Soil Mechanics Material by SKY

7. Seepage through soils

7.1 Introduction
'Seepage' is defined as the flow of a fluid, usually water, through a soil under a hydraulic
gradient. A hydraulic gradient is supposed to exist between two points if there exists a difference
in the ' hydraulic head ' at the two points. By hydraulic head is meant the sum of the position or
datum head and pressure head of water. The discussion on flow nets and seepage relates to the
practicql aspect of controlling groundwater during and after construction of foundations below
the groundwater table, earth dam and weirs on permeable foundations.

The interaction between soils and percolating water has an important influence on:
1 . The design of foundations and earth slopes,
2. The quantity of water that will be lost by percolation through a dam or its subsoil.

Foundation failures due to 'piping' are quite common. Piping is a phenomenon by which the soil
on the downstream sides of some hydraulic structures get lifted up due to excess pressure of
water. The pressure that is exerted on the soil due to the seepage of water is called the seepage
force or pressure. In the stability of slopes, the seepage force is a very important factor. Shear
strengths of soils are reduced due to the development of neutral stress or pore pressures. A
detailed understanding of the hydraulic conditions is therefore essential for a satisfactory design
of structures.

7.2 Two dimensional flow- Laplace equation

• In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in one direction only, nor is it uniform
over the entire area perpendicular to the flow. In such cases, the groundwater flow is generally
calculated by the use of graphs referred to as flow nets. The concept of the flow net is based on
Laplace's equation of continuity, which governs the steady flow condition for a given point in
the soil mass.

Laplace's Equation of Continuity

To derive the Laplace differential equation of continuity, let us consider a single row of sheet
piles that have been driven into a permeable soil layer, as shown in Figure a. The row of sheet
piles is assumed to be impervious. The steady state flow of water from the upstream to the
downstream side through the permeable layer is a two-dimensional flow.

For flow at a point A, we consider an elemental soil block. The block has dimensions dx, dy, and
dz (length dy is perpendicular to the plane of the paper); it is shown in an enlarged scale in
Figure b. Let Vx and v2 be the components of the discharge velocity in the horizontal and vertical
directions, respectively.

The rate of flow of water into the elemental block in the horizontal direction is equal to Vx dz dy,
and in the vertical direction it is v2 dx dy. The rates of outflow from the block in the horizontal
and ve1iical directions are, respectively,

For reference only (Make your own notes) 1

Soil Mechanics Material by SKY

av.
(v, + ;]~' ti::) d.1 d"
., • ···· Sh,·et pik

T
111
J_
., J_n J_
ft
t
J_
lf,
cir
/ O?-i
I
i
T
/ !
-*---------- --- - ----
-r-
·11.cd::.t!r ___.
I
I
L---------~ (v, +
.
rn;
~:/ <h) d.:. dr
"~
+- - ----- - - ---------

\ l mpcrmenblc l~ycn
I
I
I
I
I
(
J_/,/,/ l
_
I I
-+: d,l :+ 1' + - - d.> - 11
v~ dr dr·
01 (~
Figt1re ra) Sing le-row sheet piles driYcn into P<~rmeable layer: (b) flow at A

( Vx + dVr
(); dx ) dz d y
and
av. )
( V z + az' dz dx dy
Assuming that water is incompressible and that no volume change in the soil mass occurs, we
know that the total rate of inflow should equal the total rate of outflow. Thus, "

[ ( Vx + a;r oz, dJ ) dx dy J - [vx dz dy + Vz dx dy)

av dx ) dz dy + ( Vz + av7 =0 ...

avx avz
or ---- + ---- =0
ax az
With Darcy's law, the discharge velocities can be expressed as
ah
Vx = k .,/,x = kx-;-
vX
and
ah
Vz = k.i, = k, -
" ' < oz
where kx and kz are the hydraulic conductivities m the horizontal and vertical directions,
respectively.
Thus, we can write a1h a1h
kx-2 + k , - 2 = 0
ax az
If the soil is isotropic with respect to the hydraulic conductivity-that is, kx= kz-the preceding
continuity equation for two-dimensional flow simplifies to
..
a2h <:Ph
-+-=O
ax2 iJz 2 ,'\

The above equation is the Laplace Equation for homogeneous soil. It says that the change of
gradient in the x-direction plus the change of gradient in the z-direction is zero. The solution of
this equation gives a family of curves meeting at right angles to each other. One family of these
curves represents flow lines and the other equipotential lines.

