PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES

1. Freud: Psychoanalysis
2. Adler: Individual Psychology A useful theory must:
3. Jung: Analytical Psychology 1. Generate research (both descriptive and hypothesis
4. Klein: Object Relations Theory testing)
5. Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory 2. Be falsifiable (research findings should be able to
6. Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis support or refute the theory)
7. Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory 3. Organize data into an intelligible framework and
8. Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory integrate new information and its structure
4. Guide action (providing a road map)
LEARNING THEORIES 5. Must have internal consistency and operational
1. Skinner: Behavioral Analysis definitions
2. Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory 6. Be parsimonious or simple
3. Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
DISPOSITIONAL THEORIES 1. Freud: Psychoanalysis
1. Cattel and Eysenck: Trait and Factor Theories - Postulated the primacy of sex and aggression
2. Allport: Psychology of the Individual - Attracted a group of followers
- Advanced the notion of unconscious motives
HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL THEORIES
1. Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs Levels of Mental Life
2. Rogers: Person Centered Theory 1. Unconscious (id)
3. Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory - Drives and instincts that are beyond awareness
4. May: Existential Psychology - Can become conscious only in disguised or
distorted form (ex: dream images, slips of the
Introduction tongue, neurotic symptoms)
- Unconscious processes originate from two
Personality theorists: sources:
1. Make controlled observations of human behavior (1) repression -- blocking out of anxiety
2. Speculate on the meaning of those observations filled-experiences
(2) phylogenetic endowment -- inherited
Personality experiences that lie beyond an individual’s
- Pattern of relatively permanent traits or personal experience
characteristics that give some consistency to a 2. Preconscious (superego)
person’s behavior - Contains images that are not in awareness but
that can become conscious
Theory 3. Conscious (ego)
- Set of related assumptions that allows scientists to - Stem from either the perception of external
use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable stimuli (our perception of system) or from the
hypothesis unconscious and preconscious after they have
- Tool used by scientists to generate research and evaded censorship
organize observations
- Relies on speculation but speculation in the absence Provinces of the Mind
of controlled observations and empirical research is 1. Id
essentially worthless - Completely unconscious
- Single theory may generate hundreds of hypotheses - Serves the pleasure principle
2. Ego
Hypothesis - Governed by the reality principle
- Educated guess - Responsible for reconciling the unrealistic
- Narrower term than theory demands of the id and the superego
3. Superego
 - Serves the idealistic principle - Develops when psychic energy is blocked at one
- 2 subsystems: stage of development
(1) Conscience -- results from punishment 7. Regression
for improper behavior - Occur whenever a person reverts to earlier, more
(2) Ego-ideal -- stems from the rewards for infantile modes of behavior
socially acceptable behavior
8. Projection
Dynamics of Personality - Seeing in others those unacceptable feelings or
- Forces that motivate people behaviors that actually reside in one’s own
1. Instincts unconscious
- 2 primary instincts: 9. Introjection
(1) Sex -- eros or life instinct - When people incorporate positive qualities of
-- aim is pleasure, which can be gained through another person into their own ego to reduce feelings
the erogenous zones of anxiety
-- object of the sexual instinct: any person or 10. Sublimation
thing that brings sexual pleasure - Elevation of the sexual instinct’s aim to a higher level
(2) Aggression -- death or destructive instinct
-- aims to return a person to an Neurotic: reaction formation, idealization, undoing ---
inorganic state, but it is ordinarily successful over short term
directed against other people and is
called aggression Immature and maladaptive: projection, isolation, denial,
2. Anxiety displacement, and dissociation) --- unsuccessful and have the
(1) Neurotic anxiety -- stems from the ego’s relation highest degree of distortion
with the id
(2) Moral anxiety -- similar to guilt and results from the Mature and adaptive: sublimation, suppression, humor and
ego’s relation with the superego altruism --- successful over the long term maximize
(3) Realistic anxiety -- similar to fear; produced by the gratification, and have the least amount of distortion
ego’s relation with the real world
Stages of Development
Defense Mechanisms (1) Infantile Period
- Operate to protect the ego against the pain of - Encompasses the first 4 to 5 years of life
anxiety (1) Oral -- primarily motivated to receive
1. Repression pleasure through the mouth
- Forcing unwanted, anxiety-loaded experiences into (2) Anal -- if the parents are too punitive, the
the unconscious child may become an anal character --
2. Undoing orderliness, stinginess, and obstinacy
- Ego’s attempt to do away with the unpleasant (3) Phallic -- begin to have differing
experiences and their consequences, usually by psychosexual development
means of repetitious ceremonials actions * Oedipus complex - sexual feelings for one parent and
3. Isolation hostile feelings for the other
- Obsessive thoughts and involves the ego’s attempt * Male castration complex in the form of castration anxiety -
to isolate an experience by surrounding it with a breaks ups the male Oedipus complex and results in a well-
blacked-out region of insensibility formed male superego
4. Reaction Formation *Castration anxiety in the form of penis envy - precedes the
- Repression of one impulse and the ostentatious female Oedipus complex, a situation that leads to only a
expression of its exact opposite gradual and incomplete shattering of the female Oedipus
5. Displacement complex and a weaker, more flexible female superego
- When people redirect their unwanted urges onto the
objects or people in order to disguise the original (2) Latency Period
impulse - About age 5 to puberty - in which the sexual instinct
6. Fixation is partially suppressed
 (3) Genital Period Striving for Success or Superiority
- Begins with puberty, when adolescents experience a - Sole dynamic force behind people’s actions
reawakening of the genital aim of Eros - Final goal: unifies personality and makes all behavior
meaningful

Striving for Personal Superiority

- Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive
(4) Maturity for personal superiority with little concern
- The ego would be in control of the id and superego for other people
and in which consciousness would play a more - Basic motivation: personal benefit
important role in behavior
Striving for Success
Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory - Psychologically healthy people strive for the success
Passive type of psychotherapy of all humanity, but they do so without losing their
- relied on free association, dream interpretation and personal identity
transference.
Goal of later psychotherapy - uncover repressed memories
and the therapist uses dream analysis and free association Subjective Perceptions
(patients are required to say whatever comes to mind) * subjective view of the world - shapes behavior
* Successful therapy rests on the patient’s transference of
childhood sexual or aggressive feelings onto the therapist Fictions
- People’s expectations of the future
Dream analysis - Guide behavior, as if these fictions are true
(1) Manifest content - conscious description - Teleology over causality: Explanations of behavior in
(2) Latent content - unconscious meaning terms of future goals rather than past causes
*Wish - usually unconscious and can be known only through
dream interpretation (by using dream symbols and dreamer’s Organ inferiorities
association to the dream content) - All humans are “blessed” with organ inferiorities,
which stimulate subjective feelings of superiority
Freudian Slips and move people toward perfection or completion
- Parapraxes
- Not chance accidents but reveal a person’s true but Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality
unconscious intentions * Behaviors are directed toward a single purpose

