UNIT V:

Chapter 14: Introduction to Bridge Engineering

17.1 Introduction:

Bridge is considered as a structure, which is carrying a road, path, railway, pipeline etc.
over some obstacles like river, valley. Bridges are designed to safely carry the load without
causing any kind of discomfort over the obstacle.

Bridge Engineering is the branch of Civil Engineering which deals with the design,
construction and maintenance of bridges.

17.2 Classification of Bridge:

In different situations, different types of bridges can be used. Bridges can be classified as
follows:

17.2.1 According to the position of bridge floor relative to the formation level and the
highest flood discharge: Accordingly bridge can be classified as
a) Deck bridge:
b) Through Bridge
c) Semi through Bridge

a) Deck bridge:
 When floor of the bridge is lying at Formation level and above the
highest flood level as shown in Fig.17.2.1, then such bridges are known
as Deck Bridge.
 In Deck Bridge road deck is carried on the top flange or on top of the
supporting girders.

Fig. 17.2.1. Deck Bridge

b) Through bridge:
 When floor of the bridge is lying above the Formation level and
Highest flood level as shown in Fig.17.2.2, then such bridges are
known as Through bridges.
  In the through type bridges, the decking is supported by the bottom
flange of the main supporting girders provided on either side.
.

Fig. 17.2.2 Through Bridge

c) Semi-through bridge:
 The semi-through bridge has its deck lying between formation level and
highest flood level as shown in Fig.17.2.3
 The deck load is transmitted to the girder through the web of the girder.

Fig.17.2.3 Semi-through Bridge

17.2.2 According to the inter-span relations as simple, continuous or cantilever bridges.

a) Simply supported:
 Generally width of bridge is divided into number of individual spans.
For each span, the load carrying member is simply supported at both
ends.
 The plate girder and truss girders are used as this type of bridges.
 They are suitable at places where uneven settlements of foundations are
likely to take place.

b) Simply supported:
 In continuous bridges spans are continuous over two or more supports.
 They are statically indeterminate structures.
  They are useful when uneven settlement of supports does not take
place.
 In continuous bridges the bending moment anywhere in the span is
considerably less than that simply supported span. Such reduction of
bending moment ultimately results in the economic section for the
bridge.
 In continuous bridges the stresses are reduced due to negative moments
developed at pier or supports.
 Thus continuous span bridges have considerable saving compared to
simply supported bridge construction.

Following are the advantages of RCC continuous girder bridges over simply
supported girder bridges.
o As the bearings are placed on the centerline of piers, the reactions at piers
are transmitted centrally.
o It is found that the continuous girder bridge suffers less vibration and
deflection.
o The continuous girder bridge requires only one bearing at each pier as
against two bearing for simply supported girder bridge.

c) Cantilever:
 A cantilever bridge is formed of cantilevers projecting from supporting
piers.
 The ends of a cantilever bridge are treated as fixed as shown in Fig.
Fig.17.2.4
 A cantilever bridge combines the advantages of a simply supported
span and a continuous span.
 For long spans and deep valleys and at places where it will not be
practicable to use centering, cantilever bridges are more suitable.
 They are suitable in case of uneven settlement of foundation. The
construction of a cantilever bridge may either be of simple type or of
balanced type

Fig. Fig.17.2.4
17.2.3 according to the materials of construction used for superstructure as cement
concrete, prestressed concrete, steel, masonry, iron, timber or composite bridges.
a) The earliest form of materials used for construction of bridges was first stone
and later brick. The masonry bridges are used for short spans and according to
availability of material and skilled labour. They are mainly of arch type of
bridges.
b) The next form of construction was Timber Bridge in which timber was used for
spanning the gap and also for supporting the beams. Timber bridges are used
for short spans, light loads and for use as temporary and unimportant bridges.
c) With the invention and development of concrete, bridges are being built
entirely with concrete, either reinforced or prestressed or a combination of both
for superstructure. Many combination of above types are also possible.
d) The common examples of composite construction are:
 Concrete beams reinforced with steel bars.
 Precast prestressed concrete girder with cast-in-situ RCC slab.
 Rolled steel joists topped by a cast-in-situ RCC slab

Following are the advantages of composite bridges:

o It leads to reduction in deflection and vibrations.
o Speedy Construction
o Economical.
o Better quality control.
o Reduced expenditure over formwork.
o The cost of foundations for abutments is reduced.
o Transportation cost is less.

17.2.4 according to the expected utility period of service as temporary, military or

permanent bridges.
a) Temporary bridges:
 The temporary bridges are defined as structures, which are constructed to
cross a river or a stream in place of permanent works.
 The useful life of a temporary bridge is estimated of about 10 years.
 Such bridges are useful when it is not possible to construct a permanent
bridge due to shortage of money, time, good materials or skilled labour.
 The temporary bridges are often constructed on diversions during the
reconstruction of an existing permanent bridge.

b) Military (patoon, bailey):

 Pantoon bridges are constructed on roads on which traffic is minor and
seasonal and the river itself is subjected to floods during only short periods,
 not exceeding three months of the year when the traffic on the load can
safely be suspended floating type bridges, pontoons are provided.
 These are made up of floating cylinders or barges/flats which are kept
afloat in a row and are connected to each other by hinged beams over
which decking is provided. Such bridges can also be used for movement of
army, which movement may be of short duration, across a waterway or on
roads used in fair weather only.
 Bailey refers to bridge superstructures normally made up of assemblage
units, which can be carried in units, assembled and launched, in a short
duration over a gap.
 They may be provided for the short-term movement of an army or also be
used in case of damage of a permanent bridge leaving a wide gap, or if the
traffic has been suspended and permanent repairs to the bridge are likely to
take a long time

17.3 Important types of Bridges:

17.3.1 Culverts: PU-Dec.2013, Dec.2014

As per IRC:SP 13-2004, a culvert is defines as a cross drainage structure of length usually less
than 6m, constructed over a stream which remains dry for most part of the year.