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 Soil Mechanics Material by SKY

7.3 Flow nets

A flow net for an isometric medium is a network of flow lines and equipotential lines
intersecting at right angles to each other. The path which a particle of water follows in its course
of seepage through a saturated soil mass is called a flow line.

Equipotential lines are lines that intersect the flow lines at right angles. At all points along an
equipotential line, the water would rise in piezometric tubes to the same elevation known as the
piezometric head.
A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines is called a flow net.
The properties of a flow net can be expressed as given below:
1. Flow and equipotential lines are smooth curves.
2. Flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other.
3. No two :flow lines cross each other.
4. No two flow or equipotential lines start from the same point.
There are many methods that are in use for the construction of flow nets. Some of the important
methods are
1. Analytical method,
2. Electrical analog method,
3. Scaled model method,
4. Graphical method.

The analytical method, based on the Laplace equation although rigorously precise, is not
universally applicable in all cases because of the complexity of the problem involved. The
mathematics involved even in some elementary cases is beyond the comprehension of many
design engineers. Although this approach is sometimes useful in the checking of other methods,
it is largely of academic interest.

The electrical analogy method has been extensively made use of in many important design
problems. However, in most of the cases in the field of soil mechanics where the estimation of
seepage flows and pressures are generally required, a more simple method such as the graphical
method is preferred.

Scaled models are very useful to solve seepage flow problems. Soil models can be constructed to
depict flow of water below concrete dams or through earth dams. These models are very useful
to demonstrate the fundamentals of fluid flow, but their use in other respects is limited because
of the large amount of time and effort required to construct such models.

The graphical method developed by Forchheimer (1930) has been found to be very useful in
solving complicated flow problems. A. Casagrande (1937) improved this method by
.! incorporating many suggestions. The main drawback of this method is that a good deal of
practice and aptitude are essential to produce a satisfactory flow net. In spite of these drawbacks,
the graphical method is quite popular among engineers.

Flow Net Construction

Flow nets are constructed in such a way as to keep the ratio of the sides of each block bounded
by two flow lines and two equipotential lines a constant. If all the sides of one such block are

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So il Mechanics Material by SKY

equal, then the flow net must consist of squares. The square block referred to here does not
constitute a square according to the strict meaning of the word ; it only means that the average
width of the square blocks are equal.

The area bounded by any two neighboring flow lines is called a flow channel. If the flow net is
constructed in such a way that the ratio of width of square blocks (alb) remains the same for all
blocks, then it can be shown that there is the same quantity of seepage in each flow channel.

Guidelines for drawing flow nets

• Draw to a convenient scale the cross sections of the structure, water elevations, and soil
deposit profiles.
• Establish boundary conditions that is, Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries.
The soil and impermeable boundary interfaces are flow lines. The soil and permeable
boundary interfaces are equipotential lines.
• Draw one or two flow lines and equipotential lines near the boundaries. Sketch
intermediate flow lines and equipotential lines by smooth curves adhering to right-angle
intersections such that area between a pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential lines is
approximately a curvilinear square grid.
• Where flow direction is a straight line, flow lines are equal distance apart and parallel.
Also, the flownet in confined areas between parallel boundaries usually consists of flow
lines and equipotential lines that are elliptical in shape and symmetrical.
• Try to avoid making sharp transition between straight and curved sections of flow and
equipotential lines. Transitions must be gradual and smooth. Continue sketching until a
problem develops. ..
• Successive trials will result in a reasonably consistent flow net. In most cases, 3 to 8 flow
lines are usually sufficient. Depending on the number of flow lines selected, the number
of equipotential lines will automatically be fixed by geometry and grid layout
Piezometer
, ........ tube--, 1 - - - - - - - 1

-T
4.50m hp "" 3.33m

-i- ·-- 0.50m

t Datum
.....,.,.
2

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 Soil Mechanics Mate rial by SKY

7.4 Unconfined flow

Determination of seepage discharge from a flow net
If H is the net hydraulic head of flow, the quantity of seepage due to flow may be
estimated by drawing flow net part of which is shown in Figure. With reference to Figure
following terms may be defined in order to estimate quantity of seepage.

