The Bedan Journal of Psychology 2017

Development of Student’s Scale for Anti-intellectualism

Fortuno, Renz Carlo DS.

Cuason, Sherwin U.

In developing this scale, the researcher underwent a series of steps. First was item construction, with the help
of universally accepted definitions of Anti-intellectualism, the researcher listed 60 items that could possibly
determine a person’s possession of high or low levels of anti-intellectual attitude. Second, the scale went
through a process called “face validation”, wherein the 60 item scale was screened by 4 experts in the field of
psychology, as well as 2 psychology students. The validators then selected which items should be retained. After
the process of face validation, only 25 items remained, and from there, the researcher conducted an online pilot
study to 40 psychology students. The result of the pilot study was interpreted using a software referred to as
“IBM SPSS Statistics 24”, the cronbach alpha of the scale had been identified to be 0.876. This identifies how
high the reliability of the student’s scale for anti-intellectualism really is. Lastly, items that didn’t have a
standard deviation of 0.7 below and a correlational value of 0.5 and above were eliminated from the scale,
leaving only 5 items to complete the student’s scale for anti-intellectualism.

Key Words: Anti-intellectualism, Self-efficacy, Academic dishonesty

In a school setting, usually when a student gets a failing grade, his/her initial response used to be
disappointment, but nowadays, you will find students laughing at this predicament. When a person downgrades
any form of intellectual display, that person practices anti-intellectualism. Anti-intellectualism refers to an
individual's lack of interest in and disrespect for intellectual pursuits and critical thinking. Study shows that anti-
intellectualism can be considered a predictor of academic dishonesty. The higher the student’s anti-
intellectualism attitude is, the more likely it is that that student will cheat in school (Heppner, 2015). In contrary,
another study suggested that academic achievement in college has more to do with the educational environment
and a robust intellectual self-concept at college entry than with a culture of anti-intellectualism (Darnell Cole,
2011). With regards to academic dishonesty, despite the rules and regulations of the school, a number of students
still manage to get away with cheating, this can be in the form of copying others’ answers on a test or assignment
or even plagiarism. Various research suggest that cheating is associated with perceived peer behavior
while business students are more likely to cheat than nonbusiness students (McCabe, Butterfield & Trevino,
2006). However, another study opposes McCabe et al. and suggest that it is non-business students who are more
likely to cheat than the latter (Iyera & Eastmana, 2006). Either way, failure to address academic dishonesty may
lead to a further undermining of Academic Integrity. Which is why educators should shift their student’s attitude
by closely monitoring their performance as well as their behavior in order to decrease their level of anti-
intellectual attitude and for them to be more efficient as students (Eliasa, 2008).

Therefore, given the facts with regards to anti-intellectualism, educators around the world should focus
on redirecting students who possess high levels of anti-intellectualism attitude due to the fact that it could
manifest into behavioral or educational problems in the future. Before giving an intervention, the researcher
must first identify those individuals who possess high levels of anti-intellectual attitude. Unfortunately, the
researcher has no access to the existing student anti-intellectualism scale (Eigenberg & Sealander, 2001),
furthermore the scale is outdated and has yet to be modified for it to be applicable in other countries with different
culture like the Philippines. That being said, the researcher aims to construct a scale for anti-intellectualism that
is more fitting for Filipino students.

Anti-intellectualism attitude and Academic Performance

A very specific brand of ignorance is currently on the rise called Anti-intellectualism. Anti-
intellectualism is defined as the depreciation of the complexity associated with intellectual pursuits, and a
rejection of the elitism and self-aware attitude of distinction that is commonly associated with intellectual life
(Shogan, 2007). According to (Triki, Nicholls,Wegener, Bay & Cook, 2012), anti-intellectualism may impact
student’s performance in academic education. Students high in anti-intellectual attitudes and those with low
academic self-efficacy were more likely to engage in academic dishonesty, they also tend to show lack of interest
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in class. They are often the ones who display academic dishonesty and consistently downgrades intellectuals and
their work. However, student’s anti-intellectual attitudes can be lowered through the education process and low
anti-intellectual attitude can predict academic success (Elias, 2008).