Types of Culverts are:

i. Pipe culvert
ii. Box culvert
iii. Slab culvert
iv. Arch culvert

i. Pipe culvert: PU-May. 2013, Dec.2014

 Their primary purpose is to convey water under roads.
 Pipe culverts are made of smooth steel, corrugated metal, or concrete material.
 Pipe culverts typically range from 30cm (min) – 183cm (max) in diameter and are
the least expensive type of culvert.
 Pipe culverts are best suited for relatively less discharge of about 10m3/sec.
 In terms of hydraulic performance, circular section is the best geometrical
sections among all. Therefore, for relative small discharge, precast concrete pipes
and ductile iron pipes are normally used which are circular in shape as shown in
 Pipe Culvert

ii. Box culvert: PU-May.2013, Dec.2014

 Box culverts are generally of rectangular or square shaped.
 It is constructed using masonry or R.C.C.
 Their slab and floor casted monolithically with side walls as shown in Fig.17.3.2
and Fig. 17.3.3
 It is used to transmit water during brief runoff periods upto a single span of 3m or
double span of 6m.
 It is suitable when soil is soft and the load has to be distributed over larger area.

Fig. 17.3.2 Single Box culvert Fig. 17.3.3 Double Box culvert

iii. Slab culvert:

 A slab culvert simply consist of a stone slab or R.C.C. slab resting on a masonry
wall as shown in fig.
 Construction of slab culvert is very simple as compare to other types.
 It is suitable for cross drainage work for highways and railways
 It can be constructed upto a span of 3m or so.
 It requires firm foundation for its construction.
 Slab Culvert

iv. Arch culvert:

 In this type of culvert, an arch action is used to support the super structure of the
culvert as shown in fig.
 An arch culvert is constructed with abutments, wing walls and parapet.
 It is suitable where approaches are constructed to be in cutting
 Materials used for arch culverts are RCC, Corrugated Metal or Stone Masonry.
 Arch culvert of stone masonry can be constructed upto a span of 6m.
 Construction of slab culvert is very simple as compare to other types.
17.3.2 Causeway (IRC: SP 82-2008):

 A causeway is a paved submersible structure with or without openings (vents) which

allows flood to pass through and/or over it.
 It may also be defined as a small submersible bridge constructed at or above the bed
level which will allow the flood to pass
 It may or may not have openings or vents for water to flow.
 Causeway may be provided under following conditions:
1. In hilly area, where number of small streams cross the road.
2. When seasonal flow is less and water depth in stream is less.
3. When sufficient fund is unavailable.

 Ford: A ford is defined as an unpaved shallow portion in a river or stream bed which
can be used as a crossing during dry weather/normal flow.

17.3.2.1 Types of causeway:

As per IRC: SP 82-2008, Causeway can be classified as follows:
1. Flush Causeway
2. Low vented causeway
3. High vented causeway

1. Flush Causeway:
 In this type of causeway which is also called paved dip or road dam.
 The top level of road is kept same as that of bed level of the stream or channel
without any vent
 It is suitable where the crossing remains dry for most part of the year i.e. perennial
stream
 Flush causeways are not suitable for crossing the streams with steep bed slopes
causing high velocity even in low floods. The causeway covers the full width of the
stream. Typical Features of Flush Causeway is shown in Fig.17.3.2.1
 Fig. 17.3.2.1 Typical features of Flush Causeway

2. Low vented Causeway:

 In this type of causeway, vents (openings) are provided under the roadway through
which water flow can pass as shown in Fig. 17.3.2.2
 It is suitable for the area having rainfall less than 1000mm. In case of high flood, it
may get submerged, thus not suitable for heavy rainfall area.
 Small size of vents in the form of pipes, short span slabs/R.C.C. Box cells are
provided in the width of stream.
 The height is generally less than 1.20m above the bed of stream.
 Fig. 17.3.2.2 Low vented causeway

3. High vented causeway:

 This type of causeway is provided in an area with annual rainfall more than 1000mm
and depth of stream flow after monsoon is more than 900mm
 It is useful for Perennial flow stream.
 The height of the causeway above the bed is generally kept between 1 .5 m to 3.0 m
and larger size of vents comprising of pipes or simply supported/continuous R.C.C.
slab superstructure over a series of short masonry piers or boxes with individual
spans less than 3 m are provided as shown in Fig. 17.3.2.3

