Chapter -1

SPATIAL PLANNING AND INTEGRATED RURAL

DEVELOPMENT

1. Introduction
2. Concept of Integrated Rural Development
3. Spatial Views of Rural Development Plan
4. Role of Various Models in Integrated Rural
Development Plan
5. Concepts of growth centre/ growth point/ pole/
foci
6. Rural Area development strategies in India
 Chapter -1
SPATIAL PLANNING AND INTEGRATED RURAL
DEVELOPMENT

1. INTRODUCTION:

The study of settlements and their planning forms one of the

most important parts of human geography. Though the tradition of
man environmental study in geography began during the early 19th

century with the world and contributions of Alexander-von-

Humboldth and Carl - Ritter the study of settlements was being started
earlier than the world of these authors. Though geography has been

defined as the study of Iandforms, study of environmental

relationships, study of areal variations and the study of spatial
organizations there is however three themes appear to be dominant.

These themes are spatial analysis, ecological analysis and regional

analysis. Each of these themes has its proponents, and each in its turn,

underlines a substantial number of invitations (Bruce Mitchell 1979).

The geographical way of looking at the things is differentiated

from other disciplines by the questions posed about location, spatial

structure and spatial process (Alber, Adems, Gould 1971). In

geographical studies more emphasis is given to regional compositeness,

complexity and spatial as well as temporal variations. The distinct

contributions of geography lie in synthesizing and integrating the
spatial regional and ecological analysis. The spatial perspective of
under standing the earth as a home of man or man-earth ecosystem
includes regional and ecological dimensions.

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 It is observable that planning in various specialized fields of

geography began after the emergence of theoretical geography. Today

geographers play an effective role in planning and decision-making.

This includes spatial planning in various fields such as regional

planning, ecological planning, landuse planning, Urban and Rural

planning etc.

Since the settlements are considered as strong physical

expressions in a spatial unit, geographers are more interested in

studying the geographical dimensions of the Urban and Rural

settlements and are able to suggest an effective plan for the regional

development.

2. CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT:

As long ago as 1936 Mahatma Gandhi expressed and stressed

about the Rural character of the economy and the need for regeneration

of rural life. In the periodical paper Harijan dated 4th April 1936, he

wrote that India is to be found not in its few cities but in it are 7,000,00

villages. But we the town dwellers have believed that India is to be

found in it's towns. We have hardly paused to enquire if those poor folk

get sufficient to eat and clothe themselves with and whether they have a

roof to shelter themselves from sun and rain. I would say that if the

villages perish India will perish too. It will not be India any more. Her

own mission in the world will get lost. The revival of the village life is

possible only when it is no more exploited. Rural Development is

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therefore an absolute and urgent necessity in India now and we

continue to be so in future. It is a sine quanon of the development of

India.

The term development is too well-known not only to

geographers, but also to economist and others social scientists

concerned with human welfare and progress. It is a positive and

qualitative change. In reference to the area development it includes land

types, landuse structure, settlement structure, social and economic

infrastructure and their inter-relationships, both existing and proposed.

The development of the locality is relative to the location of various

socio - economic activities in an area and location where they are

situated. An appropriate location of a new function may start a chain

recreation of development with far reaching implication. Thus the term

rural development refers a positive and qualitative as well as

quantitative change. The rural cultural landscape of the locality

encompasses the natural environment culture, history and socio

economic characteristics of the region and helps in understanding the

past and present inherent processes.

Planning for integrated rural area development has been broadly

discussed by planners and scholars of different disciplines in different

ways but there is a lack of consensus on its definition and scope.

Planning for integrated rural area development has four aspects to be

discussed, viz., planning, integrated, rural area and development.

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 The term 'planning' means to make a plan are to make a design

for, to arrange before hand. In general, planning means determination

of an action or series of actions beforehand. Higgins (1981) defines

planning as the systematic application of a range of technical and

professional skills to the process of decision-making with the technical

and professional purpose of improving resource allocation and income

distribution in the interest of defined social groups.

The term 'integrated' refers to the process, which aims at

directing to inter-related economic activities in a desired direction.

