reply packet)
– Unicast back to the neighbour from which it received the first
RREQ.
– <Source and destination address, destination sequence number,
hop count, lifetime>

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 52

Route Requests in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 53
 Route Requests in AODV
Y
Broadcast transmission

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 54

Route Requests in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents links on Reverse Path

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 55
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 56
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 57

Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the RREQ
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 58
Forward Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Forward links are setup when RREP travels along

the reverse path

Represents
UNIT- VaMOBILE
link on the forward path
COMPUTING 59
 Route Request and Route
Reply
• Route Request (RREQ) includes the last known sequence
number for the destination

• An intermediate node may also send a Route Reply (RREP)

provided that it knows a more recent path than the one
previously known to sender
• Intermediate nodes that forward the RREP, also record the next
hop to destination

• A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged after a

timeout interval
• A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged if not
used for a active_route_timeout interval

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 60

 AODV
N2
RREP
N5 N8

Destination
N1

Source
N4 N7

N3 N6

RREQ
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 61
 Path Maintenance

• Detecting link failures

– Periodic „hello‟ messages
– Link Layer acknowledgements (LLACKS)
– Attempts to forward packet to next hop fail
• RERR (Route Error packet)
– Created when next-hop link breaks.
– Propagated to all predecessors until all sources using
the failed link are informed.
– Sources restart discovery process if they still need the
route to destination.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 62
 AODV
• AODV Advantages:
• Low overhead and smaller routing tables in light
load networks
• Fast expiration of unused routes
• AODV Disadvantages:
• On-demand feature brings a longer delay for the
first packet
• Malicious nodes have more flexibility on
conducting attacks

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 63

 DSR vs. AODV

• Source routing • Dynamic routing tables

– More routing overhead – Only next-hop information
– No periodic routing – Periodic “hello” messages for
advertisements local connectivity
• One entry per destination
• Route caching
– Limited routing information
– More routing information
– New RREQ for every failure
– Fast recovery from failure – More RREQ
– More RREP • Only bi-directional links
• Supports uni-directional links • Multicast capability
• Only broadcast • Expiration timers remove stale
• No mechanism to expire stale routes and sequence numbers
routes or prefer „fresher‟ routes • RERR informs all predecessor
• RERR backtracks the data nodes of link failure
packet UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 64
 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm
(TORA)
• Highly adaptive, loop-free, distributed routing
algorithm based on the concept of link
reversal
• Proposed to operate in a highly dynamic
mobile networking environment
• It is source initiated and provides multiple
routes for any desired source/ destination
pair
• This algorithm requires the need for
synchronized clocks
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 65
 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm
(TORA)
• TORA has three basic functions: Route creation, Route
maintenance and Route erasure. The route creation algorithm
generates a directed acyclic graph from source to destination based
on a propagation parameter, called “height”. A node with higher
height is considered upstream and one with lesser downstream. The
algorithm starts by stetting the height of the destination to 0 (base)
and all other node‟s height undefined (NULL). Now the source
broadcasts a “route query packet” containing the destinations‟ ID.
Each node with non-NULL height responds with an update packet,
witch including its height in it. If a node receiving an update packet
compares its height with the packet height. If it is more than 2, a
short path to the source exists. Now it updates its own height to the
packet height plus 1 and propagates the update packet with its own
height in it.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 66

 TORA – Conceptual
Description
B
A C
B C
SRC DEST
A D D
G
G
E F

E F
C
B
A

B C
D
A D G
G

E F
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 67
E F
 TORA – Link Reversal
 When a node has no downstream links, it reverses
the direction of one or more links

B C B C

A D G A D G

E F E F

B C B C

A D G A D G

E F E F

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 68

 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
• TORA also maintains a DAG by means of an ordered quintuple with the following
information:
• t time of a link failure
• oid originator id
• r reflection bit indicates 0=original level 1=reflected level
• d integer to order nodes relative to reference level
• i the nodes id
• The triplet (t,oid,r) is called the reference level. And the tuple (d,i) is said to be an
offset within that reference level.