Ah= Equipotential drop

_ ........, ........
, _,_ I

-:'
li.h = Equipotential drop

Flow channel (li.q)

Flow lines
fStrt'am lincsJ

Figure : Flow net and its diaractcristks

Nd= Number of equipotential drops, that is, number of squares between two adjacent
N1 = Number of flow channels that is, number of squares between two adjacent equipotential
lines from one boundary streamline to the other boundary streamline
tiq =flow through one flow channel (between two adjacent streamlines)
tih = head loss between two adjacent equipotential lines

Consider a flow grid of dimension ax b (circled), where

b= Lil = distance between equipotential lines
a= A= area across flow channel
c:
Head loss 1or .
every potential drop: L.lAh = -H an d /=
. -Ah = -Ah
Nd Al b
. H
So, l = - ,
bNd
Flow per channel as per Darcy's law,
H
!iq=vi=kiA=k-a
bNd
Total flow per unit width across each flow channel is

q = kH (Nt) (~)
~
Nd b
If a=b, then

q = kH (;.)

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Soil Mechan ics Material by SKY

Determination of Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure in the flow area can be analyzed by means of flow net. In the below figure
the equipotential lines are numbered in increasing order from downstream to upstream from 0
for the downstream line( taken as datum). The head loss between 2 adjacent equipotential lies is
L'.h, while the total head loss is H.
~11

Since, L'.h is constant for every two

adjacent equipotential lines, then,
~ll
_j_
~II
_j_
H 1-
- hpA
H
Lih=- -11eA
Nd Q
Using the numbers assigned to the
equipotential lines, the total head
for each equipotential line can be
-
calculated as:
h = nd H Equipotential lines J;-
Nd
where,
Figure : Flow net and its characteristics
nd = the number of the
corresponding equipotential line
1
In the figure, at point A, nd=l and Nd=3, the total head at A will be, hA =-H
3
lJ.
The pressure head at A: hp A = hA - (-heA)
The hydrostatic pressure at A is : uA = hpA. Yw

I~ L ----
Determination of uplift pressure
y

The uplift pressure at point a in r=-

! T I ·. . . . ..... '· .• '
thefiguremaybeexpressedas
Ua = h aYw = (h t + D - Li h) Yw
m _
t
f
n \
± Ib:J/·'-":.>.·
"" . ":':"'\·:·:·.
___'.!__ Dam · ··
· •· ··· ·
··
~:>:: t/ .': ·. c :·,.>:; d',/) -~_.....,.-....-.:::~....-'----
1 1

Similarly, the uplift pressure at H

any other point say e may be
estimated from the expression,
Ue = (he+ D - ndtih)yw Impervious
a b c d e
~

Ue

Ua
..

Uplift-pressure distribution

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 Soil Mechanics Material by SKY

7.5 Seepage in anisotropic soil condition

Laplace' s equation for flow through soil was derived under the assumption that permeability is
the same in all directions. Before stipulating this condition in the derivation, the equation was:
·) ')
/?, • a-h I crh _
+ 1-lz 0
x
()x-
? •
az- 9 -

This may be reduced to the form: 2

h () 2 h
-.)+()
()
=0
~ ()z- h, -:\. 2
- ox
kx

By changing the co-ordinate x to Xr such that , _ Jfz , We get

XT - - . X
hx
a2 h a2 h
-+ -- - 0
2 2
()z dxr -

which is once again the Laplace's equation in Xr and z.

In other words, the profile is to be transformed according to the relationship between x and Xr
and the flow net sketched on the transformed section.

From the transformed section, the rate of seepage can be determined using with exception that ke

rk· T[!J
is to be substituted for k

1+-z.~+1
I
+·
I~ ~ 1 ·
I •

Natural scale Transformed scale

Fig. Flow in anisotropic soil
Discharge through Natural Section:
tih
qN = kx. iN.A = kx.-z-b
Discharge through Transformed Section:
tih
qT = ke. ir.A = ke. b = !ih. ke
LJkz/kx
' In the transformed section the rectangles are of equal sides, hence:
b=l.~kz/kx
Substituting the value of bin equation for qN,
qN = kx. ~kz/kx. !ih
Since qT = qN, therefore, ke = ~kx.kz

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Soil Mechanics Material by SKY

7.6 Seepage through an earth dam on an impervious base

In almost all problems concerning seepage beneath a sheet pile wall or through the foundation of
a concrete dam all boundary conditions are known. However, in the case of seepage through an
earth dam the upper boundary or the uppermost flow line is not known. This upper boundary is a
free water surface and will be referred to as the line of seepage or phreatic line.