Fig. 17.3.2.3 Longitudinal Section

17.3.3 Temporary Bridges / Low cost bridges:

 The temporary bridges are defined as structures, which are constructed to cross a
river or a stream in place of permanent works.
 Such bridges are useful when it is not possible to construct a permanent bridge due to
shortage of money, time, good materials or skilled labour.
 The temporary bridges are often constructed on diversions during the reconstruction
of an existing permanent bridge.
 The useful life of a temporary bridge is estimated at about 10 years.
 Important types of temporary bridges are: Timber bridges and Floating bridges
17.3.3.1 Timber Bridges:
 Definition: the bridges having their substructure and superstructure made up of
timber members are known as Timber Bridge.
 Timber bridges are suitable where good quality of timber is largely and cheaply
available, like hilly area.
 Timber bridges are used for short spans, light loads and for use as temporary and
unimportant bridges.
 Timber bridges are designed for Class B loading without any impact allowance.
 All timber bridges consist of two basic components, the superstructure and the
substructure (Fig.17.3.3.1). The superstructure is the framework of the bridge
span and includes the deck, floor system, main supporting members, railings, and
other incidental components.
 While timber substructures include abutments and bents. Abutments support the
two bridge ends, while bents provide intermediate support for multiple-span
crossings.
 Timber bridges may be constructed using stringers (also known as road bearers)
spanning between abutments for small span upto 6m and are designed as simply
supported.
 Then flooring consists of planks 300mm wide resting on stringers. These planks
can be designed as continuous beam.
 A wearing deck 300mm wide planks laid perpendicular to the main deck
subjected to the wear due to traffic.
 Based on Superstructure, timber bridges can be classified as :
1) Beam type 2) Deck (slab) type 3) Truss type
4) Trestle type 5) Arch type 5) Suspension type
 Problems related to timber bridges:
 Shorter Life (10 to 15 years)
 Timber can easily catch fire
 Useful for short and medium span bridges only
 Strength of timber is not uniform in all direction
 timber is susceptible to decay with time
 Fig. 17.3.3.1 Basic Timber bridge components

1) Beam type Timber Bridge:

 Longitudinal beam superstructures are the simplest and most common timber
bridge type (in bridge design, the longitudinal direction is measured in the
direction of the traffic flow).
 Longitudinal beam superstructures consist of a deck system supported by a series
of timber beams between two or more supports.
 Bridge beams are constructed from logs, sawn lumber, glued-laminated timber, or
laminated veneer lumber (LVL).
 Individual beams may be termed stringers or girders, depending on the relative
size of the member. Girders are larger than stingers.
 For clarity, the word beam is used here to collectively define all longitudinal
beam elements, including stringers and girders.
 sub types of timber bridges under Beam type are as follows:

1.1) Log Beam:

 The simplest type of Timber Bridge is the log beam or native timber bridge.
 It is constructed by placing round logs alternately tip to butt and binding them
together with steel cables.
 A transverse (perpendicular to traffic flow) distributor log or needle beam is
normally attached to the bridge to aid in load distribution.
 The deck for log beam bridges is formed by spiking sawn lumber planks
across the log tops (Figure 2-2), or by placing soil and rocks on the logs
(Figure 2-3).
 Service life typically ranges from 10 to 20 years, depending on log species
and local conditions of use.
 1.2) Sawn lumber beam:
 Lumber is a wood that has been processed into beam by cutting wooden logs
 Sawn lumber beam bridges are constructed of closely spaced lumber beams
that are commonly 10 to 20cm wide and 30 to 45cm deep.
 Solid timber blocking or lumber bridging is placed between beams for
alignment and lateral beam support.
 They are most commonly used for clear spans of 4.5m to 7.5m

2) Deck type Timber Bridge:

 Longitudinal deck or slab superstructures are constructed of nail-laminated sawn
lumber placed longitudinally between supports.
 The deck is designed to resist all applied loads and deflection without additional
supporting members or beams; however, transverse distributor beams are usually
attached to the deck underside to assist in load distribution.
  Sawn lumber bridges use 5cm to 10cm wide lumber, 20cm to 40cm deep, that is
nailed or spiked together to form a continuous surface as shown in Fig.17.3.3.4
 Longitudinal deck bridges are economical and practical for maximum clear spans
up to approximately 11m. Longer crossings are achieved with intermediate
support.

Fig. 17.3.3.4 Deck type Timber Bridge

(Note: the transverse distributor beams attached to the deck underside between bents)

3) Truss type Timber Bridge:

 Trusses are structural frames consisting of straight members connected to form a
series of triangles.
 In bridge applications, a typical truss superstructure consists of two main trusses,
a floor system, and bracing
 Trusses are also more costly to maintain than many other bridge superstructures
because of the large number of members and joints.
 Basic trusses used for bridge construction are as follows:

Fig. 17.3.3.5 Basic Trusses

4) Timber trestles: PU- Dec. 2014
 Timber Trestle is a braced frame consisting usually of a horizontal wooden piece
with spreading legs at each end that supports beam, deck or truss superstructure.
 A trestle bridge is a bridge composed of a number of short spans supported by
such frames. Each supporting frame generally referred as bent as shown in
Fig17.3.3.6
 Trestles are used for long crossings when lengthy clear spans are unnecessary,
impractical, or not economical.
 The spacing between bents is fixed according to the load carrying capacity of
bridge superstructure.
 Service life of trestle timber is about 40 years or even more.

Fig. 17.3.3.6 Different Timber Trestle bent for Railway

5) Arch type Timber Bridge:
 The basic principle of arch bridge is its curved design, which does not push load
forces straight down, but instead they are conveyed along the curve of the arch to
the supports on each end.
 These supports (called abutments) carry the load of entire bridge and are
responsible for holding the arch in the precise position unmoving position and
making entire structure very rigid and strong.
 Two basic arch types are used, the two-hinge arch and the three-hinge arch
(Figure 2-18). Two hinge designs are practical for short spans of approximately
80 feet or less.
 Three-hinge designs are more appropriate for longer spans and are most common
for vehicle bridges.
 Different types of arch bridges are as shown in Fig. 17.3.3.6
 Fig. 17.3.3.6 Basic arch types

5) Suspension type Timber Bridge:

 The basic Timber suspension bridges consist of a timber deck structure suspended
from flexible steel cables (or chains) that are supported by timber towers as
shown in Fig. 17.3.3.7
 This type of bridge is useful for longer clear spans (over 150m).
 They are normally used only when other bridge types are impractical because of
span requirements or when the use of intermediate bents is not feasible.
 This type of bridge is costlier than other but provide aesthetic look to the site.

