Advances Computer Memory
Advances Computer Memory
Himadri Barman
Introduction
Random‐access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage and is typically associated with
the main memory of a computer. RAM in popular context is volatile but as would be seen later on in
the discussion, they need not be. Because of increasing complexity of the computer, emergence of
portable devices, etc., RAM technology is undergoing tremendous advances. This report looks at
some recent advances in RAM technology, including that of the conventional Dynamic Random
Access Memory in the form of DDR 3 (Double Data Rate Type 3). We also look at the emerging area
of Non‐volatile random‐access memory (NVRAM). NVRAM is random‐access memory that retains its
information when power is turned off, which is described technically as being non‐volatile. This is in
contrast to the most common forms of random access memory today, dynamic random‐access
memory (DRAM) and static random‐access memory (SRAM), which both require continual power in
order to maintain their data. NVRAM is a subgroup of the more general class of non‐volatile memory
types, the difference being that NVRAM devices offer random access, unlike hard disks.
Double Data Rate 3 Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
DDR 3, the third‐generation of DDR SDRAM technology, is a modern kind of DRAM with a high
bandwidth interface. It is one of several variants of DRAM and associated interface techniques used
since the early 1970s. DDR3 SDRAM is neither forward nor backward compatible with any earlier
type of RAM due to different signaling voltages, timings, and other factors. It makes further
improvements in bandwidth and power consumption in comparison to DDR 2 . DDR3 manufacturers
began fabrication using with 90 nm technologies. With increasing production volumes, they are
moving toward 70 nm technology. DDR3 operates at clock rates from 400 MHz to 1066 MHz with
theoretical peak bandwidths ranging from 6.40 GB/s to 17 GB/s. DDR3 DIMMs (Dual Inline Memory
Modules) can reduce power consumption by up to 30% compared to DDR2 DIMMs operating at the
same speed. DDR3 DIMMs use the same 240‐pin connector as DDR2 DIMMs, but the notch key is in
a different position. DDR3 sales account for around 70 percent of the total DRAM units sold in 2011.
DDR3 SDRAM DIMM manufacturers produce two types of DIMMs: Unbuffered DIMMs (UDIMM) and
Registered DIMMs (RDIMM). UDIMMs are the most basic type of memory module and offer a lower
latency and low power consumption but are limited in capacity. RDIMMs offer larger capacities than
UDIMMs and include address parity protection.
Zero‐capacitor Random Access Memory
Z‐RAM is a memory technology which relies on the "floating body effect" observable in SOI (Silicon
on Insulator) substrates. Basically, a type of charge accumulates within the transistor when SOI is
used as a substrate, creating an undesirable parasitic effect. While normally unwanted, a technique
to utilize the known effect for a type of memory storage in high‐speed data systems has been
developed, which forms the technological basis for Z‐RAM. Since their design does not use
capacitors, but rather relies upon the capacitance effect of the floating body, Z‐RAM requires
significantly less power to operate, for reads, writes and refreshes. Z‐RAM is a denser form of
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memory, when compared to DRAM. It is a capacitor‐less design, and therefore consumes
significantly less power for data retention, and a commensurate amount of power for data reads and
writes.
A non‐SOI version of Z‐RAM that could be manufactured on lower cost bulk CMOS (Complementary
Metal Oxide Semiconductor) technology is supposedly under way.
Thyristor RAM
T‐RAM is a new type of DRAM computer memory which departs from the usual designs of memory
cells, combining the strengths of the DRAM and SRAM: high speed and high volume. This technology,
which exploits the electrical property known as negative differential resistance and is called thin
capacitively‐coupled thyristor, is used to create memory cells capable of very high packing densities.
Due to this, the memory is highly scalable, and already has a storage density that is several times
higher than found in conventional six‐transistor SRAM memory.
Twin Transistor RAM
TTRAM is a new type of computer memory in development which is similar to conventional one‐
transistor, one‐capacitor DRAM in concept, but eliminates the capacitor by relying on the floating
body effect inherent in a Silicon on Insulator (SOI) manufacturing process. This effect causes
capacitance to build up between the transistors and the underlying substrate, originally considered a
nuisance, but here used to replace a part outright. Since a transistor created using the SOI process is
somewhat smaller than a capacitor, TTRAM offers somewhat higher densities than conventional
DRAM. Since prices are strongly related to density, TTRAM is theoretically less expensive. However
the requirement to be built on SOI fab lines, which are currently the “leading edge”, makes the cost
somewhat unpredictable at this point.
In the TTRAM memory cell, two transistors are serially connected on an SOI substrate. One is an
access transistor, while the other is used as a storage transistor and fulfils the same function as the
capacitor in a conventional DRAM cell. Data reads and writes are performed according to the
conduction state of the access transistor and the floating‐body potential state of the storage
transistor. The fact that TTRAM memory cell operations don't require a step‐up voltage or negative
voltage, as DRAM cells do, makes the new cell design suitable for use with future finer processes and
lower operating voltages.
Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory
Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory (MRAM) is a non‐volatile computer memory (NVRAM)
technology that has been under development since the 1990s. Unlike conventional RAM chip
technologies, in MRAM data is not stored as electric charge or current flows, but by magnetic
storage elements. The elements are formed from two ferromagnetic plates, each of which can hold a
magnetic field, separated by a thin insulating layer. One of the two plates is a permanent magnet set
to a particular polarity, the other's field can be changed to match that of an external field to store
memory. This configuration is known as a spin valve and is the simplest structure for a MRAM bit. A
memory device is built from a grid of such "cells".