Concept of Humanity Organ Dialect

- Freud’s view was deterministic and pessimistic - People often use a physical disorder to express style
- Causality over teleology of life
- Unconscious determinants over conscious processes
- Biology over culture Conscious and Unconscious
- Conscious and unconscious processes are unified
and operate to achieve a single goal
2. Adler: Individual Psychology
- Striving for success and superiority
- Rooted in family experiences Social Interest
- High on optimism and teleology - Feeling of oneness with all of humanity
- Idealistic - Origins: fostered in a social environment; parent-
- Free choice child relationship can be so strong that it negates the
- Social influences effects of heredity
- Uniqueness - Sole criterion of human values
- Average on unconscious influencers
Style of Life - Second-born (likely to have strong social interest)
- Manner of a person’s striving - Younger children (likely to be pampered and to lack
- A pattern that is relatively well set by 4 or 5 years of independence)
age - Only children (have some of the characteristics of
- Partially a product of heredity and environment (the both the oldest and the youngest child)
building blocks of personality) (2) Early recollections
- Shaped by people’s creative power, by their ability - Early memories are templates on which people
to freely choose a course of action project their current style of life
* each of us is free to choose either a useful or a useless style - Reflect a person’s current view of the world
of life (3) Dreams
* the most important factor in abnormal development is lack - Can provide clues to solving future problems
of social interest - Disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually must
People with a useless style of life tend to: be interpreted by another person
(1) Set their goals too high
(2) Have a dogmatic style of life (4) Psychotherapy
(3) Live in their own private life - Goal of Adlerian therapy is to create a relationship
between the therapist and patient that fosters social
Factors that relate to abnormal development: interest
(1) Exaggerated physical deficiencies - Therapist adopts both paternal and maternal role
- May contribute by generating subjective and
exaggerated feelings of inferiority Concept of Humanity
(2) Pampered style of life - Forward moving, social animals
- Contributes to an overriding drive to establish a - Motivated by goals they set
permanent parasitic relationship with the mother - Ultimately responsible for their own unique style of
or sub mother life
(3) Neglected style of life
- leads to distrust of other people
3. Jung: Analytical Psychology
Principal Safeguarding Tendencies (maintain a neurotic style - People as complex beings who possess a variety of
of life and protect a person from public disgrace): opposing qualities
(1) Excuses - Both conscious and unconscious
- Allow people to preserve their inflated sense of - Early experience with parents (were quite opposite
personal worth with one another) probably influenced his own
(2) Aggression theory of personality
- May take in the form of depreciating others’ - Psychology of opposites
accomplishments, accusing others of being
responsible for one’s own failures or self-accusation Levels of the Psyche
(3) Withdrawal (1) Conscious
- Expressed by psychologically moving backward, - Images sensed by the ego (represents the conscious
standing still, hesitating or constructing obstacles side of personality; secondary to the self)
(2) Unconscious
Masculine protest - Psychic images not sensed by the ego
- Both men and women sometimes overemphasize - Some unconscious processes flow from our personal
the desirability of being manly experiences, but others stem from our ancestors’
experiences with universal themes
Applications of Individual Psychology (a) Personal Unconscious
(1) Family constellation - Contains the complexes (emotionally toned
- People’s perception of how they fit into their family groups of related ideas)
is related to their style of life (b) Collective Unconscious
- Firstborn (likely to have strong feelings of power and
superiority, to be overprotective)
 - Ideas that are beyond our personal Regression - adaptation to the inner world and the backward
experiences and that originate from the flow of psychic energy
repeated experiences of our ancestors
- Are not inherited ideas but refer to our Psychological Types
innate tendency to react in a particular way Attitudes - predispositions to act or react in a characteristic
whenever our personal experience manner
stimulate an inherited predisposition (1) Introversion
toward action - People’s subjective perceptions
- Contents of the collective unconscious are - Rely on individualized view of self
called archetypes (2) Extraversion
- Orientation toward the objective world; real world
Archetypes Functions
- Contents of the collective unconscious (3) Thinking
- Originate through the repeated experiences of our - Recognizing the meaning of stimuli
ancestors (4) Feeling
- Expressed in certain types of dreams, fantasies, - Placing a value on something
delusions and hallucinations (5) Sensation
- Taking in sensory stimuli
(1) Persona
- Side of our personality that we show to others
(2) Shadow (6) Intuition
- Dark side of personality - Perceiving elementary data that are beyond our
- To reach full psychological maturity, we have to awareness
realize/accept our shadow Rational functions: thinking and feeling
(3) Anima Irrational functions: sensation and intuition
- Feminine side of men
(4) Animus Development of Personality
- Masculine disposition of women * Jung saw middle and old age as times when people may
(5) Great mother acquire the ability to attain self-realization
- Archetype of nourishment and destruction
(6) Wise old man Stages of Development
- Archetype of wisdom and meaning (1) Childhood
(7) Hero - Lasts from birth until adolescence
- Image we have of a conqueror who vanquishes (2) Youth
evil - Period from puberty until middle life (time for
(8) Self extraverted development and for being grounded to
- Most comprehensive type of archetype the real world of schooling, occupation, courtship,
- Image we have of fulfillment, completion, marriage and family)
perfection (3) Middle life
* self-realization -- ultimate in psychological maturity; - Time from about 35 or 40 until old age when people
symbolized by the mandala or perfect geometric figure should be adopting an introverted attitude
(4) Old age
Dynamics of Personality - Time for psychological rebirth, self-realization and
(1) Causality and teleology preparation for death
- Humans are motivated both by their past * Self-realization or individuation
experiences and by their expectations of the future - involves psychological rebirth and an integration of
(2) Progression and regression various parts of the psyche into a unified or whole
* to achieve self-realization, people must adapt to both their individual
external and internal worlds - Represents the highest level of human development
Progression - involves adaptation to the outside world and
the forward flow of psychic energy Jung’s methods of investigation
 (1) Word association test - Very young infants possess an active, unconscious
- To uncover complexes embedded in the personal fantasy life
unconscious - Most basic fantasies: “good” breast and “bad” breast
- Requires the patient to utter the first word that
comes to mind after the examiner reads a stimulus Objects
word - She emphasized the child’s relationship with these
(2) Dream analysis objects (parents’ face, hands, breast, etc) which she
- May have both a cause and a purpose saw as having a life of their own within the child’s
- Can be useful in explaining past events and making fantasy world
decisions about the future
- Come from the collective unconscious (have Positions
meanings that lie beyond the experiences of a single - Ways of dealing with both internal and external
individual) objects
(3) Active imagination (1) Paranoid-Schizoid position
- To arrive at collective images - Tendency to see the world as having both
- Requires the patient to concentrate on a single destructive and omnipotent qualities (bite or
image until that image begins to appear in a harbor the breast)
different form (2) Depressive Position
- The patient should see figures that represent - Anxiety that infants experience over losing their
archetypes and other collective unconscious images mother and also wanting to destroy her
- Resolved when infants fantasize that they made
up for their previous transgressions against their
(4) Psychotherapy mother and also realize that their mother will not
- The goal of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic abandon them
patients to become healthy and to move healthy
people in the direction of self-realization Psychic Defense Mechanisms
- Protect the ego against anxiety aroused by their own
Concept of Humanity destructive fantasies
- Extreme complex beings who are a product of both (1) Introjection
conscious and unconscious personal experiences - Fantasy of taking into one’s own body the images
- People are motivated from the collective that one has an external object, esp the mother’s
experiences of their early ancestors breast
- Infants usually introject good objects as a protection
against anxiety by they also introject bad objects in
4. Klein: Object Relations Theory order to gain control of them
- Extended Freud’s theory (2) Projection
- Mother-child relationship - Fantasy that one’s own feelings and impulses reside
- Deterministic within another person
- Children project both good and bad images,
Object Relations Theory especially onto their parents
(1) More emphasis on interpersonal relationships (3) Splitting
(2) Stresses the infant’s relationship with the mother - Mentally keeping apart incompatible images
(3) People are motivated for human contact rather than - Allows children and adults to like themselves while
sexual pleasure still recognizing some unlikable qualities
(4) Projective Identification
Psychic Life of the Infant - Infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves,
- Infants begin life with an inherited predisposition to project them onto another object and finally
reduce the anxiety that they experience introject them in an altered form

Fantasies Internalizations
 - After introjecting external objects, infants organize - Parents’ behaviors and attitudes help children form
them into a psychologically meaningful framework a sense of self that gives unity and consistency to
their experiences
Ego (3) Otto Kernberg
- Internalizations are aided by the early ego’s - Key to understanding personality is the mother-child
ability to feel anxiety relationship -- will develop an integrated ego,
- Unified ego emerges only after first splitting punitive superego, stable self-concept and satisfying
itself into two parts: those that deal with the life interpersonal relations
instinct and those that relate to the death (4) John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
instinct - Received training in child psychiatry from Melanie
Klein
Superego Stages of Separation Anxiety:
- Superego emerged much earlier (i) protest
- Superego preceded rather than followed the (ii) apathy and despair
Oedipus complex (iii) emotional detachment -- children who reach this
- Superego as being quite harsh and cruel stage lack warmth and emotion in their later relationships