Some scholars regard it as a substitute for processes by which a group

of activities is proposed or decided upon or the manner in which some

spatial programmes or activities are linked to the general framework to

obtain optimum results.

In the context of rural development integration has been

interpreted, either as a process of inter sectoral co-ordination or as in

the sense of integrated project approach with the care project as the

basic starting point and then weaving around it all the complementaries

and linkages, but both approaches, the inter-sectoral approach and the

project approach, are partial in scope. In the context of development,

which has emerged in the country, 'integrated' refers two types of

integration:

i) Functional integration

ii) Spatial Integration

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 The functional integration refers to the integration of all kinds of

socio-economic activities, which directly influence the welfare of the

people, such as medical, education, agriculture, transportation and

communication etc. In other words, the integrated approach in

development offers a proper co-ordination between the social and

economic activities of people dependent to a great extent upon their

location.

The spatial integration is the product of the pattern of different

activities in any area. The term 'rural' has been used in demographic

sense to those areas, which have been characterized by the non - urban

style of life, occupational structure, social organization and the

settlement pattern. Rural area consists of villages and most of its

inhabitants are engaged in agriculture and allied sector.

Thus in totality integrated Rural Development refers to the

appropriate location of social and economic activities over a physical

space for the balanced development of a region.

The concept of integrated approach has been mooted with the

objective of looking for a uniform harmonious growth in various areas

of agriculture, waste utilization, agro-industries, rural housing, health

etc. (Bhatia, 1977).

Broadly speaking, the concept in context of an area, refers to its

functional, spatial and temporal aspects which are inter-related in

various complex forms. The functional integration refers to the

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integration of all economic and social activities, needed for

modernization and betterment of living. Thus health, education,

agriculture, industry, transport and several other aspects of our day-to-

day living over tap. The main concept behind it is that a function or an

activity, which exists in a central place or in an area focus, must directly

or indirectly be connected with the other existing functions. For

achieving such integration, inter-relationship in a desired form at

different levels is required. The integrated Area development planners

determine and propose the functions on an interrelated basis with a

view to maximizing functional co-ordination and removing the

negative or adverse effects and counter effects on other functions or

activities.

The spatial integration indicates the local and areal spread

aspects of growth and development activities in which the total regional

settlement system in space is involved. Here, the actual location of a
specific function in relation to other functions count on a host of factors

and so while proposing new activities or functions to promote

development due care has to be taken of complexity of locational choice

which requires a proper understanding of functional inter­

relationships and chain reaction in spatial context as it goes a long way

towards the development of an area (Sen, L.K. 1977).

The third dimension of integration is related to time, which in

parts viewing the present with an eye ever open for the future. Time

perspective plans are required for the full focus on development in a

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particular region various plans of different time spans i.e., short-term,

long-term perspective etc can be worked out emphasizing potentials

and future possibilities. So that progressive harmony is maintained

between growing regional population and required resources.

Integrated area development thus refers to the appropriate

location of social and economic activities over a physical space for the

maximum rather optimum, use and exploitation of physical and human

resources available in a region for its balanced development.

A brief resume of integrated rural area development as

enunciated by the I. G. U. Commission with particular reference to the

developing world is as follows:

1. Physico-cultural Resource base-locational characteristics and

utilization patterns of the resource.
2. Land Resource-System of land-tenure, field patterns water
distribution and utilization schemes level of land resource
management.
3. Existing pattern of settlement-historical influence of the
colonization and setting systems-effective on the Socio­
economic, cultural and political perspectives.
4. Provision of services and amenities to the rural area traditional
setup, level of provision of services and facilities by existing
service centers loyalties Vs. Socio economic space articulation
(Social space marketing net etc.,)
5. Demographic dimension-population as resource spatial
distribution-qualitative and quantitative aspect of migration
scope and impact of effective migration.

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 6. Land utilization pattern cropping systems-agricultural facilities,
irrigation and soil conservation schemes-others aspects of
agriculture-food sufficiency level-nutritional levels agro­
industrial, other industrial unite impact on the territorial
organization of rural resources and areas.
7. Circulation patters-growth and existing of transport and
communication net-rural education level and facilities vocational
training facilities.
8. Rural employment structure-health care and medical facilities.
Rural housing as part of health and economic development
schemes.