Fig. 17.3.3.7 Suspension Timber Bridge

17.3.3.2 Floating Bridges: PU-May-2012, Dec-2012, Dec-2014

 Definition: the bridges having their substructure floating on the water surface of
the stream or river is known as floating bridge.
 The buoyancy of the supports limits the maximum load the bridge can carry.
 Floating bridges may be permanent or temporary type.
 Different types of floating bridges are:
1) Boat bridges 2) Pantoon bridges 3) Raft bridges

1. Boat Bridges:
o In Boat bridges, numbers of boats are used for making bridge substructure.
o Two adjacent boats are fixed with the help of gunwales and gunwale
pieces provided at the outer edges.
o Transverse planks are provided with cross beams which acts platform.
 o Anchors are used on the upstream and downstream side to hold the boat in
position.

2. Pantoon Bridges:
o In Boat bridges, numbers of pantoons are used for making bridge
substructure.
o These are made up of floating cylinders or barges/flats which are kept
afloat in a row and are connected to each other by hinged beams over
which decking is provided.
o Pantoon bridges are constructed on roads on which traffic is minor and
seasonal and the river itself is subjected to floods during only short
periods, not exceeding three months of the year.
o Such bridges can also be used for movement of army, which movement
may be of short duration, across a waterway or on roads used in fair
weather only.
o This is superior to boat bridges regarding their strength and durability.
o Disadvantage of Pantoon Bridge is that, it is much heavier and expensive
as compare to Boat Bridge.
 3. Raft Bridges: PU- Dec.2014
o A raft is any flat structure for support or transportation over water.
o It may be the floating mass of flat wooden logs or empty air tight barrels,
o When such type of rafts used as a supporting member for superstructure of
bridge in stream or river, is known as Raft Bridge.
o Buoyancy play important load in deciding load carrying capacity of raft
bridge
o This type of bridge is suitable for low traffic load.

Advantages of Floating bridges:

1. Fast construction
2. It can be constructed at site where river bed is unsuitable for pier
construction.
3. Depth of water is not critical parameter
4. Portable floating type bridges are suitable for military activities.
17.3.4 Movable bridges:

 A movable bridge is a bridge that moves to allow passage (usually) for boats or
barges.
 An advantage of making bridges moveable is the lower cost, due to the absence of
high piers and long approaches.
 The principal disadvantage is that the traffic on the bridge must be halted when it
is opened for passages.
 Necessity of movable bridges: PU-May 2014
o At places where vehicular traffic crosses river or stream which is used for
intermittent and less frequent river traffic.
o To construct a bridge of high clearance with lesser cost.
 Different types of movable bridges are: PU-May 2014
1) Bascule bridges
2) Swing bridges
3) Lift bridges
4) Transporter bridges
5) Transverse bridges
6) Cut boat bridges
7) Flying bridges

1) Bascule bridges:
 In bascule bridges, the main girders are lifted together with deck about the hinge
provided on one end of the span.
 Depending upon the width of channel, the bascule bridge may either be single or
double
 Bascule bridges are the most common type of movable span.
 It can open quickly and require relatively little energy to operate, while providing
the possibility for unlimited vertical clearance for marine.

Fig. 17.3.4.1 Single Bascule bridge Fig. 17.3.4.2 Double Bascule Bridge
2) Swing bridges: PU-Dec.2012
 In swing bridges, the superstructure can be rotated in horizontal plane about its
middle pier.
 The middle pier carrying pin and support ring, which allow rotation of deck and
clearing the span on either side for passage ship.
 In its closed position, a swing bridge carrying a road or railway over a river or
canal thus allowing traffic to cross.
 When a water vessel needs to pass the bridge, road traffic is stopped and then
motors rotate the bridge horizontally about its pivot point. The typical swing
bridge will rotate approximately 90 degrees, in order to clear the channel.
 Advantage of swing bridge is that, it doesn’t require any kind of counterweight as
bascule bridge, It reduces vessel to vessel collision and avoid watercraft collision
with bridge
 Disadvantage of Swing Bridge is that, the central pier reduces the effective width
of stream, not effective for longer span and small displacement in alignment may
cause disaster for railway.

3) Lift bridges:
 In this case, entire span lifted up with the help of a hydraulic arrangement to the
extent required for free passage of the ship.
 The biggest disadvantage to the vertical-lift bridge (in comparison with many
other designs) is the height restriction for vessels passing under it.
 This is a result of the deck remaining suspended above the passageway.
 Fig. 17.3.4.4 Lift Bridges
4) Transporter bridges:
 A transporter bridge, also known as a ferry bridge or aerial transfer bridge, is a
type of movable bridge that carries a segment of roadway across a river.
 In this case, a moving cage is suspended from an overhead truss with the help of
cable or wire ropes. The overhead truss rests on two towers and it contains rails
for cage to roll.
 This type of bridge is used within a harbour area to provide an arrangement for
shifting of men and materials across a channel.
 The design has been used to cross navigable rivers or other bodies of water, where
there is a requirement for ship traffic to be able to pass

Fig. 17.3.4.4 Transporter Bridge

5) Transverse / Retractable bridges : PU-May.2013

 A transverse / retractable bridge is a type of movable bridge in which the deck can
be rolled or slid backwards to open a gap while traffic crosses, usually for a ship
on a waterway.
 This type is sometimes referred to as a thrust bridge.
 Fig.17.3.4.5 Transverse / Retractable bridge

6) Cut boat bridges:

 This type of bridge is provided when superstructure of bridge is resting on boats.
 Arrangement is such that some portion of the span can be moved on downstream
side with the help of cable attached to adjacent portions as shown in Fig.17.3.4.6
 Cut boat bridges are provided when there is a need of providing some passage for
navigation traffic.
 When the ship passes out, the movable span is pulled back and it is placed in its
normal position to allow road traffic.