Oedipus complex
- Begins during the first few months of life and Psychotherapy
ends during genital stage (3 or 4 years) - Klein’s goal was to reduce depressive anxieties and
- Based on children’s dear that parents will seek persecutory fears and to lessen the harshness of
revenge against them for their fantasy of internalized objects
emptying the parent’s body - Encouraged patients to re-experience early fantasies
- Little boy adopts “feminine” position towards
his mother early in life; little girl adopts a Concept of Humanity
“feminine” position toward both parents quite - Sees personality as being a product of the early
early in life mother-child relationship and thus they stress
determinism over choice
Later Views/Expansion of Object Relations
(1) Margaret Mahler
- Observed the interaction/bonding of infants and 5. Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory
mothers during the first 3 years - Assumes that social and cultural conditions,
Stages: especially during childhood, have a powerful effect
(i) Normal autism on later personality
- 3 to 4 weeks of life - Placed more emphasis on social factors
- Infants satisfy their needs within the all-
powerful protective orbit of their mother’s Impact of Culture
care * Modern culture is too competitive and that competition
(ii) Normal symbiosis leads to hostility and feelings of isolation. These conditions
- Infants behave as if they and their mother leads to exaggerated needs for affection and cause people to
were omnipotent, symbiotic unit overvalue love.
(iii) Separation-individuation
- 4 mos until 3 years Importance of Childhood Experiences
- Children are becoming psychologically * Neurotic conflict stems from childhood traumas (lack of
separated from their mothers and achieving genuine love)
individuation, or a sense of personal
identity Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety
* All children need feelings of safety and security, but these
(2) Heinz Kohut can be gained only by love from parents.
- Emphasized the development of the self * Parents often neglect, dominate, etc. which lead to the
- Adults treat infants as if they had a sense of self child’s feelings of basic hostility towards parents
* If children repress feelings of hostility, they will develop - A comprehensive drive toward
basic anxiety -- feelings of insecurity and a pervasive sense of actualizing the ideal self
apprehension. (2) Neurotic claims
How to protect oneself from basic anxiety: - Belief that they are entitled to
(1) Affection special privileges
(2) Submissiveness (3) Neurotic pride
(3) Power, prestige or possession - False pride based not on reality but
(4) Withdrawal on a distorted and idealized view
of self
Compulsive drives
* Neurotics are frequently trapped in a vicious cycle Self-Hatred
- Neurotics dislike themselves because reality always
Neurotic needs: falls short of their idealized view of self
(1) Affection and approval (1) Relentless demands on the self
(2) Powerful partner (2) Merciless self-accusation
(3) Restrict one’s life within narrow borders (3) Self-contempt
(4) Power (4) Self-frustration
(5) Exploit others (5) Self-torment or self-torture
(6) Social recognition/prestige (6) Self-destructive actions and impulses
(7) Personal admiration
(8) Ambition and personal achievement Feminine Psychology
(9) Self-sufficiency and independence - Psychological differences between men and women
(10) Perfection and unassailability are not due to anatomy but to culture and social
expectations
Neurotic trends - Sexual attraction or hostility of child to parent would
- Attempt to solve basic conflict be the result of learning and not biology
(1) Moving toward people
- Compliant people protect themselves Psychotherapy
against feelings of helplessness by attaching - Grow toward self-realization, give up their idealized
themselves to other people self-image, relinquish their neurotic search for glory,
and change self-hatred to self-acceptance
- Successful therapy is built on self-analysis and self-
(2) Moving against people understanding
- Aggressive people protect themselves
against perceived hostility of others by Morbid dependency
exploiting others - People with neurotic needs to move toward others
(3) Moving away from people will go to great lengths to win the approval of other
- Detached people protect themselves people
against feelings of isolation by appearing
arrogant and aloof Hypercompetitiveness
- Moving against people relates to the concept of
Intrapsychic Conflicts hypercompetitiveness
- Inner tensions
Concept of Humanity
Idealized Self-Image - Very high on social factors, high on free choice,
- Extravagantly positive picture of themselves optimism, and unconscious influences, and about
- People who don’t receive love and affection during average on causality over teleology and on the
childhood are blocked in their attempt to acquire a uniqueness of the individual
stable sense of identity, which will allow them to
create an idealized self-image
(1) Neurotic search for glory 6. Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
 - Looks at people from the perspective of psychology, (1) Authoritarianism
history and anthropology - Tendency to give up one’s independence to unite
- Developed a more culturally oriented theory than with a powerful partner
Freud’s and a much broader theory than Horney (2) Destructiveness
- Aimed at doing away with other people or things
Fromm’s basic assumptions (3) Conformity
- Humans have been torn away from their prehistoric - Surrendering of one’s individuality in order to meet
union with nature and left with no powerful instincts the wishes of others
to adapt to a changing world
- Human dilemma -- humans have acquired the ability Positive freedom
to reason, they can think about their isolated - Human dilemma can only be solved through positive
condition; can only be addressed by fulfilling our freedom
uniquely human needs - Spontaneous activity of the whole, integrated
personality and which is achieved when a person
Human/Existential Needs: becomes reunited with others
(1) Relatedness
(i) submission Character Orientations
(ii) power - People relate to the world by acquiring and using
(iii) love things (assimilation) and by relating to self and
- ability to unite with another while retaining one’s others (socialization) by:
own individuality and integrity (1) Nonproductive orientations
- only relatedness need that can solve our basic a. Receptive orientation
human dilemma - The source of all good lies outside
themselves and that the only way they can
(2) Transcendence relate to the world is to receive things
- Humans have to transcend their nature by b. Exploitative orientation
destroying or creating people or things -- through - The source of all good lies outside
malignant aggression or killing for reasons other themselves but they aggressively take what
than survival they want rather than passively receiving it
c. Hoarding characters
(3) Rootedness - Try to save what they have already
- Need to establish roots and to feel at home again in obtained
the world d. Marketing orientation
- Enables us to grow beyond the security of our - See themselves as commodities and value
mother and establish ties with the outside world themselves against the criterion of their
ability to sell themselves
(4) Sense of Identity - Saunders Consumer Orientation Index
- Awareness of ourselves as a separate (measures this kind of orientation)
person/individuality
(2) Productive orientation
(5) Frame of orientation - Through productive work, love, and reasoning
- Road map or consistent philosophy by which we find - Biophilia -- passionate love of all life
our way through the world
- Movement through rational goals Major Personality Disorders
(1) Necrophilia
Burden of Freedom - The love of death and the hatred of humanity
- “Freaks of the universe” - because we are the only (2) Malignant narcissism
animal who possesses self awareness - Belief that everything belonging to one’s self is of
- Freedom → more isolation → burden → basic great value and anything belonging to others is
anxiety/feeling of being alone in the world worthless
Mechanisms of Escape (3) Incestuous symbiosis
 - Extreme dependence on one’s mother or mother *euphoria -- complete absence of anxiety and other
figure tensions

