Process Control, Automation,

Instrumentation and SCADA Chapter 1 Automation Using PLCs

1.1 Basic Rules of Ladderlogic

The basic rules of ladderlogic can be stated as:

• The vertical lines indicate the ‘Power supply’ for the control system. The logical ‘power flow’ is visualized to
move from left to right, and cannot flow from right to left (unlike ‘real’ wires).
• Read the ladder diagram from top to bottom and left to right (as in the normal Western convention of
reading a book).
• Electrical devices are normally shown in their de-energized condition. This can sometimes be confusing and
special care needs to be taken to ensure consistency.
• The contacts associated with coils, timers, counters and other instructions have the same numbering
convention as their control device.
• Devices that indicate a start operation for a particular item are normally wired in parallel (so that any of
them can start or switch the particular item on).

Figure 1.3 Ladderlogic Start Operation (and Logic Diagram)

• Devices that indicate a stop operation for a particular item are normally wired in series (so that any of them
can stop or switch the particular items off).

Figure 1.4 Ladderlogic Stop Operation (and Logic Diagram)

• The operation of latching is used where a momentary start input signal latches the start signal into the ON
condition; so that when the start input goes into the OFF condition, the start signal remains energized ON.
The latching operation is also referred to as holding or maintaining a sealing contact. See the previous two
diagrams for examples of latching.
• An output address status is immediately available to rungs or branches which follow its generation.
• Interactive Logic. Ladderlogic rungs that appear later in the program often interact with the earlier
ladderlogic rungs. This useful feedback mechanism can be used to provide feedback on successful
completion of a sequence of operations or to protect the overall system due to failure of some aspect.

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Process Control, Automation,
Instrumentation and SCADA Chapter 1 Automation Using PLCs

1.2 The Different Ladderlogic Instructions

Ladderlogic instructions can be broken up into the following categories:

• Standard relay logic type

• Timer and counters
• Arithmetic
• Logical
• Move
• Comparison
• File manipulation
• Sequencer instructions
• Specialized analog (PID)
• Communication instructions
• Diagnostic
• Miscellaneous (sub routines, etc.)

Each of these will be briefly discussed in the following sections.

1.2.1 Standard Relay Logic Type

There are two main instructions in this category. They are:

-- Normally Open Contact

-- Normally Closed Contact

• Normally Open Contact

(sometimes referred to as ‘Examine If Closed’ or ‘Examine On’)

This instruction examines its memory address location for an ON condition. If this memory location is set
to ON or 1, the instruction is set to ON or TRUE or 1. If the location is set to OFF or 0, the instruction is set
to OFF or FALSE or 0.

Figure 1.5 Symbol for Normally Open Contact

• Normally Closed Contact

(sometimes referred to as ‘Examine If Open’ or ‘Examine Off ’)

This instruction examines its memory address location for an OFF condition. If this memory location is set
to ON or 1, the instruction is set to OFF or 0. The memory location is set to OFF or 0, the instruction is set
to ON or TRUE or 1.

Figure 1.6 Symbol for Normally Closed Contact

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Process Control, Automation,
Instrumentation and SCADA Chapter 1 Automation Using PLCs

1.2.2 Output Energize Coil

When the complete ladderlogic rung is set to a TRUE or ON condition, the output energize instruction sets its memory
location to an ON condition; otherwise if the ladderlogic rung is set to a FALSE or OFF condition, the output energize
coil sets its memory location to an OFF condition.

Figure 1.7 Symbol for Output Energize Coil

1.2.3 Master Control Relays (MCR)

An example of this is given in Figure 1.8. Essentially when the MCR is energized, the output coils for each rung following
can be driven by their appropriate logic. Whenever the MCR is de-energized, the output coils for each rung following cannot
be energized even if the appropriate logic for that coil attempts to drive it into the energized or true state.

Figure 1.8 Master Control Relay

1.2.4 Timers

There are three main types of timers:

-- Timer ON Delay
-- Timer OFF Delay
-- Retentive Timer

There are three parameters associated with each timer:

-- The Preset Value

-- The Accumulated Value
-- The Time Base

• The Preset Value is the constant number of units of time that the timer ‘times to’ before being energized or
de-energized.
• The Accumulated Value is the number of units of time recording how long the timer has been actively
timing.
• The Time Base indicates the units of time in which the timer operates e.g. 1 second, 0.1 seconds, 0.01 seconds, and
possibly milliseconds or 0.1 minute.

The operation of the ‘Timer ON’ Timer is indicated in Figure 1.9 below. The Timer output coil is activated when the
accumulated time adds up to the preset value due to the rung being energized for this period of time. Should the rung