Eigenberger & Sealander (2001) created the Student Anti-intellectualism Scale (SAIS) to assess the
attitude of anti-intellectualism among college students and university students. Using this scale, researchers
found that students in a more practically oriented majors such as business administration, scored high on a
student anti-intellectualism scale (SAIS), meaning they are more likely to display hostility towards intellectual
endeavors and those who engage in intellectual activities compared to students in more theory driven majors
such as psychology and sociology who had relatively lower student anti-intellectualism scale (SAIS) scores
(Laverghetta, Antonio; Nash, J. Kathleen, 2010). However, a study conducted by Cole (2011) suggests that
educational environment and a robust intellectual self-concept has more to do with academic achievement
compared to the culture of anti-intellectualism among African American students. At present, there are no studies
available with regards to anti-intellectualism and student’s academic success here in the Philippines.

Academic Self-efficacy and Academic Performance

Anti-intellectual attitude is just one of the factors that can affect a student’s academic performance,
another factor might be self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the belief in one's competence to cope with a broad range
of stressful or challenging demands, usually constrained to a task at hand. (Luszczynskaa, Scholzb &
Schwarzerb, 2005) said that self-efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one's own
motivation, behavior, and social environment. There has been a lot of studies that suggest that self-efficacy could
be an indicator of success in college or academics to be specific. In a study conducted by (Turner, Chandler,
Heffer, 2009), both intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy can be used to predict academic performance. While a
reciprocal cross-lagged model revealed that high perceived efficacy for self-regulated learning in junior high
school contributed to junior high school grades and self-regulatory efficacy in high school, which partially
mediated the relation of junior high grades on high school grades and the likelihood of remaining in school
(Caprara, Fida, Vecchione, Del Bove, Vecchio, Barbaranelli, Albert, 2008).
In another study, it was found that academic self-efficacy beliefs can indeed predict college outcomes
but this relationship is dependent on when efficacy beliefs are measured, the types of efficacy beliefs measured,
and the nature of the criteria used (Gore Jr.1, 2006). In order to solidify if the effects of having high self-efficacy
is positive, there should be a study with regards to the relationship between anti-intellectualism and self-efficacy.
If there is indeed a positive correlation, then it would solidify findings that suggest that self-efficacy can serve
as a predictor of academic success.

Academic Dishonesty
Academic dishonesty is an important issue for the academic integrity of higher education institutions,
and one that has lately been gaining increasing media attention (Brimble, Stevenson-Clarke, 2005). There are
many reasons why students engage in academic dishonesty, graduate business students cheat more than their
non-business-student peers. Cheating is correlated with perceived peer behavior, certainty of being reported by
a peer, and the understanding and acceptance of academic integrity policies by students and faculty (McCabe,
Butterfield & Treviño, 2006). Contrary to McCabe et al., Iyera et al suggest that non-business students are more
likely to cheat as compared to business students (Iyera & Eastmana, 2006).

Studies show that there is a lack of research with regards to academic dishonesty in asian countries (Lin
& Wen, 2006). Academic dishonesty has four domains: cheating on test, cheating on assignment, plagiarism,
and falsifying documents. Based on n = 2,068 Taiwanese college students, the prevalence rate for all types of
academic dishonesty among the sample was 61.72%. The most practiced modes of academic dishonesty among
the sample were providing papers/assignments for fellow students, giving prohibited help on assignment,
copying others’ assignments, and passing/copying answers to other students. Females engaged in less academic
dishonesty as compared to males. Lastly freshmen had more reports of academic dishonesty than other class
ranks. 1206 students and 190 academic staff were surveyed across four major Queensland universities, results
indicate a higher tolerance for academic misconduct by students as compared to staff, particularly with

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falsification of research results and plagiarism, as well as considerable underestimation by staff of the prevalence
of virtually all forms of student academic misconduct (Brimble, Stevenson-Clarke, 2005).

A national survey published in Education Week found that 54% admitted to internet plagiarism and
76% admitted to cheating; and the center for academic integrity found almost 80% of the college students
surveyed admitted to cheating at least once. In November 2010, more than 200 of the 600 students in a university
of central Florida business class confessed that they benefited from accessing online test questions prior to taking
their midterm exam (The Ticker, 2010). Overall academic dishonesty is considered one of the biggest threat to
an institution’s reputation and failure to address this problem may lead to a further undermining of the academic
integrity.

Synthesis
Anti-intellectualism is a form of mockery towards intellectuals and their intellectual pursuits by
commending ignorance over intellect. It has unfortunately made its way into Filipino culture and has plagued
the country for decades. Anti-intellectualism is very evident especially in the media, it is viewed as something
humorous by many people not only here in the Philippines but also around the world. Everyday many people
experience or witness anti-intellectualism, in some cases even practice it themselves. There is nothing funny
about anti-intellectualism and according to various research, it could lead to poor academic performance or even
heighten the tendency of academic dishonesty among students.