Psychotherapy Dynamism
- Goal was to work toward satisfaction of the 5 basic - Refers to a typical pattern of behavior
human needs. - May relate either to specific zones of the body or to
- Therapist is simply a human being rather than a tensions
scientist (1) Malevolence
- Disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred
Concept of Humanity - Feeling of living among one’s enemies
- Humans were “freaks of the universe” because they - Difficulty giving and receiving tenderness or being
lacked strong animal instincts while possessing the intimate with other people
ability to reason (2) Intimacy
- Conjunctive dynamism marked by a close personal
relationship between 2 people of equal status
7. Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory - Facilitates interpersonal development while
- Emphasized the importance of interpersonal decreasing both anxiety and loneliness
relations (3) Lust
- Personality is shaped almost entirely by the - Isolating dynamism
relationships we have with other people - Can be satisfied in the absence of an intimate
interpersonal relationship
Biography - Based solely on sexual gratification and requires no
- Harry Stack Sullivan other person for its satisfaction
- First American to develop a comprehensive (4) Self-System
personality theory - Most inclusive of all dynamisms
- Believed that such a relationship has the power to - Pattern of behaviors that protects us against anxiety
transform an immature preadolescent into a and maintains our interpersonal security
psychologically healthy individual - Conjunctive dynamism
- His experience made him develop his theory - Primary job is to protect the self from anxiety, it
tends to stifle (restrain) personality change
Tensions - Dissociation -- security operation which
- Personality -- energy system, with energy existing includes all those experiences that we block
either as tension or as energy transformation from awareness
- Tension -- potentiality for action - Selective inattention -- involves blocking
- Energy transformation -- actions themselves only certain experiences from awareness
- 2 divisions:
(1) Needs Personifications
- Conjunctive and calls for specific actions to - People acquire certain images of self and others
reduce them throughout the developmental stages // subjective
- Can relate either to the general well-being perceptions
of a person or to specific zones such as (1) Bad-Mother, Good-Mother
mouth or genitals - Bad-mother personification -- grows out of infants’
- General needs can be either physiological experiences with a nipple that does not satisfy their
(ex. food) or they can be interpersonal (ex. hunger needs
intimacy) - Good-mother personification -- infants will acquire
(2) Anxiety this once they become mature enough to recognize
- Disjunctive and calls for no consistent the tender and cooperative behavior of their
actions for its relief mothering one
- Chief disruptive force in interpersonal - These 2 combine to form a complex and contrasting
relations image of a real mother
 (2) Me Personifications intimacy (the chief dynamism of the next
(i) bad-me -- grows from the experiences of developmental stage)
punishment and disapproval (4) Preadolescence
(ii) good-me -- results from experiences with reward - Most crucial stage because mistakes during
and recognition preadolescence are nearly impossible to overcome
(iii) not-me -- allows a person to dissociate or in later life
selectively inattend the experiences related to anxiety - Need for a single best friend until puberty
- Children who do not learn intimacy during
(3) Eidetic Personifications preadolescence have added difficulties relating to
- People often create imaginary traits that they potential sexual partners during later stages
project onto others (5) Early adolescence
- Ex: imaginary playmates -- enable children to have a - With puberty comes the lust dynamism and the
safe, secure relationship with another person beginning of early adolescence
- Coexistence of intimacy with a single friend of the
Levels of Cognition (or ways of perceiving things) same gender and sexual interest in may persons of
(1) Prototaxic the opposite gender
- experiences that are impossible to put into (6) Late adolescence
words or to communicate to others - May start after about age 16
(2) Parataxic - psychologically , it begins when a person is able to
- Experiences that are prelogical and nearly feel both intimacy and lust toward the same person
impossible to accurately communicate - Characterized by a stable pattern of sexual activity
- Parataxic distortions -- erroneous assumptions and the growth of the syntaxic mode
about cause and effect (7) Adulthood
(3) Syntaxic - A time when a person establishes a stable
- Experiences that can be accurately relationship with a significant other person and
communicated to others develops a consistent pattern of viewing the world
- Children are capable of this at about 12 to 18
months Psychological Disorders
- Disordered behavior has an interpersonal origin and
Stages of Development can only be understood with reference to a person’s
(1) Infancy social environment
- Birth until emergence of syntaxic language
- When a child receives tenderness from the Psychotherapy
mothering one while also learning anxiety and - Therapist as a participant observer, who establishes
empathic linkage with the mother an interpersonal relationship with the patient
- Children use autistic language -- occurs on a
prototaxic or a parataxic level Structural Analysis of Social Behavior
(2) Childhood - Instrument for studying the dynamics between
- Lasts from the beginning of syntaxic language until therapist and patient
the need for playmates
- Child’s primary interpersonal relationship continues Concept of Humanity
to be with the mother - Sullivan saw human personality as being largely
formed from interpersonal relations
(3) Juvenile Era
- Begins with the need for peers of equal status and
continues until the child develops a need for an
intimate relationship with a chum 8. Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
- Children should learn how to compete, to - Postulated 8 stages of psychosocial development
compromise, and to cooperate -- these plus through which people progress
orientation toward living will help a child develop - Extension of Freudian psychoanalysis
Erik Salomonsen then became Erik Homburger (step father’s (3) Play construction-- anatomical differences between
last name) then changed his name to Erik Erikson when he the sexes play a role in personality development
moved to the US)
Concept of Humanity
The Ego in Post-Freudian Psychology - Erikson saw humans as basically social animals who
- Emphasis on ego rather than id functions have limited free choice and who are motivated by
- Ego is center of personality and is responsible for a past experiences
unified sense of self
- Ego consists of 3 interrelated facets
(1) Body ego LEARNING THEORIES
(2) Ego ideal 1. Skinner: Behavioral Analysis
(3) Ego identity - Radical behaviorism
- Concentrates on observable behavior
Society’s Influence - Skinner was a determinist and an environmentalist;
- Ego develops within a given society rejected the notion of free will
- Influenced by child-rearing practices and - Emphasized the primacy of environmental influences
other cultural norms on behavior
- All cultures and nations develop a
pseudospecies -- fictional notion that they Precursors to Skinner’s Scientific Behaviorism
are superior to other cultures - Modern learning theory by Edward L. Thorndike
- Law of effect stated that responses
Epigenetic Principle followed by a satisfier tend to be learned
- Ego develops according to a genetically - John Watson
established rate and in a fixed sequence - Argued that psychology must deal with the
control and prediction of behavior and that
Stages of Psychosocial Development behavior- not introspection, consciousness,
- Each of the stages is marked by a conflict between a or the mind- is the basic data of scientific
syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic psychology
(disruptive) element, which produces a basic
strength or ego quality Scientific Behaviorism
- From adolescence on, each stage is characterized by - Skinner believed that human behavior is subject to
an identity crisis or turning point, which may the laws of science and that psychologists should not
produce either adaptive or maladaptive adjustment attribute inner motivations to it
(1) Infancy -- Trust VS Mistrust - Thoughts, emotions and desires should not be used
(2) Early childhood -- Autonomy VS Shame and Doubt to explain behavior
(3) Play age -- Initiative VS Guilt
(4) School age-- Industry VS inferiority Philosophy of Science
(5) Adolescence-- Identity VS Role Confusion - Psychologists should be concerned with determining
(6) Young adulthood-- Intimacy VS isolation the conditions under which human behavior occurs
(7) Adulthood-- Generativity VS Stagnation so that they can predict and control it
(8) Old age-- Integrity VS Despair Characteristics of Science
(1) Its findings are cumulative
Erikson’s Methods of Investigation (2) It rests on an attitude that values empirical
(1) Anthropology-- Sioux of South Dakota and the Yurok observation
tribe of northern California were his famous studies (3) It searches for order and lawful relationships
which demonstrated his notion that culture and
history help shape personality Conditioning
(2) Psychohistory-- combined methods of (1) Classical Conditioning
psychoanalysis and historical research, which Erikson - A neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with an
used in studying several personalities like Gandhi unconditioned stimulus until it is capable of bringing
and Luther about a previously unconditioned response
 - The process of generalization will let the child fear (4) Variable-interval
the stimuli that resembled the white rat - Organism is reinforced after the lapse of varied
(2) Operant Conditioning periods of time
- Reinforcement is used to increase the probability
that a given behavior will recur Extinction -- tendency of a previously acquired response to
Factors become progressively weakened upon nonreinforcement
(1) Antecedent -- environment in which
behavior takes place Classical extinction -- such elimination or weakening of a
(2) Behavior -- response response
(3) Consequence that follows the behavior
Operant discrimination -- different organisms will respond Operant extinction -- when the response was acquired
differently to the same environmental contingencies through operant conditioning