7) Flying bridges:
 This type of bridge use a boat and a raft attached to a suspended cable by means
of the swinging cables.
 It is arranged such that the boat makes an angle of 55o with the direction of flow.
The suspended cable is stretched across the river and is kept above the highest
flood level
  The flowing water exerts a pressure on boat which helps the boat to move from
one bank to other bank.
 On returning, the direction of swinging of cable is changed.
 The flying bridges are useful to carry only light traffic.
 It is adopted for short span and at places where enough materials are not available
for permanent bridge construction or fund available is small
Refer Fig. 5-4, Pg.111, Rangawala

17.3.5 Fixed span bridges:

 In case of fixed span superstructure, the superstructure remains in a fixed position

and most of the bridges are of this category.
 Different types of fixed span bridges are:
1. Simply supported
2. Continuous
3. Cantilever
4. Arch
5. Suspension
6. Cable stayed
7. Rigid framed
8. Bow string girder type

1. Simply supported:
 Generally width of bridge is divided into number of individual spans. For each
span, the load carrying member is simply supported at both ends.
 The plate girder and truss girders are used as this type of bridges.
 They are suitable at places where uneven settlements of foundations are likely to
take place.
 Simply supported bridges may also be preferable where the bridge is part of a
facility, such as an interchange, where stage construction will require future
removal or addition of one or more spans.
 Arrangement for simply supported is as shown in Fig. 17.3.5.1
 Fig.17.3.5.1 simply supported beam with UDL
2. Continuous Bridge:
 Generally In continuous bridges spans are continuous over two or more supports
as shown in Fig. 17.3.5.2
 They are statically indeterminate structures.
 They are useful when uneven settlement of supports does not take place.
 In continuous bridges the bending moment anywhere in the span is considerably
less than that in case of simply supported span. Such reduction of bending
moment ultimately results in the economic section for the bridge.
 In continuous bridges the stresses are reduced due to negative moments developed
at pier or supports as shown in Fig.17.3.5.3. Thus continuous span bridges have
considerable saving compared to simply supported bridge construction.
 Disadvantages of continuous bridge are, complicated design as it is statically
indeterminate and Very good workmanship is required.

Fig17.3.5.4 Continuous Beam

Fig. 17.3.5.3 Difference between BMDs

3. Cantilever Bridge: PU- Dec.2012

  A cantilever bridge is formed of cantilevers projecting from supporting piers.
 One end of a cantilever bridge is treated as fixed, while other end treated as free.
 A cantilever bridge combines the advantages of a simply supported span and a
continuous span. For long spans and deep valleys and at places where it will not
be practicable to use centering, cantilever bridges are more suitable.
 They are suitable in case of uneven settlement of foundation.
 The construction of a cantilever bridge may either be of simple type or of
balanced type.

Fig.17.3.5.4 Simple cantilever bridge

Fig.17.3.5.4 Balanced cantilever bridge

4. Arch Bridges:
 The basic principle of arch bridge is its curved design, which does not push load
forces straight down, but instead they are conveyed along the curve of the arch to
the supports on each end as shown in Fig. 17.3.5.5
 These supports (called abutments) carry the load of entire bridge and are
responsible for holding the arch in the precise position unmoving position and
making entire structure very rigid and strong.
 They were originally built of stone or brick masonry, but in recent days they are
built of reinforced cement concrete or even steel.
 The use of new materials allows the use of arch bridges for longer span.
  The load transfer mechanism in case of arch bridge constructed using stone
masonry is as shown in Fig. 17.3.5.6. In this case the key stone which is a central
part of arch plays very important role.
 Advantages of Arch bridges:
1. Arches are fascinating in that they are a truly natural form of bridge.
2. It is the shape of the structure that gives it its strength.
3. An arch bridge doesn't need additional supports or cables. In fact, an arch
made of stone doesn't even need mortar.
4. Longer life and less maintainance if constructed using non corrosive
material.

Fig. 17.3.5.5 Stone masonry Arch bridge Fig. 17.3.5.6 Load transfer mechanics

5. Suspension:
 A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing
portion) of the bridge is hung below suspension cables using vertical suspenders.
 The basic structural components of a suspension bridge system are shown in
Figure 17.3.5.7
 Main cables: A group of parallel-wire bundled made up of high tensile steel,
support the whole bridge deck by hanger ropes and transfer loads to towers.
1) Hangers / Suspender cables: These are the vertical wires which connects
Deck / Stiffeners with the main cable
2) Stiffeners: Longitudinal structures which support and distribute moving
vehicle load, act as chords for the lateral system and secure the
aerodynamic stability of the structure. Use of stiffener allows construction
of long span bridges.
3) Main towers: Intermediate vertical structures which support main cables
and transfer bridge loads to foundations.
4) Anchorages: Massive concrete blocks which anchor main cables and act as
end supports of a bridge
  The decking can be of timber, concrete or steel spanning across the stiffening
girders transmitting load to the suspenders.
 The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load
applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables.
 The main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further
continue to connections with anchors in the ground as shown in Fig. 17.3.5.7
 Worlds longest span of cable stayed bridge is of 1104m, at Russky Bridge in
Russia
 India’s longest span of cable stayed bridge is of 457m, at Vidyasagar Setu in West
Bengal.
 Types of Suspension Bridges:
1. Simple / Unstiffened Suspension Bridge: PU-May 2012, Dec.2012
 No stiffeners are provided at floor level.
 It is adopted for light traffic and foot over bridge