The seepage line may therefore be defined as the line above which there is no hydrostatic
pressure and below which there is hydrostatic pressure. Therefore phreatic line is the top flow
:
line which separates saturated and unsaturated zones within the body of the earth dam.

In the design of all earth dams, the following factors are very important.
1. The seepage line should not cut the downstream slope.
2. The seepage loss through the dam should be the minimum possible.

The two important problems that are required to be studied in the design of earth dams are:
1. The prediction of the position of the line of seepage in the cross-section.
2. The computation of the seepage loss.
If the line of seepage is allowed to intersect the downstream face much above the toe, more or
less serious sloughing may take place and ultimate failure may result. This mishap can be
prevented by providing suitable drainage arrangements on the downstream side of the dam.
....
Therefore the problem of computation of the seepage loss through an earth dam
primarily involves prediction of the position of the line of seepage in the cross-section.
lr

Phreatic line (seepage line)

Figure Basic parabola and the phreatic line for a homogeneous earth dam

Z! ~ Directrix
Locating Phreatic Line I
It has been noticed from experiments on homogeneous ~- -1 ----- B
earth dam models that the line of seepage assumes more
or less the shape of a parabola. Also, assuming that \\
\
~----- c
\
hydraulic gradient i is equal to the slope of the free FA= AB '
\
surface and is constant with depth (Dupit' s theory), the \ '!!.

resulting solution of the phreatic surface is parabola. x

E
In some sections a little divergence from a regular
Foe",/!" ...
parabola is required particularly at the surfaces of entry
and discharge of the line of seepage. The properties of l .,
the regular parabola which are essential to obtain f-·-·-··-~---~-~1
phreatic line are depicted in Figure aside. I
Figure: Geometrical properties of regular parabola
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 Soil Mechanics Materia l by SKY

Every point on the parabola is equidistance from focus and directrix,

'
Therefore,
FA= AB
Also,
s
FG =GE= P = 2
Focus= (0,0)
Any point A (x,z) on the parabola is given by,
FA = -J~(x---0-)2- +-(z---0-)2 = AB

AB= (2p + x)
x2 + z2 = (2p + x) 2
Thus,
z2 _ 4p 2
x = 4p

Phreatic line for an earth dam without toe filter

In the case of a homogeneous earth dam resting on an impervious foundation with no drainage
filter, the top flow line ends at some point on the downstream face of the dam; the focus of the
base parabola in this case happens to be the downstream toe of the dam itself as shown in Figure
below:
..
,.,. A 1111
:
\1.
--
fl
rorrt.:ction

11 ti ' " YI

Figure: Phreatic line for an earth dam without toe filter

The following are the steps in the graphical determination of the top flow line for a homogeneous
dam resting on an impervious foundation without filters:
~

1. Draw the earth dam section and upstream water level (H) to some convenient scale. Let
Point-2 is the point on the upstream face coinciding with water level.

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Soi l Mechanics Material by SKY

2. Let .6. be the horizontal distance between point- 2 and upstream heel of the dam. Locate
Point-1 at a distance of 0.3 times .6. from Point-2 on the water surface. That is distance 1-
2 is 0.3.6..

3. Focus of the base parabola is located at the downstream toe of the dam, that is Point-0
(distance 0 - 1 is d). Select x-z reference axis with focus 0 as origin.

4. Directrix of the parabola is at distance 2p from the focus 0, where p is given by,
:
considering from point 1,
p= !_ (Jd 2 + H2 - d)
2
5. By choosing suitable values of z-ordinates (for example; 0.2H, 0.4H, . .. & H) compute
the x-ordinates of the base parabola using the relation,
z2 - 4pz
x=----
4p
6. Join all these points to get base parabola starting from Point-1 and concluding at a point
midway between focus-0 and directrix. This parabola will be correct for the central
portion of the top flow line. Necessary corrections at the entry on the upstream side and
at exist on the downstream side are to be made.

