SQL - OVERVIEW

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SQL is a language to operate databases; it includes database creation, deletion,

fetching rows, modifying rows, etc. SQL is
an ANSI AmericanNationalStandardsInstituteAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute standar
d language, but there are many different versions of the SQL language.

What is SQL?

SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing,

manipulating and retrieving data stored in a relational database.

SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational
Database Management Systems RDMSRDMS like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle,
Sybase, Informix, Postgres and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database
language.

Also, they are using different dialects, such as −

 MS SQL Server using T-SQL,

 Oracle using PL/SQL,
 MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL nativeformatnativeformat etc.

Why SQL?

SQL is widely popular because it offers the following advantages −

 Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.

 Allows users to describe the data.
 Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
 Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-
compilers.
 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
 Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
 Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

A Brief History of SQL

  1970 − Dr. Edgar F. "Ted" Codd of IBM is known as the father of relational
databases. He described a relational model for databases.
 1974 − Structured Query Language appeared.
 1978 − IBM worked to develop Codd's ideas and released a product named
System/R.
 1986 − IBM developed the first prototype of relational database and
standardized by ANSI. The first relational database was released by Relational
Software which later came to be known as Oracle.

SQL Process

When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines
the best way to carry out your request and SQL engine figures out how to interpret the
task.

There are various components included in this process.

These components are −

 Query Dispatcher
 Optimization Engines
 Classic Query Engine
 SQL Query Engine, etc.

A classic query engine handles all the non-SQL queries, but a SQL query engine
won't handle logical files.

Following is a simple diagram showing the SQL Architecture −

SQL Commands

The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are CREATE,
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and DROP. These commands can be
classified into the following groups based on their nature −

DDL - Data Definition Language

Sr.No. Command & Description

CREATE
1 Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in the database.
 ALTER
2
Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.

DROP
3
Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other objects in the database.

DML - Data Manipulation Language

Sr.No. Command & Description

SELECT
1 Retrieves certain records from one or more tables.

INSERT
2
Creates a record.

UPDATE
3
Modifies records.

DELETE
4
Deletes records.

DCL - Data Control Language

Sr.No. Command & Description

 GRANT
1 Gives a privilege to user.

REVOKE
2
Takes back privileges granted from user.

SQL - RDBMS CONCEPTS

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What is RDBMS?

RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis
for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2,
Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.

A Relational database management system RDBMSRDBMS is a database management

system DBMSDBMSthat is based on the relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd.

What is a table?

The data in an RDBMS is stored in database objects which are called as tables. This
table is basically a collection of related data entries and it consists of numerous
columns and rows.

Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage in a
relational database. The following program is an example of a CUSTOMERS table −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

What is a field?

Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the
CUSTOMERS table consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.

A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about

every record in the table.

What is a Record or a Row?

A record is also called as a row of data is each individual entry that exists in a table.
For example, there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table. Following is a
single row of data or record in the CUSTOMERS table −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

A record is a horizontal entity in a table.

What is a column?

A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a
specific field in a table.

For example, a column in the CUSTOMERS table is ADDRESS, which represents

location description and would be as shown below −

+-----------+
| ADDRESS |
+-----------+
| Ahmedabad |
| Delhi |
| Kota |
| Mumbai |
| Bhopal |
| MP |
| Indore |
+----+------+

What is a NULL value?

A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank, which means a
field with a NULL value is a field with no value.

It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a
field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is the one that has been left
blank during a record creation.

SQL Constraints

Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on a table. These are used to limit
the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of
the data in the database.

Constraints can either be column level or table level. Column level constraints are
applied only to one column whereas, table level constraints are applied to the entire
table.

Following are some of the most commonly used constraints available in SQL −

 NOT NULL Constraint − Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.
 DEFAULT Constraint − Provides a default value for a column when none is
specified.
 UNIQUE Constraint − Ensures that all the values in a column are different.
 PRIMARY Key − Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.
 FOREIGN Key − Uniquely identifies a row/record in any another database
table.
 CHECK Constraint − The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a
column satisfy certain conditions.
 INDEX − Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

Data Integrity

The following categories of data integrity exist with each RDBMS −

  Entity Integrity − There are no duplicate rows in a table.
 Domain Integrity − Enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting
the type, the format, or the range of values.
 Referential integrity − Rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other
records.
 User-Defined Integrity − Enforces some specific business rules that do not fall
into entity, domain or referential integrity.