2. Stiffened suspension Bridge:

 Stiffening trusses are provided at floor level.
 Stiffeners provides more rigidity to structure
 It is adopted for heavy traffic and long span bridge

Advantages of Suspension Bridge:

 Effective for bridges of longer span as compare to other types of bridge.
  Less material may be required than other bridge types, for the longer span.
 Able to withstand earthquake movements than heavier and more rigid
bridges
 Deck sections can be easily replaced in order to widen traffic lanes for
larger vehicles or to provide additions width for separated
cycling/pedestrian paths.
 Very less disturbance to the natural stream / river path

Disadvantages of Suspension Bridge:

 Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to
prevent the bridge deck vibrating under high winds
 In case of heavy rail traffic and live load, more stiffeners are required
which make bridge uneconomical.

Fig.17.3.5.7 Basic components of cable suspension bridge

3. Cable stayed:
 Cable-stayed bridges are similar to the suspension bridges excepting that
there will be no suspenders in the cable-stayed bridges.
 So, distinctive feature of cable stayed bridge is the cables which run
directly from the tower to the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern or
a series of parallel lines.
 The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever
bridges, and shorter than suspension bridges.
 The cable-stayed bridge does not required any kind of massive anchorages
at the ends of the cables like Suspension bridges.
 Mainly there are two kind of cable stayed bridges:
1. Harp Shaped: In the harp or parallel shaped, the cables are
nearly parallel so that the height of their attachment to the tower
is proportional to the distance from the tower to their mounting
on the deck as shown in Fig.17.3.5.8
2. Fan shaped: In the fan design, the cables all connect to or pass
over the top of the towers. The fan design is structurally superior
with minimum moment applied to the towers but for practical
 reasons the modified fan is preferred especially where many
cables are necessary. In the modified fan arrangement the cables
terminate near to the top of the tower but are spaced from each
other (Fig.17.3.5.9) sufficiently to allow better termination,
improved environmental protection, and good access to
individual cables for maintenance.

 Key advantages of the cable-stayed form are as follows:

1. much greater stiffness than the suspension bridge, so that
deformations of the deck under live loads are reduced
2. Can be constructed by cantilevering out from the tower - the
cables act both as temporary and permanent supports to the
bridge deck
3. For a symmetrical bridge (i.e. spans on either side of the tower
are the same), the horizontal forces balance and large ground
anchorages are not required

Fig.17.3.5.8 Harp shaped cable stayed bridge

Fig.17.3.5.9 Fan shaped cable stayed bridge

 Various economical span ranges for these types generally adopted are:
 Type of Bridge Economical span range
Arch (Masonry) 3m to 15m
Arch (Steel) Upto 520m
Concrete arches Upto 305m
Slab type Upto 9m
Girder and Beam type 10m to 60m
Trusses (Simply supported) 30m to 375m
Trusses (Cantilever) Upto 550m
Suspension Bridges 500m to 1400m

4. Rigid framed:
In case of rigid frame bridges, the monolithic portal frames are designed for the
superstructure and substructure.
Followings are the suitable conditions for rigid framed bridges:
1) When site is not suitable for arch bridge.
2) When bearing capacity of soil is low
3) When the width of roadway is high
4) When span is small
5) When there is a restriction of headroom over the full span

Depending upon the material used for construction, rigid frame can be classified as :
1) R.C.C. portal frame (Fig. 17.3.5.10):
It it suitable upto a span of 15m or so
Suitable reinforcement may be provided as required
The bridge may consist of single portal or continuous portal
 2) Steel portal frame (Fig. 17.3.5.11):
Suitable bracings are provided to make frame rigid
It can be constructed in shorter time
The bridge may consist of single portal or continuous portal
They are suitable at places where the cost of construction for the abutment is high.

Followings are the advantages of Rigid frames bridge

1. Rigid connections provide more stability to the supports
2. Bearings (Refer Chapter 18) are not required at supports

3. Bow string girder type:

 Bow and string name is derived from its shape
 It has two main components are, arch rib and tie respectively resemble
bow and string
 The deck of the bridge rests on ties and the load is transmitted to the arch
rib through suspenders
 In case of steel bow string girder suitable bracings are required
 R.C.C. bow string girder bridges adopted for spans of 30m to 45m as
shown in Fig. 17.3.5.12
 Steel bow string girder bridges can be adopted for spans of 120m to 240m
as shown in Fig. 17.3.5.13
Advantages of Bow string girder
1) The horizontal thrust is resisted by ties; hence reaction developed at supports is only
vertical which helps in reduction of section for support
2) Very suitable for multiple span bridges.