7. Upstream correction: The portion of the top flow line at entry is sketched visually to meet
the boundary condition there that is phreatic line meets perpendicularly with the upstream ""
face, which is a boundary equipotential and the phreatic line is made to meet the base
parabola tangentially at a convenient point. ..:;

8. Downstream correction (Casagrande' s method): The breakout point on the downstream

discharge face may be determined by measuring out L from the toe along the face. If fJ is
the downstream slope angle then L may be may be computed from the following
equations,
9. Finally the quantity of seepage flow through may be compute from the following
equations, For p < 30°, q = kL sinp t,cmp
For 30° < p < 90°, q = kL sill 1 p
Where, k is the coefficient of permeability of the dam material.

d -~ d
2 1
For P<30° L=-- - -H- ·
' cosp cos 2 p sin 1 p'

For30° <P<90°, L=-JH 2 +d 2 -)d 1 -H 1cot 2 p ~

"'
.

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 Soil Mechanics Material by SKY

Seepage :;;...;::_- ;,=...:Seepage

line line
,::

(a) (b)

fJ < 90° 90° <B < 180° 8= 180°

(c) (d) (e)

Phreatic line for an earth dam with toe filter

The following are the steps in the graphical determination of the top flow line for a homogeneous
dam with a toe filter: [Refer to Figures (a), (b), (c) , (d), & (e)]

1. Draw the earth dam section and upstream water level (H) to some convenient scale.
2. Locate Point-B, the point on the upstream slope coinciding with water level.
3. Let L1 be the horizontal distance between point- B and upstream heel of the dam. Locate
Point-A at a distance of 0.3 times L1 from Point-B on the water surface. That is distance
AB is 0.3L1 [Refer to Figure (a)]
4. Select Fas the focus of the parabolic phreatic line, Point-Fis located at the intersection
of the bottom flow line and the downstream toe filter. Let horizontal distance between
points A & Fbe d i.e., AF= d
! 0.3A :
~ .~ ·:·-~-----~-~. ~~ Figure (a)
s: -~·._,.,,,.. B /f
H 'i ~
~ t.ilii!ilil_!L~oe
'
:'
_ A .J''
filter I
I : ... ..
: B Figure(b)

~.
·~ F:
~ d
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So il Mechanics Material by SKY

Z Figurc(c)
0
0

0 . ...,~

.i--~~--~~~~- .:~
Z2

x z, ::

"4-x;-~~-p
... , , ._
.. X4
X3
..

x F; K
;sl

Figure (e)

x
l'igure : Phreatic line for an earth dam with toe filter

5. Locate Point-G on the directrix of the parabola, located a distance 2P from the focal
point, Point-F, that is FG 2P where, [Refer to Figure (b)]
p=.!:(-Jd 2 +H 2 -d)
2 ':.

6. Select base of the dam and directrix as X & Z axes

~

7. By choosing suitable values of z-ordinates (for example; 0.2H, 0.4H ... & H) compute
the x-ordinates of the base parabola using the relation, ~

zZ - 4p2
x=----
4p

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Soil Mechanics Material by SKY

Thus z, , z,, z,, z, ...... are computed for the ordinates x, , x,, x, , x, ...... respectively
[Refer to Figure (c)].

8. Join all such located points to get basic parabola. This parabola meets toe filter
(equipotential line) orthogonally at midpoint of FG that is at a distance p from F (vertex
K of the parabola). Joint points K-0-1-2-3-4-A to get parabola ABK [Refer to Figure (d)].

9. Apply modification to phreatic line at the entry Point-B on the upstream slope which is
an equipotential line. Draw line perpendicular to upstream slope starting from B and
meets the base parabola smoothly and tangentially at a convenient point say, C. Complete
the phreatic line BCK (top flow line) by joining BC erase remaining portion of the base
parabola [Refer to Figure (e)].

10. Finally the quantity of seepage flow through may be compute from the following
equations,
Let the distance between F & G is S
i.e., the distance between focus and directrix, :. S = 2x p
Then the quantity of seepage through unit length of dam is,
q = kS = k x(2x p) = 2kp
Where, k is the coefficient of permeability of the dam material.