Database Normalization

Database normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database.

There are two reasons of this normalization process −

 Eliminating redundant data, for example, storing the same data in more than
one table.
 Ensuring data dependencies make sense.

Both these reasons are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database
consumes and ensures that data is logically stored. Normalization consists of a series
of guidelines that help guide you in creating a good database structure.

Normalization guidelines are divided into normal forms; think of a form as the format
or the way a database structure is laid out. The aim of normal forms is to organize the
database structure, so that it complies with the rules of first normal form, then second
normal form and finally the third normal form.

It is your choice to take it further and go to the fourth normal form, fifth normal form
and so on, but in general, the third normal form is more than enough.

 First Normal Form 1NF1NF

 Second Normal Form 2NF2NF
 Third Normal Form 3NF

SQL - RDBMS DATABASES

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There are many popular RDBMS available to work with. This tutorial gives a brief
overview of some of the most popular RDBMS’s. This would help you to compare
their basic features.

MySQL

MySQL is an open source SQL database, which is developed by a Swedish company

– MySQL AB. MySQL is pronounced as "my ess-que-ell," in contrast with SQL,
pronounced "sequel."

MySQL is supporting many different platforms including Microsoft Windows, the

major Linux distributions, UNIX, and Mac OS X.

MySQL has free and paid versions, depending on its

usage non−commercial/commercialnon−commercial/commercial and features. MySQL
comes with a very fast, multi-threaded, multi-user and robust SQL database server.

History

 Development of MySQL by Michael Widenius & David Axmark beginning in

1994.
 First internal release on 23rd May 1995.
 Windows Version was released on the 8th January 1998 for Windows 95 and
NT.
 Version 3.23: beta from June 2000, production release January 2001.
 Version 4.0: beta from August 2002, production release March
2003 unionsunions.
 Version 4.01: beta from August 2003, Jyoti adopts MySQL for database
tracking.
 Version 4.1: beta from June 2004, production release October 2004.
 Version 5.0: beta from March 2005, production release October 2005.
 Sun Microsystems acquired MySQL AB on the 26th February 2008.
 Version 5.1: production release 27th November 2008.

Features

 High Performance.
 High Availability.
 Scalability and Flexibility Run anything.
 Robust Transactional Support.
  Web and Data Warehouse Strengths.
 Strong Data Protection.
 Comprehensive Application Development.
 Management Ease.
 Open Source Freedom and 24 x 7 Support.
 Lowest Total Cost of Ownership.

MS SQL Server

MS SQL Server is a Relational Database Management System developed by

Microsoft Inc. Its primary query languages are −

 T-SQL
 ANSI SQL

History

 1987 - Sybase releases SQL Server for UNIX.

 1988 - Microsoft, Sybase, and Aston-Tate port SQL Server to OS/2.
 1989 - Microsoft, Sybase, and Aston-Tate release SQL Server 1.0 for OS/2.
 1990 - SQL Server 1.1 is released with support for Windows 3.0 clients.
 Aston - Tate drops out of SQL Server development.
 2000 - Microsoft releases SQL Server 2000.
 2001 - Microsoft releases XML for SQL Server Web Release
1 downloaddownload.
 2002 - Microsoft releases SQLXML
2.0 renamedfromXMLforSQLServerrenamedfromXMLforSQLServer.
 2002 - Microsoft releases SQLXML 3.0.
 2005 - Microsoft releases SQL Server 2005 on November 7th, 2005.

Features

 High Performance
 High Availability
 Database mirroring
 Database snapshots
  CLR integration
 Service Broker
 DDL triggers
 Ranking functions
 Row version-based isolation levels
 XML integration
 TRY...CATCH
 Database Mail

ORACLE

It is a very large multi-user based database management system. Oracle is a relational

database management system developed by 'Oracle Corporation'.