The heights of the nodes for a given destination to each other determine the direction
of the edges of the directed acyclic graph. The DAG is destination oriented (routed at
the destination) when the quintuples which represent the heights are maintained in
lexicographical order, the destination having the smallest height, traffic always flowing
downstreams. Heights are however not needed for route discovery.
• Also nodes which do not currently need to maintain a route for themselves or for
others won't change a height value. Each node has a Route-required flag for that
purpose, additionally the time since the last UPD (update-) packet was sent is
recorded.
Each node maintains a neighbor table containing the height of the neighbor nodes.
Initially the height of all the nodes is NULL. (This is not zero "0" but NULL "-") so their
quintuple is (-,-,-,-,i). The height of a destination neighbor is (0,0,0,0,dest).

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 69

 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Route
creation
• A node which requires a link to a destination because it has no
downstream neighbours for it sends a QRY (query) packet and sets its
(formerly unset) route-required flag. A QRY packet contains the
destination id of the node a route is seeked to. The reply to a query is
called an update UPD packet. It contains the height quintuple of the
neighbour node answering to a query and the destination field which
tells for which destination the update was meant for.
A node receiving a QRY packet does one of the following:
• if its route required flag is set, this means that it doesn't have to forward
the QRY, because it has itself already issued a QRY for the destination,
but better discard it to prevent message overhead.
• if the node has no downstream links and the route-required flag was not
set, it sets its route-required flag and rebroadcasts the QRY message.
• if a node has at least one downstream neighbour and the height for that
link is null it sets its height to the minimum of the heights of the
neighbour nodes, increments its d value by one and broadcasts an
UPD packet.
• if the node has a downstream link and its height is non-NULL it discards
the QRY packet if an UPD packet was being issued since the link
became active (rr-Flag set). Otherewise it sends an UPD packet.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 70
 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
Route creation
• A node receiving an update packet updates the height
value of its neighbour in the table and takes one of the
following actions:
• if the reflection bit of the neighbours height is not set and
its route required flag is set it sets its height for the
destination to that of its neighbours but increments d by
one. It then deletes the RR flag and sends an UPD
message to the neighbours, so they may route through
it.
• if the neighbours route is not valid (which is indicated by
the reflection bit) or the RR flag was unset, the node only
updates the entry of the neighbours node in its table.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 71

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm
(TORA)
node C requires a route, so it broadcasts a QRY

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 72

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
Route creation

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 73

 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
Route creation
The QRY propagates until it hits a node which has a route to the destination,
this node then sends an UPD message

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 74

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
Route creation

The UPD is also propagated, while node E sends a new UPD

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 75

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
Route creation

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 76

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
Route creation

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 77

 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Route Maintenance

• Route maintenance in TORA has five different cases according to

the flowchart below:

• 1 Generate: The node has lost its last downstream link due to a
failure. The node defines a new "reference level", so it sets oid
(originator id) to its node id and t to the time of the failure. This is
done only if the node has upstream neighbours. If not it sets its
height to NULL.
• 2 Propagate: The node has no more downstream link due to a link
reversal following the receipt of an update packet and the reference
levels (t,oid,r) of its neighbours are not equal. The node then
propagates the references level of its highest neighbour and sets the
offset to a value which is lower (-1) than the offset of all its
neighbours with the maximum level.
• 3 Reflect: The node has lost its downstream links due to a link
reversal following the receipt of an update packet and the reference
heights of the neighbours of the node are equal with the reflection bit
not set. The node then reflects back the refence height by setting
the reflection bit. It's d value is set to 0.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 78
 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Route Maintenance

• 4 Detect: The node has lost its downstream links due to a link reversal
following the receipt of an update packet and the reference heights of the
neighbours of the node are equal with the reflection bit set. This means that
the node has detected a partition and begins the route erasure procedure.
The height values are set to NULL.
• 5 Generate: The node has lost its last downstream link due to a link
reversal following the receipt of an update packet and the reference haights
of all the neighbours are equal with the reflection bit set and the oid of the
neighbours heights isn't the node's id. The node then sets t to the time of
the link failure and sets oid to its own id. The d value is set to 0. This means
that the link failure required no reaction. The node experienced a link failure
between the time it propagated a higher reference (from someone else) and
the time this level got reflected from a place further away in the network.
Because the node didn't define the new reference level itself this is not
necessarily an indication of a partitioning of the network. So the node simply
defines a new higher reference level with the time of the link failure.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 79

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Route Maintenance

The link between B and E fails

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 80

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Route Maintenance

B still has a downstream link to the destination, so no action is needed

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 81

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Route Maintenance
The link between D and H fails