Planning is a decision making process in view of scientific and

technological development of the society, which is applicable in a wide

variety of situations (Wilson, 1972), so far as its applied aspect is

concerned it is a "Progressive, step-by-step process, not a visionary

master blue print of Utopia" (Hillaman, 1957). This is because the

"traditional ways cannot be changed in a day" (S.W. Allen, 1959) rather

it requires active participation and initiative of the whole community

(Santory, 1958). The idea behind village development is specifically a

development from below (Hicks 1961), which is a peoples programme

with government participation to eradicate, inter-alia, the distressing.

3. SPATIAL VIEWS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN:

The introduction of space dimension to the sectoral process of

planning helps the development of theory to correct major weakness of

previous analysis. It helps in identifying the allocative efficiency of

9
resource use and locational considerations of 'Social Equity'. Thus

space-dimension satisfies both the goods of economic and social

planning and an urban and regional focus permits the consolidation of

local planning and the desegregation of national planning at convenient

intermediate level. It also allows planners to take in to account the

spatial aspects of economic and social change. Spatial analysis is

therefore making it possible for identification of planning areas both

urban and regional on functional lines for economic and social

planning.

Spatial planning assumes that the spatial incidence of the various

elements, natural and man made leads to the formation of spatial
subsystems of regions. Sectoral developments can be implemented

within a spatial framework according to the specific requirements of the

different spatial units, which may differ from each other in terms of
physical, economic, social and cultural conditions. The spread of an

economic development has a spatial dimension.

Spatial planning can be of two types:

i) Adaptive and

ii) Developmental

Adaptive spatial planning is based on recognition of the impact

of general trends of development on the spatial system. It tries to

streamline the process of spatial evolution to achieve a spatial structure,

which promotes efficiency and growth of the industry or activities in

existence at a particular point of line.

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 Developmental or active planning is based on the preserve and

requirements of national economic development. It tries to identify and

achieve within a dynamic and historical context, a pattern of evolution

of the spatial structure that is likely to promote rapid economic

development. The spatial organization of the economic and socio­

cultural activity is conceived as a means to promote long term economic

development rather than viewing spatial organization as something to

be adapted to the existing trends of development.

Any plan for integrated rural development must be based on:-

1. An area, its resource and the complementary lines among them.

2. Its residents and the complementary competive relations among

them.

3. The potential of self-reliance that the area and the people

concerned can attain and the degree of dependence that is

inevitable or even desirable on persons and resource outside the

area.

4. The infrastructure, both material and human, necessary for

development.

5. The production techniques or the technology that can

simultaneously increase employment, productivity and

production, equitable distribution of the gains of development

and up light of the poor back world among its population.

6. The institutions, motivations and policies that are needed for co­

ordinated increases in production, equitable distribution of out

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 put, increased employment and utilization of development

facilities by the poor and the backward for the removal of their

poverty.

4 ROLE OF VARIOUS MODELS IN INTEGRATED RURAL

DEVELOPMENT PLAN

The following are the main models, which have helped in

designing the integrated rural development plan.

Central place theory:

Walter Christaller tried to study the role of town and city as

central place because it supplies goods and services in all direction of

surrounding areas.

They have central place with regards to their hinterland central

places have got functional hierarchy in size also. This theory explains

about the tertiary activity. This theory is regarded as Christallerian

Model.

In 1933 Walter wrote central place in South Germany the work

practical implication was meant to a planning at that time in Germany.

The central place theory can also be called as Spatial Organization

theory. In central place theory the key words used are.

1. Central Place.

2. Range of Goods.

3. Threshold of Population.
 4. Market Optimizing Principal.

5. Administration Optimizing Principal.

1. Central Place; A settlement providing goods and services for the

population of a hinterland. The production place, which is service

center for its hinterland is the central place.

2. Threshold; The minimum level of demand requires to ensure

profit to the individual producer of a good. In other words the

demand area is die threshold.