Oracle works to efficiently manage its resources, a database of information among the
multiple clients requesting and sending data in the network.

It is an excellent database server choice for client/server computing. Oracle supports

all major operating systems for both clients and servers, including MSDOS, NetWare,
UnixWare, OS/2 and most UNIX flavors.

History

Oracle began in 1977 and celebrating its 32 wonderful years in the

industry from1977to2009from1977to2009.

 1977 - Larry Ellison, Bob Miner and Ed Oates founded Software Development
Laboratories to undertake development work.
 1979 - Version 2.0 of Oracle was released and it became first commercial
relational database and first SQL database. The company changed its name to
Relational Software Inc. RSIRSI.
 1981 - RSI started developing tools for Oracle.
 1982 - RSI was renamed to Oracle Corporation.
 1983 - Oracle released version 3.0, rewritten in C language and ran on multiple
platforms.
 1984 - Oracle version 4.0 was released. It contained features like concurrency
control - multi-version read consistency, etc.
  1985 - Oracle version 4.0 was released. It contained features like concurrency
control - multi-version read consistency, etc.
 2007 - Oracle released Oracle11g. The new version focused on better
partitioning, easy migration, etc.

Features

 Concurrency
 Read Consistency
 Locking Mechanisms
 Quiesce Database
 Portability
 Self-managing database
 SQL*Plus
 ASM
 Scheduler
 Resource Manager
 Data Warehousing
 Materialized views
 Bitmap indexes
 Table compression
 Parallel Execution
 Analytic SQL
 Data mining
 Partitioning

MS ACCESS

This is one of the most popular Microsoft products. Microsoft Access is an entry-level
database management software. MS Access database is not only inexpensive but also
a powerful database for small-scale projects.
MS Access uses the Jet database engine, which utilizes a specific SQL language
dialect sometimesreferredtoasJetSQLsometimesreferredtoasJetSQL.

MS Access comes with the professional edition of MS Office package. MS Access

has easyto-use intuitive graphical interface.

 1992 - Access version 1.0 was released.

 1993 - Access 1.1 released to improve compatibility with inclusion the Access
Basic programming language.
 The most significant transition was from Access 97 to Access 2000.
 2007 - Access 2007, a new database format was introduced ACCDB which
supports complex data types such as multi valued and attachment fields.

Features

 Users can create tables, queries, forms and reports and connect them together
with macros.
 Option of importing and exporting the data to many formats including Excel,
Outlook, ASCII, dBase, Paradox, FoxPro, SQL Server, Oracle, ODBC, etc.
 There is also the Jet Database
format MDBorACCDBinAccess2007MDBorACCDBinAccess2007, which can
contain the application and data in one file. This makes it very convenient to
distribute the entire application to another user, who can run it in disconnected
environments.
 Microsoft Access offers parameterized queries. These queries and Access
tables can be referenced from other programs like VB6 and .NET through DAO
or ADO.
 The desktop editions of Microsoft SQL Server can be used with Access as an
alternative to the Jet Database Engine.
 Microsoft Access is a file server-based database. Unlike the client-server
relational database management systems RDBMSRDBMS, Microsoft Access
does not implement database triggers, stored procedures or transaction logging.

SQL - SYNTAX
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SQL is followed by a unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. This tutorial
gives you a quick start with SQL by listing all the basic SQL Syntax.
All the SQL statements start with any of the keywords like SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, ALTER, DROP, CREATE, USE, SHOW and all the statements
end with a semicolon ;;.

The most important point to be noted here is that SQL is case insensitive, which
means SELECT and select have same meaning in SQL statements. Whereas, MySQL
makes difference in table names. So, if you are working with MySQL, then you need
to give table names as they exist in the database.

Various Syntax in SQL

All the examples given in this tutorial have been tested with a MySQL server.