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 82

 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Route Maintenance
Node D defines a new reference level. It sets the originator id to his own id since
it was node D that defined the new level. The logical time of the link failure is also recorded (t=1).
The new reference level is now higher than that of the neighbours, so the update message has
as effect the reversal of the links to A and B. This is case 1 of the decision tree.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 83

 Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Route Maintenance
Node B has lost its downstream not because of a link failure, but because
of a link reversal. It propagates the reference level that was defined by D.
Because the node must have a lower height than the upstream node D
it has to set it's subheight (offset) lower than that of D, so d=-1.
This is case 2 of the decision tree.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 84

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Route Maintenance
Node A has now also has lost its last downstream due to an update and
propagates the reference level and sets its d to the lowest of its
neighbours -1. (also Case 2)

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 85

 TORA
TORA Advantages :
• It supports multiple routes to any source/destination pair.
• Failure or removal of one node is quickly resolved without
source intervention by switching to an alternate route.
• Loop Free Path
• Establish routes quickly , before topology changes
• Able to detect partitions very quickly

• TORA Disadvantages :
• It relies on synchronized clocks among nodes in the network.
• It also relies on intermediate lower layers for certain
functionality.
• TORA is not energy efficient and does not scale to large
networks.
• exhibits instability behavior similar to "count-to-infinity"
problem in distance vector routing protocols
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 86
 CBRP( Cluster Based Routing
Protocol )
• The idea behind CBRP is to divide the nodes of an Ad-hoc network
into a number of overlapping or disjoint clusters. One node is
elected as cluster head for each cluster. This cluster head maintains
the membership information for the cluster. Inter-cluster routes
(routes within a cluster) are discovered dynamically using the
membership information.
• CBRP is based on source routing, similar to DSR. This means that
intracluster routes (routes between clusters) are found by flooding
the network with Route Requests (RREQ). The difference is that the
cluster structure generally means that the number of nodes
disturbed is much less. Flat routing protocols, i.e. only one level of
hierarchy, might suffer from excessive overhead when scaled up.
• CBRP is like the other protocols fully distributed. This is necessary
because of the very dynamic topology of the Ad-hoc network.
Furthermore, the protocol takes into consideration the existence of
unidirectional links.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 87

 CBRP
Functions
• Link Sensing
• Clusters
• Routing

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 88

 CBRP
• The algorithm
• The following algorithm is used to form the clusters!
When an node comes up, it has the "undecided" state!
The first action of this node is to start a timer and
broadcasts a HELLO message!
When a cluster-head receives this HELLO message, it
replies immediately with a triggered HELLO message.
After that, when the node receives this answer, it will
change his state into the "member" state.
But when the node gets no message from any cluster-
head, it makes itself as cluster-head, but only, when it
has bi-directional link to one or more neighbors!
Otherwise, when it has no link to any other node, it stays
in the "undecided" state and repeats the procedure with
sending an HELLO message again!
Cluster-heads are changed as infrequently as possible

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 89

 How a source finds a way to the destination
• Node S (source) has to send data to node D (destination). S sends
route requests to all the neighbouring cluster-heads, and only to the
cluster-heads. When a cluster-head receives the route request, it
checks if the node D is in his cluster. If this is the case, the cluster-
head sends the request directly to the destination. But when D isn't
in the cluster, it sends the route request to all the adjacent cluster-
heads.
All cluster-head saves his address in the packet, so when a cluster-
head receives a route request where his address is saved in the
packet, it discards this packet. When the route request packet
arrives at the destination, D replies back with the route that had
been recorded in the request packet. When the source S doesn't
receive a reply from the destination within a time period, it tries to
send a route request again.
•
In the Cluster Based Routing Protocol, routing is done using source
routing. But this protocol uses also route shortening. When a node
receives the reply of the destination to the source, it tries to find the
farthest node in the route that is its neighbour. With this principle the
route between source and destination can be reduced. On the
following figure you can see an ad-hoc network, separated in the
different cluster with all theV components
UNIT- MOBILE COMPUTING 90
 DATA STRUCTURES
• Neighbor Table
– Id, Role , Status of the link
• Cluster Adjacency Table (CAT)
– Keeps info. about adjacent clusters
– Contains
• Id of neighboring cluster
• the gateway node (a member) to reach the neighboring cluster head
• the status of the link
• Two-hop Topology Database
– each node broadcasts its neighbor table information periodically
in HELLO packets.
– Therefore, by examining the neighbor table from its neighbors,
a node is able to gather `complete' information about the
network topology that is at most two-hops away from itself.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 91