7. 7 Flow through non homogeneous sections

In case of flow perpendicular to soil strata, the

Ct A, . .,.__ 1..,...) e
loss of head and rate of flow are influenced ·-·~ a.sf---' -~

~\ ~~~-
rn.:.s.-:
primarily by the less pervious soil whereas in
the case of flow parallel to the strata, the rate of
flow is essential controlled by comparatively ,,.----IV- '-..

more pervious soil.

Fig. Flow at the boundary between two soils

Figure given shows a flow channel and part of
a flow net, from soil A to soil B. The qA =qB
permeability of soil A is greater than that of tJz
But qA =k.4.. -,- . bA
soil B. By the principle of continuity, the same A
rate of flow exists in the flow channel in soil A - 1, -tJ1
q B-"B· bB
·
as in soil B. lB
tJi !:ih
By means of this, relationship between the kA . - . bA =kB . - . bB
lA la
angles of incidence of the flow paths with the IA !B
boundary of the two flow channels can be z;- =tan «A z;- = tan a 8
A. E
determined. Not only does the direction of flow
kA kB
change at the boundary between soils with --=
tan o. A tanaiJ
different permeabilities, but also the geometry
of the figures in the flow net changes. As can fan o. .4. == k.4.
be seen from Fig., the figures in soil B are not tan o. iJ ks
squares as in soil A, but are rectangles.

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Soil Mechanics Material by SKY

7.8 Prevention of erosion- protective filters

Filter drains are required on the downstream sides of hydraulic structures and around drainage
pipes. A properly graded filter prevents the erosion of soil in contact with it due to seepage
forces. To prevent the movement of erodible soils into or through filters, the pore spaces between
the filter particles should be small enough to hold some of the protected materials in place. ~

Taylor (1948) shows that if three perfect spheres have diameters greater than 6.5 times the
.:
diameter of a small
sphere, the small spheres can move through the larger as shown in Fig. (a). Soils and aggregates
are always composed of ranges of particle sizes, and if pore spaces in filters are small enough to
hold the 85 per cent size (D85) of the protected soil in place, the finer particles will also be held
in place as exhibited schematically in Fig. (b ).

The requirements of a filter to keep the protected soil particles from invading the filter
significantly are based on particle size. These requirements were developed from tests by
Terzaghi which were later extended by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1953). The resulting
filter specifications relate the grading of the protective filter to that of the soil being protected by
the following;
D15 filter D15 filter D50 filter
~
4, 4 < ~
20, ~
25
D85soil DIS soil D50soil ..,
The criteria may be explained as follows:

~
I. The 15 per cent size (D 15) of filter ~

material must be less than 4 times

the 85 per cent size (D 85 ) of a
protected soil. The ratio of D 15 of
a filter to Ds 5 of a soil is called (a) Size of smallest spht'JiCal particle which just fits the space between larger spheres

the piping ratio. ••·, ·.< .. s .-.. fUJJ So.ii which has migrated into
2. The 15 per cent size (D 15) of a filter and •~ held by DES sit.e
soi I particles
filter material should be at least 4
times the 15 per cent size (D 15 ) of
a protected soil but not more than ·~ ;;: .~· :;·:···:·

20 times of the latter. (:.·~:·:~;':f .·

:~~·~·.f:t::J ~i~:~:~\?i.:t~:~,j~;.
"'4 1 l"WM "''10,.f/

3. The 50 per cent size (D 50) of filter ;ro1ec1ed soil

material should be less than 25

times the 50 per cent size (D 5o) of
.;.;\}~4~~~~1(::,i;itl~1~~i<~~~l~0;~1Y~ff~:.\;r;~1~c~~~~~
protected soil. (b) Condition of the boundary between protected soil and the filter n1merial

Figure Requirements of a tilter

...
A typical grain size distribution curve of a protected soil and the limiting sizes of filter materials
for constructing a graded filter is given in Fig. below. The size of filter materials must fall within .:
the two curves C2 and C3 to satisfy the requirements.

For reference only (Make your own notes) 14

 Soil Mechanics Material by SKY

Silt a.11d clay

100 .......,__,_..,.....,,.....,....,....,,.....,.....,....,-...-...,,...,........,...~.....,....~-.....-..,...-...-..,...-~...-~..,......,.......,.__,~----,----,---.

801 1- r· I I 'XI

... ~ 60 '

100 10 1.0
Grnin size D mm
Figure Grain size distribution curves for graded filter and protected materials

..

For reference only (Make your own notes) 15