Majority of the research established with regards to academic dishonesty suggest that business students
are more likely to cheat than nonbusiness students. There are many ways to cheat, an example would be copying
from other students, getting prohibited help, internet plagiarism/plagiarism or even manipulation of data gathered
from research. One of the reasons why they give in to such misconduct is because of its availability. Internet
plagiarism is very rampant these days, with the help of the internet, copying and pasting someone else’s work
and taking credit for it is very convenient for students. The worst part about this is that students are not the only
one who display academic dishonesty, even the staffs do as well, mostly falsifying documents. In order to address
this issue, schools should strictly implement their rules in such a way that students will be given the chance to
further develop their skills and more importantly their character to be good citizens in the future and at the same
time divert themselves from all forms of academic dishonesty.

On the other hand, self-efficacy is considered one of the determinants of an individual’s academic
success. Majority of the studies with regards to self-efficacy have found that it has a positive relationship with
one’s performance, could be in school or out there in general. However, there is also a contrary study that claims
Self-efficacy could lead to overconfidence and hence could increase the likelihood of committing logical error
that could possibly lead to academic failure.

The researcher created the scale for anti-intellectualism to identify if the existing literatures with regards
to anti-intellectualism also apply in Asian countries like the Philippines. Whether it is true that students from a
theory-based major such as psychology do possess low levels of anti-intellectualism or not. The researcher
believed that legitimately validating the scale would unlock the immense potential of the topic “anti-
intellectualism”. The scale can be used as a tool in many correlational studies, anti-intellectualism can be
compared to many different variables such as academic dishonesty, self-efficacy and many more. Also, once the
scale is complete, it will be easier for experts to identify those students who possess either high or low level of
anti-intellectualism attitude and from there, create an intervention that will perhaps redirect or counteract the
students high level of anti-intellectualism attitude. The intervention might eventually decrease the likelihood of
academic dishonesty or even improve academic outcomes in the school setting.

Method
Research Design
A quantitative research design was used by the researcher to gather the information needed from the
participants. A validated five (5) point Likert scale consisting of five (5) items was created by the researcher in
order to measure that the intensity of psychology student’s anti-intellectual attitude.
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Participants
Based on majority of the literature, anti-intellectualism is correlated with academic performance.
Studies also state that students from a theory-driven major such as psychology possess low levels of anti-
intellectualism compared to students from a practically oriented course. The researcher used purposive sampling
technique and targeted third year level psychology students from a private school within Alabang.

Based on the school’s records, the third-year level have a total of 76 psychology students. The researcher
was able administer the test in three 3 different class, 56 out of 76 agreed to take the test and signed a waiver
that gives the researcher consent to use their GPA, while the remaining 20 students decline on the request of the
researcher to send a screenshot of their GPA due to confidentiality issues. A total of 73% of the psychology
students from the third-year level participated in the data gathering procedure.

Materials
The scale the researcher used started as a 60 items test that intends to measure a student’s anti-
intellectual attitude. The researcher consulted 4 experts in the field of psychology and 2 students to have the
scale validated. After the face validity process, the scale had 25 items left and it was used for an online pilot
study that had eventually increased the scale’s validity and reliability. Based on a software called “IBM SPSS
Statistics 24”, the Cronbach alpha of the test was 0.876. Out of 25 items, only 5 was retained due to high standard
deviation and low correlation scores of most of the item. A waiver was distributed among the participants, giving
the researcher permission to make use of the participant’s GPA.

Procedures
The researcher initially produced various items that had a potential to measure the target variable namely
anti-intellectualism. The researcher listed down 60 items that focused on measuring the intensity of anti-
intellectual attitudes that psychology students may possess, which; according to various researches are of low
levels. From there, the researcher had consulted 4 experts; a psychologist, a social psychologist and educators
who are knowledgeable about anti-intellectualism, as well as 2 psychology students in order to validate the scale.
Out of the initial 60 items, the validators selected which items should be retained and which items should be
eliminated. Each item should have had at least 4 votes from the validators for it to be retained.

