UNIT – V

• TIME VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S

EQUATIONS
Fundamental relations for Electrostatic and
Magnetostatic fields, Faraday‟s law for
Electromagnetic induction, Transformers,
Motional Electromotive forces, Differential
form of Maxwell‟s equations, Integral form of
Maxwell‟s equations, Potential functions,
Electromagnetic boundary conditions, Wave
equations and their solutions, Poynting‟s
theorem, Time harmonic fields,
Electromagnetic Spectrum.
 Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields

• Electromagnetics is the study of the effect

of charges at rest and charges in motion.
• Some special cases of electromagnetics:
– Electrostatics: charges at rest
– Magnetostatics: charges in steady motion (DC)
– Electromagnetic waves: waves excited by
charges in time-varying motion
 Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields

Fundamental laws of Maxwell’s

classical electromagnetics equations

Special Electro- Magneto- Electro- Geometric

cases statics statics magnetic Optics
waves

Statics: 0 Transmission
t
Line
Theory
Input from Circuit
other Theory Kirchoff’s
disciplines d  
Laws
Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form (Generalized to Include
Equivalent Magnetic Sources)

d
C E  d l   dt S B  d S  S K c  d S  S K i  d S
d
C H  d l  dt S D  d S  S J c  d S  S J i  d S
 Dd S   q
S
V
ev dv
Adding the fictitious magnetic source
terms is equivalent to living in a

 BdS   q
S
V
mv dv universe where magnetic monopoles
(charges) exist.
Continuity Equation in Integral Form (Generalized to
Include Equivalent Magnetic Sources)


S 
• The continuity
J  d s   q ev dv equations are
t V implicit in
 Maxwell’s
S K  d s   
t V
q mv dv equations.
 Maxwell’s Equations - Sources and
Responses
• Sources of EM field:
– Ki, Ji, qev, qmv

• Responses to EM field:
– E, H, D, B, Jc, Kc
Maxwell’s Equations in Differential Form (Generalized to Include
Equivalent Magnetic Sources)

B
 E    Kc  Ki
t
D
 H   Jc  Ji
t
  D  qev
  B  qmv
Continuity Equation in Differential Form (Generalized to Include
Equivalent Magnetic Sources)

qev • The continuity

 J   equations are
t implicit in
qmv Maxwell’s
 K   equations.
t
Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions

n̂
Region 1

Region 2
Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions


n   E1  E 2    K S

n  H 1  H 2   J S

n   D1  D 2   qes

n   B1  B 2   qms
 Electromagnetic Fields in Materials
• In time-varying electromagnetics, we consider E
and H to be the “primary” responses, and
attempt to write the “secondary” responses D, B,
Jc, and Kc in terms of E and H.
• The relationships between the “primary” and
“secondary” responses depends on the medium in
which the field exists.
• The relationships between the “primary” and
“secondary” responses are called constitutive
relationships.
Electromagnetic Fields in Materials
• Most general constitutive relationships:

D  D( E , H )
B  B( E , H )
J c  J c ( E, H )
K c  K c ( E, H )
Electromagnetic Fields in Materials

• In free space, we have:

D  0 E
B  0 H
Jc  0
Kc  0
 Electromagnetic Fields in Materials
• In a simple medium, we have:

DE • linear (independent of field

strength)
B  H • isotropic (independent of position
within the medium)

Jc  E
• homogeneous (independent of
direction)
• time-invariant (independent of
Kc m H time)
• non-dispersive (independent of
frequency)
 Electromagnetic Fields in Materials

•  = permittivity = r0 (F/m)

•  = permeability = r0 (H/m)
•  = electric conductivity = r0 (S/m)
• m = magnetic conductivity = r0 (/m)
Maxwell’s Equations in Differential Form for
Time-Harmonic Fields

  E   j B  K c  K i
  H  j D  J c  J i
  D  qev
  B  qmv
Maxwell’s Equations in Differential Form for Time-
Harmonic Fields in Simple Medium