Stimulus generalization -- people respond similarly to The Human Organism

different environmental stimuli - Human behavior is shaped by 3 factors:
(1) Natural selection -- our behavior is shaped by the
Reinforcer -- anything within the environment that contingencies of survival
strengthens a behavior (2) Cultural practices -- societies that evolved certain
cultural practices tended to survive
Positive reinforcement -- any stimulus that when added to a (3) Individual’s history of reinforcement
situation increases the probability that a given behavior will
occur; pleasant stimulus is present Drives -- refer to the effects of deprivation and satiation and
thus are related to the probability of certain behaviors, but
Negative reinforcement -- strengthening of behavior through they are not the causes of behaviors
the removal of an aversive stimulus; aversive stimulus is
taken away Control of Human Behavior
*all of a person’s behavior is controlled by the environment
Punishment -- any event that decreases a behavior either by 4 basic methods of social control:
presenting an aversive stimulus or by removing a positive one (1) Operant conditioning -- including positive and
negative reinforcement and punishment
Positive punishment -- aversive stimulus is presented (2) Describing contingencies -- using language to inform
people of the consequence of their behaviors
Negative punishment -- pleasant stimulus is taken away (3) Deprivation and satiation -- techniques that increase
the likelihood that people will behave in a certain
Conditioned reinforcers -- are those stimuli that are not by way
nature satisfying (ex: money), but that can become so when (4) Physical restraint -- include the jailing of criminals
they are associated with a primary reinforcer, such as food
Counteracting strategies from excessive social control
Generalized reinforcers -- are conditioned reinforcers that (1) Escaping from it
have become associated with several primary reinforcers (2) Revolting against it
(3) Passively resisting it
4 basic intermittent schedules
(1) Fixed-ratio Inappropriate behaviors -- follow from self-defeating
- Organism is reinforced intermittently according to techniques of counteracting social control or from
the number of responses it makes unsuccessful attempts at self-control
(2) Variable-ratio
- Organism is reinforced after an average of a Skinner criticized psychotherapy as being one of the major
predetermined number of responses obstacles to a scientific study of human behavior.
(3) Fixed-interval
- Organism is reinforced for the first response Behavior therapists play an active role in the treatment
following a designated period of time process, using behavior modification techniques and pointing
out the positive consequences of some behaviors and the (3) Environmental events - a model Bandura
aversive effects of others. calls reciprocal determinism
Self-System
*Different personalities may react differently to the same - Gives some consistency to personality by allowing
environmental stimuli. The same reinforcement strategies people to observe and symbolize their own behavior
will not have the same effect on all people. and to evaluate it
- Includes self-efficacy and self-regulation
Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory -- suggests that impulsivity,
anxiety, and introversion/extraversion relate to ways people Self-Efficacy
respond to environmental reinforcers - How people behave in a particular situation depends
in part on their self-efficacy
Concept of Humanity - Beliefs that they can or cannot exercise those
- Completely deterministic and causal one that behaviors necessary to bring about a desired
emphasized unconscious behavior and the consequence
uniqueness of each person’s history of - Combines with environmental variables, previous
reinforcement within a mostly social environment behaviors, and other personal variables to predict
- Skinner is optimistic in his view of humanity behavior
- Acquired, enhanced, or decreased by:
(1) Mastery experiences or performance
2. Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory (2) Social modelling, or observing someone of
- Takes an agentic perspective -- humans have some equal ability succeed or fail at a task
limited ability to control their lives (3) Social persuasion, or listening to a trusted
(1) Recognizes that chance encounters and fortuitous person’s encouraging words
events often shape one’s behavior (4) Physical and emotional states, such as
(2) Places more emphasis on observational learning anxiety or fear, which usually lowers self-
(3) Stresses the importance of cognitive factors in efficacy
learning High efficacy and a responsive environment are the best
(4) Suggests that human activity is a function of predictors of successful outcomes.
behavior and person variables, as well as the
environment Outcome expectations -- refer to people’s prediction of the
(5) Believes that reinforcement is mediated by cognition likely consequences of their behavior

Human Agency Proxy Agency – people exercise some partial control over
- Essence of humanness everyday living
- Humans are defined by their ability to organize,
regulate, and enact behaviors that they believe will Collective Efficacy—is the level of confidence that people
produce desirable consequences have that their combined efforts will produce social change
Core features of human agency:
(1) Intentionality-- proactive commitment to actions Self-regulation
that may bring about desired outcomes - 2 external factors that contribute to self-regulation:
(2) Foresight-- ability to set goals (1) Standards of evaluation
(3) Self-reactiveness-- includes people monitoring their (2) External reinforcement – affect self-regulation
progress toward fulfilling their choices by providing people with standards for
(4) Self-reflectiveness-- allows people to think about evaluating their own behavior
and evaluate their motives, values and life goals - Internal requirements for self-regulation include:
(1) Self-observation of performance
Reciprocal Determinism (2) Judging or evaluating performance
- Social cognitive theory holds that human functioning (3) Self-reactions (including self-reinforcement or
is modeled by the reciprocal interaction of: self-punishment)
(1) Behavior
(2) Person variables, including cognition
Internalized self-sanctions—prevent people from violating - Goal of social cognitive therapy is self-regulation
their own moral standards either through selective activation - 3 levels of treatment:
or disengagement of internal control (1) Induction of change
(2) Generalization of change to other appropriate
Selective activation—refers to the notion that self-regulatory situations
influences are not automatic but operate only if activated; (3) Maintenance of newly acquired functional
also means that people react differently in different behaviors
situations, depending on their evaluation of the situation - Systematic desensitization – technique aimed at
diminishing phobias through relaxation
Disengagement of internal control – means that people are
capable of separating themselves from the negative Concept of Humanity
consequences of their behavior - Bandura sees humans as being relatively fluid and
flexible
Learning
- People learn through observing others and by
attending to the consequences of their own actions 3. Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning
- People can learn in the absence of reinforcement Theory
and even of a response - Julian Rotter and Walter Mischel believe that
Observational Learning cognitive factors determine how people will react to
- Modeling is the heart of observational learning, environmental forces
which involves adding or subtracting from observed - Our expectations of future events are major
behaviors determinants of performance
Processes that govern observational learning:
(1) Attention—noticing what a model does Rotter’s Social Learning Theory
(2) Representation—symbolically representing new - Human behavior is based largely on the interaction
response patterns in memory of people with their meaningful environments
(3) Behavior production—producing the behavior that - Empirical law of affect assumes that people choose a
one observes course of action that advances them toward an
(4) Motivation—the observer must be motivated to anticipated goal
perform the observed behavior
Enactive Learning Predicting Specific Behaviors
- All behavior is followed by some consequence, but (1) Behavior potential – possibility that a particular
that consequence reinforces the behavior depends response will occur at a given time and place in
on the person’s cognitive evaluation of the situation relation to its likely reinforcement
(2) Expectancy – confidence that a particular
Dysfunctional behavior reinforcement will follow a specific behavior in a
- Learned through the interaction of the person, the specific situation/s
environment and behavioral factors (3) Reinforcement value – person’s preference for any
Depression particular reinforcement over other reinforcements
- People who develop depressive reactions often: if all are equally likely to occur
(1) Underestimate their successes and overestimate (4) Psychological situation – part of the external and
their failures internal world to which a person is responding
(2) Set personal standards too high *behavior is a function of the interaction of people
(3) Treat themselves badly for their faults with their meaningful environment
Phobias
- Phobias are learned by Basic Prediction Formula
(1) Direct contact - The potential for a behavior to occur in a particular
(2) Inappropriate generalization situation in relation to a given reinforcement is a
(3) Observational experiences function of people’s expectancy that the behavior
will be followed by that reinforcement in that
Therapy situation
Predicting General Behaviors - Any persistent behavior that fails to move a person
- Basic prediction is too specific to give clues about closer to a desired goal
how a person will generally behave - Usually the result of unrealistically high goals in
combination with low ability to achieve them
Generalized Expectancies
- Their expectations based on similar past experiences Psychotherapy
that a given behavior will be reinforced - To achieve harmony between a client’s freedom of
- Include people’s needs movement and need value
- Therapist:
Needs (1) Change the importance of the client’s goals
- Refer to functionally related categories of behaviors (2) Eliminate their unrealistically low expectancies
(1) Recognition-status – need to excel, to achieve and to for success
have others recognize one’s worth
(2) Dominance – need to control the behavior of others, Changing goals
to be in charge - Maladaptive behaviors follow from 3 categories of
(3) Independence – need to be free from the inappropriate goals:
domination of others (1) Conflict between goals
(4) Protection-dependency – need to have others take (2) Destructive goals
care of us and to protect us from harm (3) Unrealistically lofty goals
(5) Love and affection – needs to be warmly accepted
by others and to be held in friendly regard Mischel’s Cognitive-Affective Personality System
(6) Physical comfort – includes those behaviors aimed at - Cognitive factors (expectancies, subjective
securing food, good health, and physical security perceptions, values, goals, and personal standards)
3 need components: are important in shaping personality
(1) Need potential – possible occurrences of a set of - Behavior is also a function of relatively stable
functionally related behaviors directed toward the personal dispositions and cognitive-affective
satisfaction of similar goals processes interacting with a particular situation
(2) Freedom of movement – person’s overall
expectation of being reinforced for performing those Consistency Paradox
behaviors that are directed toward satisfying some - Refers to the observation that, although both lay-
general need people and professionals tend to believe that
(3) Need value – extent to which people prefer one set behavior is quite consistent, research suggests that it
of reinforcements to another is not
- Some traits are consistent over time, but he
General Prediction Formula contends that there is little evidence to suggest that
- States that the need potential is a function of they are consistent from one another
freedom of movement and need value
- Rotter’s 2 most famous scales for measuring Persuasion-Situation Interaction
generalized expectancies are - Behavior is best predicted from an understanding of
(1) Internal-External Control Scale the person, situation and the interaction between
- locus of control scale person and situation
- attempts to measure the degree to which - Behavior is the result of people’s perceptions of
people perceive a causal relationship themselves in a particular situation
between their own efforts and
environmental consequences Cognitive-Affective Personality System
(2) Interpersonal Trust Scale - Inconsistent behaviors reflect stable patterns of
- Measures the extent to which a person variation within a person
expects the word or promise of another
person to be true Behavior Prediction
- If personality is a stable system that processes
Maladaptive Behavior information about the situation, then individuals
 encountering different situations should behave
differently as situations vary Factor Analysis
- Even though people’s behavior may reflect some - Mathematical procedure for reducing a large
stability over time, it tends to vary as situations vary number of scores to a few more general variables or
factors
Situation Variables - Factor loadings – correlations of the original, specific
- Include all those stimuli that people attend to in a scores with the factors
given situation - Traits are generated through factor analysis may be
either
Cognitive-Affective Units (1) Unipolar—scaled from zero to some large
- Include all those psychological, social, and amount
physiological aspects of people that permit them to (2) Bipolar—have 2 opposing poles, such as
interact with their environment with some stability introversion and extraversion
in their behavior - For factors to have psychological meaning, the
(1) Encoding strategies analyst must rotate the axes on which the scores are
- People’s individualized manner of plotted
categorizing information they receive from - Eysenck used orthogonal roation
external stimuli - Cattell favored on oblique rotation, which
(2) Competencies and self-regulatory strategies ordinarily results in more traits than the
- Intelligence is one of the most important orthogonal method
competencies, which is responsible for the
apparent consistency of other traits Cattell’s Trait Theory
- Self-regulatory strategies is used to control - Cattell used an inductive approach to identify traits;
own behavior through self-formulated goals he began with a large body of data that he collected
and self-produced consequences with no preconceived hypothesis or theory
(3) Expectancies and beliefs
- People’s guesses about the consequences P Technique
of each of the different behavioral - Correlational procedure that uses measures
possibilities collected from one person on many different
(4) Goals and values occasions and is his attempt to measure individual
- Tend to render behavior fairly consistent or unique traits
(5) Affective responses dR (differential R) technique
- Includes emotions, feelings and the affects - Correlates the scores of a large number of people on
that accompany physiological reactions many variables obtained at two different occasions
Note: by combining the 2 techniques, Cattell has measured
Concept of Humanity both states (temporary conditions within an individual) and
- Rotter and Mischel see people as goal-directed, traits (relatively permanent dispositions of an individual)
cognitive animals whose perceptions of events are
more crucial than the events themselves Media of Observation
(1) L data—person’s life record that comes from
observations made by others
DISPOSITIONAL THEORIES (2) Q data—based on questionnaires
1. Cattel and Eysenck: Trait and Factor Theories (3) T data—information obtained from objective tests