 HELLO MESSAGES

• HELLO message from a node contains its neighbor

table and its cluster adjacency table (CAT).
• Nodes update their neighbor tables and CAT when they
receive HELLO messages from their neighbors.
• When a node A receives HELLO message from say a
node B
– A adds B to its neighbor table if B is not present in its table.
– If B is already in the table update the status of link from B to A if
required.
– Update the role of B if it has changed.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 92

 CLUSTER FORMATION
• A node can be in any of the three states
– A cluster head
– A cluster member
– Undecided ( Looking for a head )
• An undecided node starts a timer and broadcasts a HELLO message.
• Any cluster head that receives this message sends out HELLO message
back.
• If the node has bi-directional link to that cluster head it chooses that node
as its cluster head and regards itself as a member of that cluster head.
• If it does not find any head till the timer expires and it declares itself as a
cluster head.
• If two cluster heads have bi-directional links to each other one of them
gives his status as a head and becomes member of the other head. The
node with a smaller id continues to be a cluster head.
• However the cluster heads wait for a certain period of time before this
• This ensures that if two cluster heads are just close for a short time when
they are on a move cluster re-formation does not happen.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 93
 Adjacent Cluster Discovery

• For a member node neighboring cluster

head is the one that is two hops away. i.e.
one that can be reached via an
intermediate node. This node is called a
Gateway node.
• A node can find out about its neighboring
cluster heads by looking at the neighbor
tables of its neighbors received in the
HELLO messages.
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 94
 Adjacent Cluster Discovery
Nodes also broadcasts their CAT in the HELLO message.

Cluster heads can learn about other cluster head that are 11
three hops away by looking at the CAT they receive.

e.g. 4’s Cluster Adjacency Table

9 8
4
10
3
Adj cluster ID Gateway 1
8 9 2
6 2 7
5
6
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 95
 ROUTE DISCOVERY
• When a node say A wants to discover route to a node say D it
broadcasts a RREQ packet.
• This packet contains a list of host and neighboring clusters heads.
For neighboring cluster heads even the gateway nodes are
mentioned.
• The idea is only cluster heads should forward the packet further.
• If a member node receives RREQ packet it simply drops it.
• However if a member node is listed as a Gateway node it unicasts
the RREQ to the cluster head for which it is a Gateway node.
• When a cluster head receives RREQ, it adds itself on the partial
route contained in the packet.
• It adds the neighboring cluster heads to which the packet is to be
forwarded from its own CAT along with their gateway nodes and
then re-broadcasts their packet.
• Thus the RREQ passes through a number of cluster heads and eventually
reaches D.
• D upon receiving the RREQ sends and RREP back.
• The RREP travels the same set of cluster heads that the RREQ traveled.
• On the way entire hop-by-hop path is added to the RREP along with the
Gateway nodes. UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 96
 Route Discovery
Source S “floods” all clusterheads with Route
Request Packets (RREQ) to discover
11 (D) [3,1,8,11]
destination D
9
[3,1,8]
4 8
10
3 (S)
[3] 1
[3,1] 2
7
5 6
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 97
[3,1,6]
 Route Reply
• Route reply packet (RREP) is sent back to source along reversed
“loose source route” of clusterheads.
• Each clusterhead along the way incrementally compute a hop-by-
hop strict source route.
11 (D)
the reversed
loose source route of 9
[11,9] [11]
RREP: [11,8,1,3] 8
4
[11,9,4] 10
3 (S)
1
[11,9,4,3]
the computed [11,9,4] 2 7
strict source route of 5 6
3->11 is: [11,9,4,3] UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 98
 Route Reply
• Route reply packet (RREP) is sent back to source along reversed
“loose source route” of clusterheads.
• Each clusterhead along the way incrementally compute a hop-by-
hop strict source route.
11 (D)
the reversed
loose source route of 9
RREP: [11,8,1,3] 8
4 10
3 (S)
1

the computed 2 7
strict source route of 5 6
3->11 is: [11,9,4,3] UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 99
 Route Error Detection
• Use source routing for actual packet forwarding
• A forwarding node sends a Route Error Message (ERR) to packet
source if the next hop in source route is unreachable
11 (D)