After the validation process, the remaining 25 items were used for an online pilot study amongst 40
psychology students from a different year level to test if the scale can measure the student’s level of anti-
intellectual attitude. The researcher used a software called “IBM SPSS Statistics 24” to identify the Cronbach
alpha of the scale which was revealed to be 0.876. Based on the data gathered using IBM SPSS Statistics 24,
items with a standard deviation below 0.7 were retained, along with items with a correlational value of 0.5 and
above, thus, 5 items remained.

Data Analysis
The researcher constructed a 5 point Likert scale that is composed of 5 items and it intends to measure
a student’s level of anti-intellectual attitude. Every answer/option has a corresponding score, 1 point for strongly
disagree, 2 points for disagree, 3 points for neutral, 4 points for agree and 5 points for strongly disagree. The
final score ranges from 5 - 25 points, the closer to 5 the lower the level of anti-intellectual attitude, while the
closer to 25 the higher the level of anti-intellectual attitude.

To solidify the scales reliability, the researcher used a software called “IBM SPSS Statistics 24” to
measure the internal consistency of the data of the online pilot study using Cronbach’s alpha. The closer to
“1.00” the higher the reliability of the scale.

Based on IBM SPSS Statistics 24

Cronbach Alpha = 0.876

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Based on the records of the school, the third-year level have 76 psychology students. The researcher
administered the test to all the psychology section, however, only 56 students complied with the requirements
set by researcher for the data gathering procedure. According to the computation of the researcher, the correlation
coefficient of anti-intellectualism and the student’s GPA was 0.0827. The value of Pearson’s r is equal to 0.0827.

Results/Discussion
In designing the student’s scale for anti-intellectualism, the researcher went through a lot of procedures,
starting with the item construction. For the item construction, the researcher made use of definitions of anti-
intellectualism that are universally established/understood in order to come up with questions that may have the
potential to determine whether an individual possess high or low levels of anti-intellectual attitude. After
constructing 60 items for the scale, the researcher consulted with 4 experts in various field of psychology and 2
psychology students from a different year level for the face validation. The validators received a tabular form of
the scale and their job was to simply select which items should be retained and which items should be
disregarded. Each item needed 4 votes from the validators to retain a certain item. After the face validation, out
of the original 60 items, only 25 items were retained.

Using the remaining 25 item scale, the researcher conducted a pilot study to a sample of students quite
like the researcher’s target population which was 40 psychology students from the different year level. The
researcher used a software called “IBM SPSS Statistics 24” to measure the internal consistency of the online
pilot study scale using Cronbach’s alpha which was 0.876. Also, items with a standard of deviation below 0.7
were retained, as well as items items with a correlational value of 0.5 and above, thus, 5 items remained.

In order to solidify the findings with regards to anti-intellectualism having an impact on a student’s
academic performance in school (Triki et al., 2012), the researcher correlated the participant’s score on the
student’s scale for anti-intellectualism and their GPA. The correlation coefficient from the two variables served
as an additional proof of reliability along with the face validity and the Cronbach alpha of the scale. Based on
the researcher’s computation, the correlation coefficient of the scale was 0.0827. Given the data, the researcher
concluded that the student’s score on the student’s scale for anti-intellectualism and GPA had low correlation.
The outcome is in lined with one of the literatures that suggest anti-intellectualism is not the main key factor as
to why a student achieve academic success (Darnell Cole, 2011). Therefore, a student’s anti-intellectual attitude
alone does not determine whether a student will achieve academic success or failure.

Conclusion/Recommendation
The outcome of the actual data gathering procedure is in lined with one of the literatures that is in
contrary to the findings of the majority. (Darnell Cole, 2011), suggested that an individual’s level of anti-
intellectual attitude is not essential in terms of predicting the outcome of the individual’s academic performance.
Even though students from a theory-driven major such as psychology does in fact have low anti-intellectual
attitude, it does not guarantee that the student will get better grades compared to someone with higher anti-
intellectual attitude.

For the succeeding researchers of the topic “Anti-intellectualism”, the researcher highly encouraged the
use of other psychological tests/scales to measure certain variables and correlate them to the individual’s anti-
intellectual attitude to see if there is a significant relationship between the two. For example, the use of IQ test
to determine if a person’s IQ is either positively or negatively correlated with his/her level of anti-intellectual
attitude, or make use a personality test to see if certain personality types possess high or low anti-intellectual
attitude and many more. Lastly, maximize the use of data gathering tools, adapt both qualitative and quantitative
approach to solidify findings and have a more in depth understanding of your data.

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