Factor Analytic Theory Source Traits

- Both Raymond Cattel and Hans Eysenck have each - Underlying factor/s responsible for the
used factor analysis to identify traits (relatively intercorrelation among surface traits
permanent dispositions of people) - Can be distinguished from trait indicators, or surface
- Cattel has identified a large number of personality traits
traits
- Eysenck has extracted only 3 general factors Personality Traits
 - Include both common traits (shared by many depends on prior learning, suggesting that
people) and unique traits (peculiar to one individual) intelligence is due more to heredity than to
- Can also be classified into temperament, motivation environment
(dynamic), and ability
Eysenck’s Factor Theory
Temperament Traits (1) Eysenck was more likely to theorize before collecting
- Concerned with how a person behaves and factor analyzing data
- Of the 35 primary or first-order traits Cattell (2) Extracted fewer factors
has identified: Intelligence is basically a (3) Used a wider variety of approaches to gather data
temperament trait
- Of the 23 normal traits, 15 were obtained Measuring Personality
through Q media and compose Cattell’s - Genetic factors are more important
16PF - Personal traits could be measured by standardized
- The additional 7 factors that make up the personality inventories
23 normal traits were originally identified
only through L data Criteria for Identifying Factors
- Pathological people also have 23 normal Personality factors must:
traits but they have an extra 12 abnormal (1) Be based on strong psychometric evidence
traits; a person’s pathology may simply be (2) Must possess heritability and fit an acceptable
due to a normal trait that is carried to an genetic model
extreme (3) Make sense theoretically
(4) Possess social relevance
Second-Order Traits
- 8 second-order traits Hierarchy of Measures
- Two strongest of these 8: (1) Specific acts of cognitions
extraversion/introversion and anxiety (2) Habitual acts or cognitions
(3) Traits, or personal dispositions
Dynamic Traits (4) Types or superfactors
- Motivational traits, which include
(1) Attitude—refer to a specific course of actions, or Dimensions of Personality
desire to act, in response to a given situation What are the Major Personality Factors?
(2) Ergs—innate drives or motives, such as sex, (1) Extraversion/Introversion
hunger, loneliness, pity, fear, curiosity, pride, - Extroverts: characterized by sociability,
sensuousness, anger, and greed that humans impulsiveness, etc
share with other primates - Introverts: quiet, passive, careful, etc
(3) Sems—learned or acquired dynamic traits that (2) Neuroticism/Stability
can satisfy several ergs at the same time - Neurotic traits include anxiety, hysteria and
- Self –sentiment is the most important sem obsessive compulsive disorders
in that it integrates the other sems - Both normal and abnormal individuals may score
Dynamic Lattice high on the neuroticism scale of Eysenck
- Complex network of attitudes, ergs, and (3) Psychoticism/Superego
sems underlying a person’s motivational - People who are high on psychoticism scale are
structure egocentric, cold, nonconforming, aggressive,
impulsive, antisocial, etc
Genetic Basis of Traits
Heritability Measuring Superfactors
- an estimate of the extent to which the variance of a (1) Eysenck Personality Inventory – which measures
given trait is due to heredity only E and N
- Cattell has found relatively high heritability values (2) Eysenck Personality Questionnaire—which also
for both fluid intelligence (ability to adapt to new measures P
material) and crystallized intelligence (which
Concept of Humanity - refer to the manner in which an individual
- Cattell and Eysenck believe that human personality behaves and which guide rather than
is largely the product of genetics and not the initiate action
environment (2) Prorpium
- Refers to all those behaviors and
characteristics that people regard as warm
2. Allport: Psychology of the Individual and central in their lives
- Emphasized the uniqueness of each individual - Proprium suggests the core of one’s
- Eclectic in the approach and accepted many of the personhood (instead of using the words self
ideas of other theorists or ego)