Source route header of data

9
packet: [3,4,9,11]
4 8
10
3 (S)
1
Route error (ERR) 2 7
down link: {9->11} 5 6
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 100
 ROUTE SHORTENING
• Whenever a node receives a source-routed
data packet, it tries to find out the furthest node
in the unvisited route that is actually its
neighbor. If it succeeds, it shortens the source
route accordingly and FLAGS this in the packet.
• The destination upon receiving this flagged
packet sends and unsolicited RREP back to the
source containing the shortened route.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 101

 Local Route Repair
• A forwarding node repairs a broken route using its 2-hop-topology
information and modifies source route header accordingly.
• Destination node sends a gratuitous route reply to inform source of the
modified route
11 (D)

Source route header of data

9
packet: [3,4,9,11]
4 8
10
3 (S)
1
Route error (ERR) 2 7
down link: {9->11} 5 6
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 102
 Local Route Repair
• A forwarding node repairs a broken route using its 2-hop-topology
information and modifies source route header accordingly.
• Destination node sends a gratuitous route reply to inform source of the
modified route
11 (D)

Source route header of data

9
packet: [3,4,9,11]
4 8
10
3 (S)
1
Modified source route 2 7
[3,4,9,8,11] 5 6
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 103
 Local Route Repair
• A forwarding node repairs a broken route using its 2-hop-topology
information and modifies source route header accordingly.
• Destination node sends a gratuitous route reply to inform source of the
modified route
11 (D)

Source route header of data

9
packet: [3,4,9,11]
4 8
10
3 (S)
1
Gratuitous route reply 2 7
[3,4,9,8,11] 5 6
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 104
 CBRP
CBRP Advantages:

• Uses local route repair and route shortening to improve routes

• Supports uni- and bi-directional links
• Reduction of communication traffic
• Reduction of information storage
• Robust against frequent network topology changes
• Loop free
• Support for multiple route

CBRP Disadvantages:

• Overhead bytes according to source routing

• Only 2-level hierarchy
• Small clusters but when clusters grow, size of HELLO messages and tables
increases
• Scalable to an extend.

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 105

 QoS in Wireless Networks
• What’s different in Wireless ?
– A premium on efficiency (due to limitations in
spectrum resource)
– Low reliability in the worst case
– Traffic limited by interference
• Similar to congestion, but more easily controllable
– “Cost” of one stream related not only to rate
parameters, but also to reliability(energy per bit)
and acceptable delay
– Best error- control coding techniques are at the
physical and media- access layers

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 106

 Wireless Systems
• Varying Conditions of Radio interface
• QoS profile consists of parameters like
– precedence:
– delay: includes radio access delay (uplink)
or radio scheduling delay (downlink), radio
transit delay, GPRS-network transit delay
– reliability: error rates much higher
– throughput: specified by maximum bit rate
and mean bit rate

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 107

 QoS in MANets
• Availability of link state information and
its management is difficult
• QoS of wireless link is apt to change in
dynamic environment
– mobility of hosts
– resource limitations (time varying)
• DiffServ a possible solution
– what are the boundary routers?
– concept of SLA does not exist
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 108
 QoS in MAC protocols
• MAC protocol design goals
– solve medium contention
– deal with hidden/exposed terminal problem
– improve throughput
• QoS MACs must provide resource
reservation and QoS guarantees to real-
time traffic
– Wireless LANs – Black burst contention etc
– Manets – MACA/PR
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 109
Ad-hoc network’s security characteristics:

-Availability  ability to use the information desired

-Confidentiality  information not disclosed to

unauthorized entities

-Integrity  no corruption

-Authentication  ensure identity of correspondent

- Non-repudiation  can’t deny a sent message

UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 110

 Problems: Causes
• Infrastructure of ad-hoc networks
•  no infrastructure: node  router

• Dynamic topology of ad-hoc networks

•  moving: @IP duplicated  attacks

• Problems associated with wireless communication

•  poor protection to noise and signal
interferences

• Implicit trust relationship between neighbors

•  suppose all participants
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING are honest 111
 Attacks using modification

• Idea:
• Malicious node announces better routes than the
other nodes in order to be inserted in the ad-hoc
network

• How ?
• - Redirection by changing the route sequence
number
• - Redirection with modified hop count
• - Denial Of Service (DOS) attacks
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 112
 Attacks using modification

• Redirection by changing the route sequence number:

- A wants to communicate with D.