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Ferroelectric Random Access Memory
Ferroelectric RAM (FeRAM or FRAM) is a random‐access memory similar in construction to DRAM
but uses a ferroelectric layer instead of a dielectric layer to achieve non‐volatility. FeRAM is one of a
growing number of alternative non‐volatile memory technologies that offer the same functionality
as Flash memory. FeRAM advantages over Flash include: lower power usage, faster write
performance and a much greater maximum number (exceeding 1016 for 3.3 V devices) of write‐
erase cycles. Disadvantages of FeRAM are much lower storage densities than Flash devices, storage
capacity limitations, and higher cost.
Ferroelectric RAM was proposed by MIT graduate student Dudley Allen Buck in his master's thesis,
Ferroelectrics for Digital Information Storage and Switching, published in 1952. Development of
FeRAM began in the late 1980s. Work was done in 1991 at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory on
improving methods of read out, including a novel method of non‐destructive readout using pulses of
UV radiation. Much of the current FeRAM technology was developed by Ramtron, a fabless
semiconductor company. One major licensee is Fujitsu, who operate what is probably the largest
semiconductor foundry production line with FeRAM capability. Since 1999 they have been using this
line to produce standalone FeRAMs, as well as specialized chips (e.g. chips for smart cards) with
embedded FeRAMs within. Fujitsu produces devices for Ramtron. FeRAM remains a relatively small
part of the overall semiconductor market.
Ferroelectric Transistor Random Access Memory
Researchers are developing a new type of computer memory that could be faster than the existing
commercial memory and use far less power than flash memory devices. The technology combines
silicon nanowires with a "ferroelectric" polymer, a material that switches polarity when electric
fields are applied, making possible a new type of ferroelectric transistor.
The ferroelectric transistor's changing polarity is read as 0 or 1, an operation needed for digital
circuits to store information in binary code consisting of sequences of ones and zeroes. The new
technology is called FeTRAM, for ferroelectric transistor random access memory.
The FeTRAM technology has non‐volatile storage, meaning it stays in memory after the computer is
turned off. The devices have the potential to use 99 percent less energy than flash memory, a non‐
volatile computer storage chip and the predominant form of memory in the commercial market. The
FeTRAM technology fulfills the three basic functions of computer memory: to write information,
read the information and hold it for a long period of time.
The new technology also is compatible with industry manufacturing processes for complementary
metal oxide semiconductors, or CMOS, used to produce computer chips. It has the potential to
replace conventional memory systems. The FeTRAMs are similar to state‐of‐the‐art ferroelectric
random access memories, FeRAMs, which are in commercial use but represent a relatively small part
of the overall semiconductor market. Both use ferroelectric material to store information in a
nonvolatile fashion, but unlike FeRAMS, the new technology allows for nondestructive readout,
meaning information can be read without losing it. This nondestructive readout is possible by storing
information using a ferroelectric transistor instead of a capacitor, which is used in conventional
FeRAMs.
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Resistive random‐access memory
RRAM or ReRAM is a new non‐volatile memory type being developed based on different dielectric
materials, spanning from perovskites to transition metal oxides to chalcogenides. Even silicon
dioxide has been shown to exhibit resistive switching as early as 1967 and has recently been
revisited. The basic idea is that a dielectric, which is normally insulating, can be made to conduct
through a filament or conduction path formed after application of a sufficiently high voltage. The
conduction path formation can arise from different mechanisms, including defects, metal migration,
etc. Once the filament is formed, it may be reset (broken, resulting in high resistance) or set (re‐
formed, resulting in lower resistance) by an appropriately applied voltage giving us a memory cell.
ReRAM has been demonstrated even by a new circuit element called memristor. Till now, the
resistor, the capacitor, and the inductor; all of which are significant because circuitry is the backbone
of memory functionality were the known circuit elements. Hewlett Packard which has pioneered the
new circuit element has announced plans to commercialize ReRAM based on the memristor.
Nano‐RAM
NRAM is a type of nonvolatile random access memory based on the mechanical position of carbon
nanotubes deposited on a chip‐like substrate. In theory, the small size of the nanotubes allows for
very high density memories. The first generation NRAM technology was based on a three‐terminal
semiconductor device where a third terminal is used to switch the memory cell between memory
states. The second generation NRAM technology is based on a two‐terminal memory cell. The two‐
terminal cell has advantages such as a smaller cell size, better scalability to sub‐20 nm nodes), and
the ability to passivate the memory cell during fabrication.
Phase‐change Random Access Memory
PRAM (also called PCRAM, Ovonic Unified Memory, Chalcogenide RAM and C‐RAM) is a type of non‐
volatile computer memory. PRAMs exploit the unique behaviour of chalcogenide glass. Heat
produced by the passage of an electric current switches this material between two states, crystalline
and amorphous. Recent versions can achieve two additional distinct states, in effect doubling their
storage capacity. PRAM is one of several new memory technologies competing in the non‐volatile
role.
Conclusion
The constant need to boost memory performance for increasingly powerful system processors drives
the development of advanced RAM technologies. The success of the technologies of course depends
on a number of factors including that of market forces. Market forces are an important determinant
in the success as considerable investment has been made for the commercialization of existing
technologies. Many of the technologies discussed are proprietary in nature like Z‐RAM, NRAM,
ReRAM, etc. which are impediments in their future development and universal acceptability.
The discussion also points out to the fact that there is an increasing trend of developing non‐volatile
random access memory or NVRAM. This is primarily driven by the fact that such memory can be
used also to replace the non‐volatile memory technologies that are in use today.
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References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRAM
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAM
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T‐RAM
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nano‐RAM
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase‐change_memory
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/09/110927155228.htm
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