Allport’s Approach to Personality Motivation

- Psychologically healthy humans are motivated by - Must consider the notion that motives change as
present, mostly conscious drives people mature and also that people are motivated
- People are capable of proactive behavior—they can by present drives and wants
consciously behave in new and creative ways that
foster their own change and growth Reactive and Proactive Theories of Motivation
- “Individual morphogenic” study which contrasted - People not only react to the environment, but they
the traditional methods also shape their environment and cause it to react to
them
Personality - People often seek additional tension
- “the dynamic organization within the individual of Functional Autonomy
those psychophysical systems that determine his - Holds that some human motives are functionally
characteristic behavior and thought” independent from the original motive responsible
for a particular behavior
Structure of Personality 2 levels of FA:
- Basic units of personality are: (1) Perseverative functional autonomy
(1) Personal dispositions - Tendency of certain basic
- Peculiar to the individual behaviors (such as addictive
- 3 overlapping levels of personal behaviors) to continue in the
dispositions: absence of reinforcement
(i) cardinal dispositions (2) Propriate functional autonomy
- most general; so obvious and dominating - Refers to self-sustaining motives
that they cannot be hidden from other people (such as interests) that are related
- not everyone has a cardinal disposition to proprium
(ii) central dispositions
– all people have 5 to 10 central The Psychologically Healthy Personality
dispositions - People are motivated by both the need to adjust to
-characteristics around which their lives their environment and to grow toward psychological
revolve health: people are both reactive and proactive
(iii) secondary dispositions - 6 criteria for psychological health:
- everyone has a great number of secondary (1) Extension of the sense of self
dispositions (2) Warm relationships with others
-less reliable and less conspicuous than (3) Emotional security or self-acceptance
central traits (4) Realistic view of the world
- Divisions of personal dispositions: (5) Insight and humor
(i) motivational dispositions (6) Unifying philosophy of life
- strong enough to initiate action
(ii) stylistic dispositions The Study of the Individual
Morphogenic Science
 - Traditional psychology relies on nomothetic science - Because people have different experiences,
– seeks general laws from a study of groups of they can construe the same event in
people different ways
- Allport used idiographic or morphogenic procedures (3) Organization
that study the single case/individuals - Assumes that people organize their
personal constructs in a hierarchical
Religious Orientation Scale systems, with some constructs in a
- Assesses both an intrinsic orientation and extrinsic superordinate position and subordinate to
orientation toward religion them
(4) Dichotomy
Concept of Humanity - Assumes that people construe events in an
- Allport saw people as thinking, proactive, purposeful either/or manner (ex good or bad)
beings who are generally aware of what they are (5) Choice
doing and why - People tend to choose the alternative in a
dichotomized construct that they see as
extending the range of their future choices
HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL THEORIES (6) Range
1. Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs - Constructs are limited to a particular range
- Metatheory – theory about theories of convenience; they are not relevant to all
- Holds that people anticipate events by the meanings situations
or interpretations that they place on those events (7) Experience
(these interpretations are called personal constructs) - People continually revise their personal
- Constructive alternativism – philosophical position; constructs as the results of their
assumes that alternative interpretations are always experiences
available to people (8) Modulation
- Only permeable constructs lead to change;
Kelly’s Philosophical Position concrete constructs resist modification
- People construe events according to their personal through experience
constructs rather than reality (9) Fragmentation
- People’s behavior can be inconsistent
Constructive Alternativism because their construct systems can readily
- All our interpretations of the world are subject to admit incompatible elements
revision or replacement (10) Commonality
- Personal constructs tend to be similar to
Personal Constructs the construction systems of other people to
- People look at their world through templates that the extent that we share experiences with
they create and then attempt to fit over the realities them
of the world (11) Sociality
- Templates or transparent patterns, which shapes - People are able to communicate with other
behavior people because they can construe those
people’s constructions
Basic Postulate - ROLE – refers to a pattern of behavior that
- Assumes that human behavior is shaped by the way stems from people’s understanding of the
people anticipate future construct of others
Supporting Corollaries - Core role gives us a sense of
(1) Construction identity
- We construe similar events as if they were - Peripheral roles are less central to
the same our self-concept
(2) Individuality
4 common elements in most human disturbances
 (1) Threat – perception that one’s basic constructs may 2 subsystems of the self:
be drastically changed (1) Self-concept
(2) Fear – which requires an incidental rather than a - Includes all those aspects of one’s identity
comprehensive restructuring of one’s construct that are perceived in awareness
system - Tends to resist change
(3) Anxiety – recognition that one cannot adequately (2) Ideal self
deal with a new situation - View of our self as we would like to be or
(4) Guilt – defined as “the sense of having lost one’s aspire to be
core role structure”
3 levels of awareness
Psychotherapy (1) Symbolized below the threshold of awareness and
- Clients should set their own goals for therapy are either ignored or denied
- Fixed-role therapy – clients act out a predetermined (2) Distorted or reshaped to fit it into an existing self-
role for several weeks concept
(3) Consistent with the self-concept and thus are
Rep Test (Role Construct Repertory Test) accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the
- Discover in which clients construe significant people self-structure
in their lives
(1) Predicting adherence to a physical activity 2 basic human needs
program (1) Maintenance
(2) Detecting differences between the real self and - Include those for food, air, and safety but
the ideal self they also include our tendency to resist
(3) Measuring neuroticism change and to maintain our self-concept as
it is
Concept of Humanity (2) Enhancement
- People as anticipating the future and living their lives - Needs to grow and to realize one’s full
in accordance with those anticipations human potential
- ELABORATIVE CHOICE—suggests that people Positive regard—to be loved or accepted
increase their range of future choices by the present Need for self-regard – they acquire only after they perceive
choices they freely make that someone else cares for them and values them

Conditions of Worth – they feel that they are loved and

2. Rogers: Person Centered Theory accepted only when and if they meet the conditions set by
- Carl Rogers is best known as the founder or client- others
centered therapy
Psychological Stagnation
Basic Assumptions of Person-Centered Theory: *When the organismic self and the self-concept are at
(1) Formative tendency variance with one another, a person may experience
- States that all matter, both organic and incongruence—includes vulnerability, threat, defensiveness,
inorganic, tends to evolve from simpler to disorganization
more complex forms * To prevent incongruence, people react with defensiveness,
(2) Actualizing tendency typically in the forms of distortion and denial
- Suggests that all living things, including Distortion -- people misinterpret an experience that it
humans, tend to move toward completion, fits into their self-concept
or fulfillment of potentials Denial – people refuse to allow the experience into
awareness
Self-actualization
- Subsystem of the actualization tendency Psychotherapy
- Refers to the tendency to actualize the self as - A vulnerable client must have contact of some
perceived in awareness duration with a counselor who is congruent, and
 demonstrates unconditional positive regard and (4) Empathy
listens with empathy to a client and vice versa
Conditions – necessary and sufficient conditions for Concept of Humanity
therapeutic growth - Humans have the capacity to change and grow-
(1) Counselor congruence provided that certain necessary and sufficient
- Therapist whose organismic experiences are conditions are present
matched by an awareness and by the ability
and willingness to openly express these 3. Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory
feelings - Holds that people are continually motivated by one
- More basic because this is a relatively stable or more needs
characteristic - People can reach a level of psychological health
(2) Unconditional positive regard called self-actualization
- Exists when the therapist accept the client
without conditions or qualifications Maslow’s View of Motivation
(3) Empathic listening (1) Whole organism is motivated at any one time
- Therapist’s ability to sense the feelings of a (2) Motivation is complex and unconscious motives
client and also to communicate these often underlie behavior
perceptions so that the client knows that (3) People are continually motivated by one need or
another person has entered into his/her another
world of feelings without prejudice, (4) People in different cultures are all motivated by the
projection or evaluation same basic needs
(5) Needs can be arranged on a hierarchy
Process of therapeutic change:
(1) clients are unwilling to communicate anything about Hierarchy of Needs
themselves - Lower level needs have prepotency over higher level
(2) They discuss only external events and other people needs – they must be satisfied before higher needs
(3) They begin to talk about themselves but as an object become motivators
(4) They discuss strong emotions that they have felt in (1) Physiological needs
the past - Oxygen, water, food
(5) They begin to express present feelings (2) Safety needs
(6) They freely allow into awareness those experiences - Physical security, stability, dependency,
that were previously denied/distorted protection
(7) They experience irreversible change and growth (3) Love and belongingness
- Desire for friendship, wish for a mate, need
Fully functioning person to belong
- Psychologically healthy person (4) Esteem needs
- “person of tomorrow” - Satisfaction of love needs and which include
- Characteristics: self-confidence and the recognition that
(1) Able to adjust to change one has a positive reputation
(2) Open to experience (5) Self-actualization
(3) Able to live fully in the moment - Satisfied only by the psychologically
(4) Able to have harmonious relations with others healthiest people
(5) More integrated with no artificial boundaries
between conscious and unconscious processes NOTE: Unlike other needs that automatically are activated
(6) Has a basic trust of human nature when lower needs are met, self-actualization needs do not
(7) Enjoys greater richness in life inevitably follow the satisfaction of esteem needs
NOTE: only by embracing such B-values such as truth, beauty,
Barnett-Lennard Relationship Inventory oneness and justice can people achieve self-actualization
(1) Level of regard NOTE: the five needs on Maslow’s hierarchy are CONATIVE
(2) Unconditionality of regard NEEDS
(3) Congruence
Other needs are: (5) Need for privacy
(1) Aesthetic needs - Detachment that allows SA-ing people to be alone
- Include a desire for beauty and order without being lonely
(2) Cognitive needs (6) Autonomy
- Include the desire to know, to understand, - They no longer are dependent on other people for
and to be curious their self-esteem
- Knowledge is a prerequisite for each of the (7) Continued freshness of appreciation
5 conative needs - And the ability to view everyday things with a fresh
(3) Neurotic needs vision and appreciation
- Lead to pathology regardless of whether (8) Frequent reports of peak experiences
they are satisfied or not - Mystical experiences that give a person a sense of
- Include such motives as a desire to transcendence and feelings of aw, wander, etc
dominate, inflict pain, or to subject oneself (9) Gemeinschaftsgefuhl
to the will of another person - Social interest or a deep feeling of oneness with all
- These are non-productive and do not foster humanity
health (10) Profound interpersonal relations
NOTES: - But with no desperate need to have a multitude of
- In certain rare cases, the order of needs might be friends
reversed (11) Democratic character structure
- Much of our surface behavior is actually motivated - Ability to disregard superficial differences between
by more basic and often unconscious needs people
- Expressive behavior has no aim or goal but is merely (12) Discrimination between means and ends
a person’s mode of expression - Meaning that SA-ing people have a clear sense of
- Coping behaviors deal with a person’s attempt to right and wrong, and they experience little conflict
cope with the environment about basic values
- Instinctoid needs are innately determined even (13) Philosophical sense of humor that is spontaneous,
though they can be modified by learning unplanned, and intrinsic to the situation
- Higher 3 level needs are later on the evolutionary (14) Creativeness
scale than lower level needs and that they produce - With a keen perception of truth, beauty and reality
more genuine happiness and more peak experiences (15) Resistance to enculturation
- Ability to set personal standards and to resis the
Self-Actualization mold set by culture
- They are metamotivated by B-values such as truth,
beauty, goodness, justice and simplicity Metapathology
- Criteria to be met before a person achieves self- - People’s inability to reach self-actualization is called
actualization: metapathology
(1) Absence of psychopathology - Defined as an absence of values, a lack of fulfillment
(2) Satisfaction of each of the 4 lower level needs and a loss of meaning in life
(3) Acceptance of the B-values
(4) Full realization of one’s potentials for growth D-love – deficiency love
B-love—love for being or essence of another person;
Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People mutually felt and shared and not based on deficiencies within
(1) More efficient perception of reality the lovers
- Often have an ability to detect phoniness in other
and they are not fooled by sham Note: SA-ing people are capable of B-love because they can
(2) Acceptance of self, others and nature love without expecting something in return
(3) Spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness
- No need to appear complex or sophisticated Everret Shostrom’s Personal Orientation Inventory
(4) Problem-centered - Most widely used scale in measuring self-
- Ability to view age-old problems from a solid actualization
philosophical position
 - 150-item forced-choice inventory that assesses a - People are aware that they are living beings and also
variety of self-actualization facets nonbeing (or nothingness)
- Death—most obvious form of nonbeing, which can
The Jonah Complex also be experienced as retreat from life’s
- Fear of being or doing one’s best, a condition that all experiences
of us have to some extent
People experience anxiety when they become aware that
Psychotherapy their existence or something identified with it might be
- Much of therapy should involve a productive human destroyed.
relationship and that the job of a therapist is to help
clients satisfy love and belongingness needs Normal anxiety – proportionate to the threat, does not
involve repression and can be handled on a conscious level
Concept of Humanity
- People are structure in such a way that their Neurotic anxiety
activated needs are exactly what they want most - reaction that is disproportionate to the threat and
- People are capable of great evil and destruction that leads to repression and defensive behaviors
- Humans are becoming more and more fully human - felt whenever one’s values are transformed into
and motivated by higher level needs dogma