Node A Node B Node C Node D

- Node A will broadcast a message asking the better path to reach the node
D.
- The best path is chosen depending on the metric of the different routes
- If an intruder replies with the shortest path, it inserts itself in the
network UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 113
Attacks using modification

- An intruder listens node C announcing to node B its route

metric
- The intruder announces to node B a smallest metric to reach D
- B deletes its path with node C and replaces it with the intruder
path

Node A Node B
Intruder

Node C Node D

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 Attacks using modification
• Redirection with modified hop count:
- The node C announces to B a path with a metric value of one
- The intruder announces to B a path with a metric value of one too
- B decides which path is the best by looking into the hop count value of
each route

Metric 1 and 3 hops

Node A Node B Node C Node D

Metric 1 and 1 hop

Figure 3.2
Intruder

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Attacks using modification

- The path with the malicious node is chosen according to the

hop count value.
- The new figure is illustrated below:

Node A Node B
Intruder

Node C Node D

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 Attacks using modification

• Denial Of Service (DOS) attacks with modified

source routes:
• - A malicious node is inserted in the network
thanks to one of the previous technique.
• - The malicious node changes packet headers it
receives
• - The packets will not reach the destination:
• - The transmission is aborted

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Attacks using modification

- The following figure illustrates DOS attacks:

Node A sends packets Intruder I decapsulates Node C has no direct
with header: (route packets, change the route with E, also the
cache to reach node E) header: packets are dropped
A-B-I-C-D-E A-B-I-C-E

Node A Node B Intruder I Node C Node D

Node E

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 Attacks using impersonation

• Idea :

• - Usurpates the identity of another node to

perform changes

• How ?
• - Spoofing MAC address of other nodes
•

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 Attacks using impersonation
• Forming loops by spoofing MAC address:
• - A malicious node M can listen all the nodes when the
others nodes can only listen their closest neighbors

• - Node M first changes its MAC address to the MAC address of

the node A

A C

B D E X

• - Node M moves closer to node B than node A is, and stays

out of range of node A
• - Node M announces node B a shorter path to reach X than
the node D gives
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 Attacks using impersonation
• Forming loops by spoofing MAC address:
• - Node B changes its path to reach X
• - Packets will be sent first to node A
•

A C

•
M
B D E X

• - Node M moves closer to node D than node B is, and

stays out of range of node B
• - Node M announces node D a shorter path to reach X
than the node E gives
•

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 Attacks using impersonation

• Forming loops by spoofing MAC address:

• - Node D changes its path to reach X
• - Packets will be sent first to node B
• A C

M
B D E X

- X is now unreachable because of the loop formed

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 Attacks using fabrication

• Idea:
• - Generates traffic to disturb the good operation of an ad-hoc
network

• How ?
• - Falsifying route error messages
• - Corrupting routing state
• - Routing table overflow attack
• - Replay attack
• - Black hole attack

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 Attacks using fabrication

• Falsifying route error messages:

• When a node moves, the closest node sends “error”
message to the others
– A malicious node can usurp the identity of another node
(e.g. By using spoofing) and sends error messages to the
others
– The other nodes update their routing tables with these bad
information
– The “victim” node is isolated

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 Attacks using fabrication

• Corrupting routing state:

– In DSR, routes can be learned from promiscuously received

packets
– A node should add the routing information contained in each
packet‟s header it overhears

– A hacker can easily broadcast a message with a spoofed IP

address such as the other nodes add this new route to reach a
special node S
– It‟s the malicious node which will receive the packets intended to
S.

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 Attacks using fabrication

• Routing table overflow attack:

– Available in “pro-active” protocols.