3. Range: Maximum spatial extent of sales of goods. The ranges are

usually circular since it enables the maximum number of

customers to be supplied at the minimum cost.

Assumptions and Postulates:

The simplifying assumptions of the central place theory are:

1. A region characterized by a flat featureless plain of uniform

fertility with no interruptions cracked by physical features such

as Mountain Rivers. Such a uniform plain is called on isotropic

surface.

2. An economy based on providing goods and services to the

surrounding population and not on the production of primary or

secondary area.

3. An equality spaced but discontinuous population with uniform

purchasing power and uniform tastes and preferences.

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 4. The differentiated set of goods and services which have varying

thresholds and which customers purchase from the nearest

central place.

5. All parte of the region being served by some central place.

6. Transport is available in all directions at a cost, which increases in

direct proportion to the distance involved.

7. A minimum threshold of population to support the central place.

In simple terms, the threshold populations can be considered a

K- value. According to Chirstaller, there are 3 basic types of K-systems.

A) K- 3 System:

This evolves on the basis of the market principal. In the K - 3

system the hierarchical arrangement of settlements is according to the

rule of 3. Each new center is located midway between 3 centres of the

next highest order. In effect each new centre and its market area is

shared between the three higher order centers within the hinterland of

many highest order centers, i.e., one third of each of the six centers

surrounding the next higher order centre plus the centre itself leading

to a K - 3 system.

B) K-4 System:

In the K-4 systems the cost of constructing transport networks is

more important and as a result the central places would be located on

the basis of the traffic or transport principal. This is because many

places would lie on the traffic route between larger towns. As a result

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each major town will command the loyalty of half the population of

surrounding six smaller towns plus its own population leading to a

K-4 systems.

C) K - 7 system:

This is found in the regions with a highly developed system of

central administration. In a K-7 systems there would be no competition

from alternative central places and there is no divided allegian of the

population of six lower order centers surrounding the central place.

Hence the central place will command the loyalty of six surrounding

centers plus its own leading to K-7 system.

It is a fact that most plans for the provision of economic services

and social facilities take some kind of central place framework as their

point of departure. The propositions and postulates of the central place

theory are without doubt of much help in spatial planning.

Relevance of Losch's Model:

The first attempt to develop a general theory of location with the

major emphasis on demand was made by A. Losch in 1954. This sought

to explain the size and shape of market areas within which a location

would command the largest revenue. Losch simplified the world to a

flat uniform plain held supply constant and assumed that demand for a

product decreased with an increase in the price. If this price increase

was the result of an increase in transport costs then demand would

decrease with distance form a production.

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 The basis of Losch's theory is a modified demand curve however,

for those unfamiliar with such diagrams. It might be helpful to consider

a simple demand curve first before moving on to Losch's modifications.

After proving that theoretically the market are circular in shape Losch

looked for the nearest Shape to the circle that will pack. Elementary

packing theory confirms his choice of the hexagon.

In the first of the series of a basic pattern of hexagonal market

areas for one product is shown. However because demand for different
products will vary, the landscape will have a complex network of
market areas, one for each producer Losch rotated each of many

hexagonal networks around the largest central place, which acted as the

hub of settlement system, dominating the economy of region. The

networks were rotated until as many as possible of the same central

places, such as arrangement ensures that:
■ The aggregate distance between all settlements is minimized

* The minimum number of goods can be supplied by locally.

■ Transport routes and movement along them are minimized

Losch's theory has been criticized for its abstract nature and its

failure to take in to account the problems arising from the locational

interdependence of plants. Just as Weber was criticized for

overemphasizing supply, so Losch was criticized for overemphasizing

demand, but subsequent attempts to integrate these two aspects by

writers such as M. Greenhut and W. Isard have not been totally

successful and there is still on generally accepted theory of location.

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 In 1940 the economist A Losch presented an important

modification of Christaller's model like Christaller, he again used

hexagonal service areas, but allowed various hexagonal systems to co­

exist. In Losch's model the various hexagonal systems K=3, K=4, K=7

and others, operate at different levels and are superimposed on each

other. The application of a variable K value produces a continuum of

settlements sizes more closely in line with the theoretical result of the

rank-size rule.