Guilt
4. May: Existential Psychology - arises whenever people deny their potentialities, fail
- Modern people frequently run away both from to accurately perceive the needs of others, or remain
making choices and from assuming responsibility blind to their dependence on the natural world

Background of Existentialism Both anxiety and guilt are ontological – refer to the
- Soren Kierkegaard nature of being and not to feelings arising from specific
- founder of modern existentialism situations
- emphasized balance between freedom and
responsibility Intentionality
- people acquire freedom of action by - structure that gives meaning to experience and
expanding their self-awareness and by allows people to make decisions about the future
assuming responsibility of their actions - permits people to overcome dichotomy between
Existentialism subject and object
- 1st tenet of existentialism: existence take precedence
over essence, meaning that process and growth are Care
more important than product and stagnation - active process that suggests that things matter
- 2nd tenet: existentialists oppose the artificial split
between subject and object Love
- 3rd: They stress people’s search for meaning in their - means to care, to delight in the presence of another
lives person, and to affirm that person’s value as much as
- 4th: they insist that each of us is responsible for who one’s own
we are and what we will become
- 5th:believeing that theories tend to objectify people Will
- care is important in will
Basic concepts: - conscious commitment to action
Dasein
- Basic unity between people and their environments 4 kinds of love:
- Being-in-the-world (1) sex
- UMWELT: environment around us (natural world) - natural biological function
- MITWELT: our world with other people (from others) (2) Eros
- EIGENWELT: relationship with our self
 - Psychological desire that seeks an enduring Existential anxiety
union with a loved one - An apprehension of threats to one’s existence
- May include sex, but it is built on care and
tenderness Concept of Humanity
(3) Philia - People as complex beings, capable of both
- Intimate nonsexual friendship between two tremendous good and immense evil
people - People have become alienated from the world, from
- takes time to develop and does not depend other people, and most of all, from themselves
on the actions of the other person
(4) Agape
- Altruistic or spiritual love that carries with it Sikolohiyang Pilipino
the risk of playing God
- Undeserved and unconditional - Refers to the psychology born out of the experience,
thought, and orientation of the Filipinos, based on
Freedom the full use of Filipino culture and language
- Comes from an understanding of our destiny - Based on assessing historical and socio-cultural
- We’re free when we recognize that death is a realities, understanding the local language,
possibility of any moment and when we are willing unraveling Filipino characteristics, and explaining
to experience changes, even in the face of not them through the eyes of the native Filipino
knowing what those changes will bring
Forms: Indigenization from within
(1) Freedom of doing - Theoretical framework and methodology emerge
- Freedom of action from the experiences of the people from the
- Existential freedom indigenous culture
(2) Freedom of being
- Inner freedom The beginnings of Sikolohiyang Pilipino
- Essential freedom - Jose Rizal and Apolinario Mabini expressed
dissatisfaction at the pejorative interpretations of
Destiny Filipino behavior by Western observers
- The design of the universe speaking through the - Early 1970s when Virgilio Gaspar Enriquez
design of each one of us introduced SikoPil
- Includes the limitations of our environment and our - Together with Dr. Alfredo Lagmay, they embarked
personal qualities on a research into the historical and cultural roots of
Philippine Psychology
Oedipus Myth - Identified indigenous concepts and approaches in
- Deals with such common existential crises as birth, Philippine psychology
separation from parents, sexual union with one - Panunukat ng Ugali ng Pagkatao (Measure of
parent and hostility toward the other, etc. Character and Personality) was produced in 1975

Psychopathology What is Sikolohiyang Pilipino?

- Apathy and emptiness are the chief existential - Anchored on Filipino thought and experience as
disorders of our time understood from a Filipino perspective
- Filipino orientation – most important aspect of this
Psychotherapy definition^
- Make the patients more fully human - SikoPil as “the study of diwa” aka psyche – which
- Set people free, to allow them to make choices, and refers to the wealth of ideas referred to by the
to assume responsibility for those choices philosophical concept of ‘essence’ and an entire
range of psychological concepts from awareness to
Terror Management motives to behaviors
- Based on the notion of existential anxiety - Ultimate aim of SikoPil is to contribute to universal
psychology, which can be realized only if each group
 of people is adequately understood by themselves
and from their own perspective

Indigenization from within

- Looking for the indigenous psychology from within
the culture itself not just clothing a foreign body
with a local dress
- Cultural revalidation is a better term

The principal emphasis of SikoPil is to foster national identity

and consciousness, social involvement, and psychology of
language and culture

Virgilio Enriquez: Pioneer of SikoPil

- Trained by his father to speak fluently in Filipino
- Born in Bulacan
- Taught at UP
- Earned his PhD from Northwestern University at
Evanston, Illinois
- Established the Philippine Psychology Research
House (PRRH) which later became the Philippine
Psychology Research and Training House (PRRTH)