 Difference between Permanent and Temporary bridges:

PU-Dec. 2012
Permanent Bridge Temporary Bridges
The bridge has longer life The bridge has shorter life
High cost of construction Low cost of construction
Suitable for longer span bridges Suitable for short span bridge
Required large maintainance cost Required less maintainance cost
e.g. Arch bridge, Steel bridges, R.C.C. e.g. Flying bridges, Floating bridges,
Girder bridges timber bridges.

 Difference between Permanent and Temporary bridges:

PU- May. 2012, Dec.2012
Fixed span Bridge Movable span bridge
Fixed brides meaning they have no Movable bridges are designed such that
moving parts their span can be moved from one place
to other
It has fixed navigational clearance It has variable navigational clearance
It is a permanent type It is temporary type
Involves large cost of construction Less cost of construction
Designed for heavy traffic load Designed for light traffic load
e.g.Bandra-worli sea link e.g. Poira bridge, Goa
 UNIT VI:

Chapter 18: Bridge Bearings

PU-May 2012,Dec.2012, May 2013, Dec.2013, May 2014, Dec.2014

18.1 Introduction:

1. Definition: Bearings are the devices provided over the supports of the bridge for free
expansion, contraction and deflection of the bridge superstructure.
2. Function of Bearings:
 to absorb the movement of the girder
 to allow the angular movement of the girder due to deflection
 to allow longitudinal expansion and contraction due to temperature
variation
 to make movement of the girder harmless.
 to distribute the load over large area
 to safely transfer horizontal forces developed due to application of brakes
to the vehicles, etc
3. Importance of Bearings:
 It should be remembered that the successful functioning of the bridge
primarily depends on the design of bearings.
 Faulty or improper working of bearing is the main cause of failure of
many bridges that have collapse
 For major bridges, the bearing cost is about 10% to 15% of the total cost
of bridge.
18.2 Types of Bearings: PU-May 2012, Dec.2012, May 2013, Dec.2013, May 2014, Dec.2014

Mainly two kinds of bearings are:

1. Free /Expansion Bearing: Free bearing is free to slide or move or roll and
it thus allows longitudinal movement of the girder.
2. Fixed Bearing: It is fixed in position, but it rotates according to deflection
of the structure which is being supported by it. Thus a fixed bearing allows
free angular movement and it does not permit any longitudinal movement
of the girder.
The design of fixed bearing depends on the length of span, type of support
and type of superstructure.

18.3 Fixed Bearing:

 The bearing which does not allow any longitudinal movement of the girder are known as
fixed bearing
 Usually angular movement or deflection of the beam is permitted by fixed bearing

18.3.1Types of fixed bearing:

1. Cement mortar pad
2. Shallow or Fixed plate bearing:
3. Deep cast base bearing
4. Rocker bearing
5. Knuckle bearing

1. Cement mortar pad:

 It is a cheapest type of fixed bearing adopted for the small span girder bridges
 It consists of a cement grout pad of 30mm thick (1:1 proportion)
 Dowel bars of 25mm diameter is used to connect girder with bed block
 The area of pad is fixed such that the pressure on it does not exceed 18N/mm2

2. Shallow or Fixed plate bearing:

 It is one of the fixed bearing consist of a flat rectangular steel plate at the top of
Pier / abutment.
 This plate is attached to the lower flange of the bridge girder as shown in Fig.
18.3.1.1
 Two anchor bolts are used to connect steel plate on each side of girder.
  Suitable upto 12 m span of bridge girder.

3. Deep cast base bearing:

 In this case a deep cast base is attached to the underside of the bridge girder as
shown in fig. 18.3.1.2
 This type of bearings avoids concentration of reaction at the inner edge of bearing.
 It is suitable upto span of 12m to 20m of bridge girder.

4. Rocker bearing:
 It is a fixed bearing which rocks about a pin like hinge is called rocker bearing
 It consists of two main parts, top shoe and bottom shoe.
 In between these, a rocker pin is provided as shown in fig. 18.3.1.3
 It allows only angular movement of the girder
 It is suitable for span greater than 20 m.

5. Knuckle bearing:
 It consists of two main parts, top shoe and bottom shoe.
 The bottom of top shoe and top of bottom shoe are given semi circular shapes as
shown in Fig. 18.3.1.4
 It allows only angular movement of girder

Insert Fig. 17.4.4 Pg. 17.30 Techmax

18.3.2Types of free / expansion bearing:

 In case of expansion bearing, the bottom shoe is given a circular shape.
 Expansion bearing allows longitudinal movement of the bridge girder
 Different types of expansion bearings are:
1. Sliding plate bearing
2. Rocker bearing with curved base
3. Rocker and Roller bearing

1. Sliding plate bearing:

 In this case, a sole plate is provided between main girder and bed plate as shown in
Fig. 18.3.2.1
 The girder is rigidly connected to the sole plate while the bed plate is fixed rigidly
to the piers by anchor bolts as shown in Fig. 18.3.2.1
  A sliding bearing utilizes one plane metal plate sliding against another to
accommodate translations. The sliding bearing surface produces a frictional force
that is applied to the superstructure, substructure, and the bearing itself.
 To reduce this friction force, PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) is often used as a
sliding lubricating material.
 The sliding bearing allows only longitudinal movement of the bridge girder and its
use is limited upto the span of 15m

2. Rocker bearing with curved base:

 This is a rocker type bearing.
 In this type the base of the bottom shoe is given a circular shape as shown in Fig.
18.3.2.2
 It allows both deflection and expansion of bridge girder.
Insert Fig. 17.4.7 Pg. 17.32 Techmax

3. Rocker and Roller bearing:

 This is a rocker type of bearing in which steel rollers are provided at the base of the
bottom shoe of bearing.
 Steel rollers are supported on bed plate which is attached to the top of pier /
abutment as shown in Fig. 18.3.2.3
 Due to provision of rollers at bottom, it allows longitudinal movement of girder.
 It also allows angular movement due to rocker joint.