– These protocols try to find routing information before they
are needed

– A hacker can send in the network a lot of route to non-

existent nodes until overwhelm the protocol

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 Attacks using fabrication

• Replay attack:

– A hacker sends old advertisements to a node

– The node updates its routing table with stale routes

• Black hole attack:

– A hacker advertises a zero metric route for all destinations

– All the nodes around it will route packets towards it

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 Solutions to problems in ad-hoc routing

1. Mobile environment types

A) Open
• No static infrastructure
• Nodes of various types
• Completely unknown structure
• Key issue: network throughput

B) Managed open
• Can use existing infrastructure certificate servers, access points etc.
• Key issue: various depending on system accessed
• Increasing in usage as mobile devices become more popular

C) Managed hostile
• Classic ad-hoc networks
• Key issue: confidentiality and security
• War/disaster areas UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 128
 Solutions to problems in ad-hoc routing

2. Protocol enhancements
• Techniques to enhance security of existing
routing protocols

• Examples:
– Security-Aware ad-hoc Routing, SAR
– Secure Routing Protocol, SRP
– The Selfish Node, TSN
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 129
 SAR
overview
• Symmetric key encryption
• Only use routing paths having required trust level
• Shared symmetric keys for each trust level – use existing
infrastructure for CA and key distribution
• Requires managed open environment

SAR evaluation
• Pros:
Secure as long as CA not compromised
Network infrastructure not exposed (all packets encrypted)

• Cons:
Excessive power consumption (enc/dec)
Misbehaving nodes not prevented
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 SRP
Overview
• Based on a security association (SA) between the
destination and source node (set up during key
exchange)
• Public key encryption
• Routing path sent unencrypted with each packet
• Requires existing CA – managed open environment

SRP evaluation
• Pros:
Secure as far as confidentiality goes
Less processing overhead than SAR (only at endpoints)

• Cons:
Exposes network infrastructure (unenc. routing path)
Susceptible to “Invisible Node” attack
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 TSN
Overview
• Open environment – no pre-requirements but can use existing
infrastructure
• Primary threat: DOS attack
• Concept taken from Darwin‟s theories
• Problem solution: Introduce penalty for misbehaving notes
TSN components
• The monitor – “Neighborhood watch”
– Monitors other nodes network activity
– Sends warnings to the reputation system
• The reputation system – “Gossip”
– Spreads “rumors” about nodes
– Action depends on the reputation of the reporting node
• The path manager
– Responsible for changes in the routing table
• The trust manager
– Keeps list of trustworthy and not trustworthy nodes

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 TSN evaluation

Pros:
• Prevents misbehaving nodes from operating
• Can be combined with other techniques
Cons:
• Confidentiality not guaranteed (no encryption)
• Causes extra overhead (processing and network)

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 Solutions to problems in ad-hoc routing

3. Secure protocols
• Instead of extending current protocols, create
new protocols with higher security
requirements

• Two examples:
Authenticated Routing for Ad-hoc Networks, ARAN
Secure Position Aided Ad hoc Routing, SPAAR

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 ARAN overview
• Managed-open environment
• Public key encryption based
• Requires certificate server
• Two phases:
– Authentication
• Ensures existence of secure path to destination
• Each intermediate node stores the route pair (previous node + destination node)
• Each node signs the message so that the following node can check the validity
of the previous node
• The destination node replies by sending its certificate to be used in
transmission

– Transmission
• Routing path discovery packets (RDP) are encrypted using destination’s
public key at each intermediate node
• Each intermediate node stores the route pair (previous node + destination node)
until route times out (no traffic for a specified period of time)
• Destination node replies to the first RDP received and all RDP:s with a shorter
route path
• Once source node has received a reply to the RDP communication can begin,
all encrypted using receiver’s public key
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 ARAN Evaluation
Pros:
• Secure as long as CA is not compromised
• Confidentiality guaranteed (public key encryption)
• Network structure not exposed (encrypted)
• Resistant to most attacks
Cons:
• Extra memory required (each node stores routing
pairs)
• Moderate processing overhead for encryption

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 SPAAR overview
• Managed-hostile environment
• Security more important than performance
• Requires certificate server
• GPS used to determine location of nodes
• Nodes only accepts packets from valid neighbors (shared
group-key is used to encrypt traffic)
• Location and velocity is sent in packets to aid routing
performance (increases need for confidentiality)
• Nodes only forward packets if their location is closer to
the destination than previous node.
• Messages encrypted twice (destination public key and
group key between intermediate nodes)

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 SPAAR evaluation
Pros:
• Secure as long as CA is not compromised
• Confidentiality guaranteed (public key encryption)
• Network structure not exposed (encrypted)
• Resistant to most attacks
• Shortest geographical path
Cons:
• Extra memory required (each node stores routing
pairs)
• Heavy processing overhead for encryption
• Hardware demands (GPS)
UNIT- V MOBILE COMPUTING 138