5 CONCEPTS OF GROWTH CENTRE , GROWTH POINT/ POLty

FOCI:

In recent years the strategy for planning economic development

of region has been evolved largely on the growth centre concept

modeled very closely of the postulates of the central place theory

enunciated by Walter Christaller, Growth Pole theory evolved by

Erancois perroux many people like Brain Berry Allen pred, John

Friedman and William Alonso and among Indians V. L. S. Prakash Rao,

K. V. Sundaram, R. P. Misra, L.S. Bhat and other have applied the

growth centre concept in their several studies.

Excellent brief reviews of this concept are presented in 'central

place studies' a bibliography by Brian Berry and Allen Pred and in

Regional Development and planning edited by john Friedman and

William Alonso. The growth centre concept is now advocated and

applied in many countries even through they have different political,

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Social and economic systems and happen to be at different stages of

development. The present study adopts this concept as the tool it

provides for investigation.

The most comprehensively treated aspects of the concept are:

1. Functions of growth points in abstract economic space rather

than actual space.
2. Unbalanced and balanced development.

3. Growth points as places of both origin and transmission of

development impulses.

4. The viability of the growth points may act as foci for drainage,
debilitating rather than assisting an area.

5. The possibility that growth points may act foci for drainage,
delimitating rather than assisting an area.

6. The optimum maximum and minimum sizes of growth points.

7. The differing functions of growth points within countries and

economics experiencing different levels and intensities of

development.

8. The relationship of the growth point theory to other theories,

including the central place theory, basic-non-basic theory,

international theory and industrial location theory.

Existing growth point theory thus has provided an interesting

range of questions and some insight into regional economic phenomena

and conditions, but to date has presented little which can be considered

a firm base for policy recommendation and implementation.

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 The case of the growth pole's theory was partly due to its author,

Perroux with an innate French imagination, he put his fundamental

ideas, but has failed to carry them out to the end. A lot of space has

been left out in order to clarify its terms and notions. This clarification

concerns sometimes the essence of the theory. Because the number of

reasons, one could not pass over the fundamentals of this theory. First,

the interpretation of this theory is, to a certain degree different form,

one stated in the economic literature. Second, the growth pole theory

entails to be raised at a higher degree of abstraction. That is the

precondition for both how to find the way out of numerous ambiguities

and how to systematize the partial knowledge about regional

development. Third, the experience of the European countries both

Western and Eastern, demonstrate particular regularities being

significant, for empirical verifications of some theoretical filtrations

appear to be specially important for the utilization of the growth poles

theory in the normative sense.

6. RURAL AREA DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES IN INDIA:

"Strategies for promotion of quality of rural life" in developing

countries, like India, involves removal of social -economic and spatial

inequalities without any undue stress on ecological system through the

processes of resource utilization and environmental management,

particularly in well-identified problem areas both at local (micro) and

regional levels.

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 In the Indian context, the strategies can be oriented to:

i) Maximisation of growth through regional development in less

developed regions.

ii) Direct attack on poverty in some of the developed regions and,

iii) Structural changes in other regions for stimulating growth as well

as for ensuring better distribution.

The strategies appear to underplay the vital role of factors such as

entrepreneurship, administration, constraints and possibilities arising

from the particular cultural framework, the bargaining power of less

developed regions and the less privileged groups.

In the wake of launching a drive to achieve goals of planning

within definite time periods, some area and people specific programme

and schemes have been launched. Notable among them are DPAP

(Drought Phrone Area Programme), TDP (Tribal Development

Programme), HADP (Hill Area Development Programme) CADP

(Command Area Development Programme), etc. these are all area

based programmes where as SFDA (Small Farmers Development

Agency), RMNP (Revised Minimum Need Programme), REP (Rural

Employment Programme) and IRDP (Integrated Rural Development

Programme) are aimed at amelioration of conditions of target groups in

the population i.e., the weaker sections of the community.

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