  E   j   m  H  K i
  H   j    E  J i
qev
 E 

qmv
 H 

 Electrostatics as a Special Case of
Electromagnetics

Fundamental laws of Maxwell’s

classical equations
electromagnetics

Special Electro- Magneto- Electro- Geometric

cases statics statics magnetic Optics
waves

Statics: 0 Transmission
t
Line
Theory
Input from Circuit
other Theory Kirchoff’s
disciplines d  
Laws
 Electrostatics
• Electrostatics is the branch of
electromagnetics dealing with the effects
of electric charges at rest.
• The fundamental law of electrostatics is
Coulomb’s law.
 Electric Charge
• Electrical phenomena caused by friction are
part of our everyday lives, and can be
understood in terms of electrical charge.
• The effects of electrical charge can be
observed in the attraction/repulsion of
various objects when “charged.”
• Charge comes in two varieties called “positive”
and “negative.”
 Electric Charge
• Objects carrying a net positive charge attract
those carrying a net negative charge and repel
those carrying a net positive charge.
• Objects carrying a net negative charge attract
those carrying a net positive charge and repel
those carrying a net negative charge.
• On an atomic scale, electrons are negatively
charged and nuclei are positively charged.
 Electric Charge
• Electric charge is inherently quantized such
that the charge on any object is an integer
multiple of the smallest unit of charge which
is the magnitude of the electron charge
e = 1.602  10-19 C.
• On the macroscopic level, we can assume that
charge is “continuous.”
 Coulomb’s Law
• Coulomb’s law is the “law of action” between
charged bodies.
• Coulomb’s law gives the electric force
between two point charges in an otherwise
empty universe.
• A point charge is a charge that occupies a
region of space which is negligibly small
compared to the distance between the point
charge and any other object.
 Coulomb’s Law
Q1
r 12 Q2 Unit vector in
direction of R12
F 12
Q1 Q2
Force due to Q1 F 12  aˆ R12
acting on Q2 4  0 r12
2
 Coulomb’s Law
• The force on Q1 due to Q2 is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the
force on Q2 due to Q1.

F 21   F 12
 Electric Field

• Using the principal of superposition, the

electric field at a point arising from multiple
point charges may be evaluated as

n
Qk R k
E r   
k 1 4 0 Rk
3
 Continuous Distributions of Charge

• Volume charge density

Qencl

r V’

Qencl
qev r   lim
V  0  V 
 Electromagnetic Waves

Poynting’s Theorem
Poynting’s theorem is an identity based on
Maxwell’s
equations, which can often be used as an
energy-balance
E  
B
Faraday’s law
t
equation  D
H  J Ampere’s law
t
  (E  H)  H  (  E)  E  (  H) vector identity
B D
  (E  H)   H  E EJ
t t

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 Electromagnetic Waves

,  and E
If do not change with time,
Magnetic energy
density

 

B ( H) 1 ( H  H)   1 2 
H  H    H 
t t 2 t t  2 

D ( E) 1 ( E  E)   1 2 
E  E    E 
t t 2 t t  2


E  J  E  (E E)  EE2 Electric

energy
density

 1 2 1 2 
  (E  H)    E  H   EE
2

t  2 2 

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 Electromagnetic Waves

Integrating over the volume of concern and

  (E  H)
using the (E  H)

divergence theorem to convert the volume

integral of
to the closed
 
( E  H ) 
surface
ds  
  1 integral
  E 2

1
H 2 of
dv    E dv
we
2 have
E
   t  2 2  v

equation 
S
 S v
 

referred to as Poynting’s
Total power
theorem: Ohmic power
Rate of decrease in energy
stored in electric and dissipated as
leaving the
magnetic fields heat
volume

S  ( E  H ) (W/m 2 ) Poynting vector (represents the power flow per unit

area)

32
 Electromagnetic Waves

Net power entering

the volume
S  ( E  H ) (W/m 2 )

  (
E 
 H
)  ds 
S S

rate of increase in
stored We


we

t

w
 m
t
 

rate of
increase in
stored wm

   E E 2 dv
v

ohmic losses

33
 Electromagnetic Waves

E o z
E(z, t)  Eoe  z cos(t  z)ax H ( z, t)  e cos(t  z   )ay


E o2 2z 
S ( z, t)  e cos  cos(2t  2 z   ) az
2

 1 
 cos A cos B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)
 2 

The time-average Poynting vector:

1 1 E o2 2z 
Save ( z)   0 S ( z, t)  Re  E  H  
*
e cos  az
T 2 2

The total time-average power crossing a given surface is

obtained by integrating over that
S surface.
ave

34
 Electromagnetic Waves

v  E dv   E  J dv
2
e v

v
E  J dv  E J LA cos 


 E L cos   J A  VI
V=LA

where V is the voltage across the volume and I is the

current flowing through it.

35
 Electromagnetic Waves

Example. Using Poynting’s theorem to find

the power dissipated in the wire carrying
direct current I
I
J  ez
 b2

J I
E  2 ez
E b E

I
H e
2 b
 I   I 
S  E H  ez e 
  b  E   2 b 
2

I2
  2 3 ep ez  e   e
2 b  E

P  v E  J dv     E  H   ds
S

I 2
I 2l
 2 3 (2 bl )  2  I 2 R
l 2 b  E b E
R
 b2 E
36