18.4 Other types of Bearings:

18.4.1 PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) / Elastomeric Bearing: PU-Dec.2013
 Elastomeric bridge bearing are a commonly used modern bridge bearing.
 Its internal structure consists of a sandwich of mild steel matting and rubber sheets,
moulded as one unit as shown in Fig. 18.4.1.1
 Elastomeric bearing pads compress on vertical load and accommodate horizontal
rotation and provide lateral shear movement.
 Elastomeric bearing pads are the most economical solution used in construction of
large span bridges and buildings

Fig. 18.4.1.1 PTFE / Elastomeric Bearing

18.4.2 Neoprene Bearing: PU-Dec. 2013

 It is similar to the elastomeric bridge bearing which consist of sandwitch structure
of two materials.
 The difference is, instead of rubber, neoprene is sandwiched with the steel plate
  It is very economic and easy to install and has good durability, so no maintenance
is necessary.
 There are characteristics of Neoprene such as resistance to oil, heat, wear & tear
and low temperature.
 Neoprene bearing pads compress on vertical load and accommodate horizontal
rotation and provide lateral shear movement.

 Difference between Expansion and Rocker Bearing: PU-Dec. 2011

Expansion Bearings Rocker Bearing

It allows longitudinal movement of the It doesn’t allow longitudinal movement of
bridge girder bridge girder
Higher cost Lesser cost
Comparatively complicated for design Comparatively easy for design

18.5 Maintainance and Inspection of Bridge: PU-Dec.2012, May.2014, Dec.2014

 It is an art of up keeping the bridge components in good condition to keep the bridge in
best serviceable order for a longer period.
 After the bridge is constructed, it is absolutely mandatory to inspect it at regular interval
and to maintain it in such condition that it functions properly.
 The damage to bridge may be either due to faulty design or improper construction or due
to aging of material. Also other factors like flood, storms and accidents may cause failure
of bridge
 It is absolutely necessary that every part of the bridge structure is kept under observation.
 For this purpose, a periodic or routine inspection is very important.
 The inspection work can be categorized as follows:
1. Detailed inspection
2. Routine Inspection
 The expected life of substructure and superstructure are 100 years and 70 years
respectively.
 But the overall utility of a bridge can be drastically reduced due to faulty and poor
maintainance
 Followings are the general works of maintainance for major bridges:

1. Detailed Inspection:
  Detailed or in depth inspection involves the visual examination of all
superstructure and substructure elements.
 The critical spots to be checked up during detailed inspection are as follows:
i. behaviour of expansion joint
ii. cracks in metalwork
iii. damaged structural member
iv. deterioration and cracks in concrete
v. excessive vibration
vi. foundation settlement and movement
vii. inoperative expansion bearings
viii. loose connections

2. Routine Inspection:

i. Routine inspection aims to look after the general examination of structure at

regular intervals and the spots having outward physical defects are immediately
repaired.
ii. The routine inspection is generally applicable to short span bridges.
iii. It is conducted prior to monsoon. A post monsoon inspection is also conducted in
order to compare the data and check deterioration.

 The expected life of substructure and superstructure are 100 years and 70 years
respectively.
 But the overall utility of a bridge can be drastically reduced due to faulty and poor
maintainance
 Followings are the general works of maintainance for major bridges:
a) Any sign of movement of brick or stone in masonry work should be carefully
watched.
b) The cracks developed in the masonry will have to be examined carefully to check
whether they are superficial or due to structural failure or defects
c) Suitable pitching is to be provided to the embankments near bridges.
d) The bearings of the girder should be coated with oil time to time
e) The bed block should be inspected time to time and necessary repair should be
immediately carried out
f) The floor system of approaches and bridges should be properly maintained.
g) Superstructure of steel bridge should be periodically cleaned and painted with
anticorrosive paint at least once in 5 year.
h) The rivets should be carefully inspected and all defective rivets should be
punched off and replaced.
i) The entire drainage system should be inspected for its proper functioning.
18.6 Erection methods employed during construction of Bridges:
PU-May 2012, Dec.2012, May 2013, May 2014, Dec.2014
The method adopted for erection of bridge depends very much on type of bridge, span,
height above ground or water etc.
Commonly used methods for erection of bridges are as follows:
1. In situ: Assembly of bridge components on temporary formwork
2. Building out from support: For cantilever type of Bridge, it is possible to start the work
from both the supports. The two portions are suitably connected by a hinge at centre.
3. Floating: this method is adopted when depth of water in river is more. In this method,
pontoons are used to carry fabricated girders from shore and deposit them at site.
Alternatively, the pontoons may be used to act as the temporary supports for girders.
4. Lifting: Followings are the favorable conditions for the method of lifting,
i. height of superstructure above river bed should be moderate, say 4m to 6m
ii. The river bed is available in dry condition for major period of the year.
iii. the span is within 30m
In the method of lifting, the fabricated girders are brought on the river bed and are
lifted up and placed in position with the help of cranes.
5. Rolling: For continuous bridges the method of rolling out girders from the support may
be adopted. In this method, the girders are suitably rolled in position by providing
necessary bearings on the supports / piers. This method is also known as incremental
launching method and it is very popular for concrete girder.