SQL SELECT Statement

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name;

SQL DISTINCT Clause

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name;

SQL WHERE Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;

SQL AND/OR Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1 {AND|OR} CONDITION-2;

SQL IN Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);

SQL BETWEEN Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;

SQL LIKE Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };

SQL ORDER BY Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name {ASC|DESC};

SQL GROUP BY Clause

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;

SQL COUNT Clause

SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;

SQL HAVING Clause

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING (arithematic function condition);

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

CREATE TABLE table_name(

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);

SQL DROP TABLE Statement

DROP TABLE table_name;

SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name ( column1, column2,...columnN);

SQL DROP INDEX Statement

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP INDEX index_name;

SQL DESC Statement

DESC table_name;

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

ALTER TABLE table_name {ADD|DROP|MODIFY} column_name {data_ype};

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement RenameRename

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;

SQL INSERT INTO Statement

INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)

VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);

SQL UPDATE Statement

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];

SQL DELETE Statement

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE {CONDITION};

SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

CREATE DATABASE database_name;

SQL DROP DATABASE Statement

DROP DATABASE database_name;

SQL USE Statement

USE database_name;

SQL COMMIT Statement

COMMIT;

SQL ROLLBACK Statement

ROLLBACK;

SQL - DATA TYPES

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SQL Data Type is an attribute that specifies the type of data of any object. Each
column, variable and expression has a related data type in SQL. You can use these
data types while creating your tables. You can choose a data type for a table column
based on your requirement.
SQL Server offers six categories of data types for your use which are listed below −

Exact Numeric Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

bigint -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

int -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647

smallint -32,768 32,767

tinyint 0 255

bit 0 1

decimal -10^38 +1 10^38 -1

 numeric -10^38 +1 10^38 -1

money -922,337,203,685,477.5808 +922,337,203,685,477.5807

smallmoney -214,748.3648 +214,748.3647

Approximate Numeric Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

float -1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308

real -3.40E + 38 3.40E + 38

Date and Time Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

 datetime Jan 1, 1753 Dec 31, 9999

smalldatetime Jan 1, 1900 Jun 6, 2079

date Stores a date like June 30, 1991

time Stores a time of day like 12:30 P.M.

Note − Here, datetime has 3.33 milliseconds accuracy where as smalldatetime has 1
minute accuracy.

Character Strings Data Types

Sr.No. DATA TYPE & Description

char
1 Maximum length of 8,000
characters.Fixedlengthnon−UnicodecharactersFixedlengthnon−Unicodecharacters

varchar
2
Maximum of 8,000
characters.Variable−lengthnon−UnicodedataVariable−lengthnon−Unicodedata.
 varcharmaxmax
3
Maximum length of 231characters, Variable-length non-Unicode
data SQLServer2005onlySQLServer2005only.

text
4
Variable-length non-Unicode data with a maximum length of 2,147,483,647
characters.

Unicode Character Strings Data Types

Sr.No. DATA TYPE & Description

nchar
1 Maximum length of 4,000 characters.FixedlengthUnicodeFixedlengthUnicode

nvarchar
2
Maximum length of 4,000 characters.VariablelengthUnicodeVariablelengthUnicode

nvarcharmaxmax
3
Maximum length of
231characters SQLServer2005onlySQLServer2005only.VariablelengthUnicodeVariablelengthUni

ntext
4
Maximum length of 1,073,741,823 characters. VariablelengthUnicodeVariablelengthUnicode

Binary Data Types

Sr.No. DATA TYPE & Description

 binary
1 Maximum length of 8,000 bytesFixed−lengthbinarydataFixed−lengthbinarydata

varbinary
2
Maximum length of 8,000 bytes.VariablelengthbinarydataVariablelengthbinarydata

varbinarymaxmax
3
Maximum length of 231
bytes SQLServer2005onlySQLServer2005only. VariablelengthBinarydataVariablelengthBinaryda

image
4
Maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. VariablelengthBinaryDataVariablelengthBinaryData

Misc Data Types

Sr.No. DATA TYPE & Description

sql_variant
1 Stores values of various SQL Server-supported data types, except text, ntext, and
timestamp.

timestamp
2
Stores a database-wide unique number that gets updated every time a row gets updated

uniqueidentifier
3
Stores a globally unique identifier GUIDGUID

xml
4
Stores XML data. You can store xml instances in a column or a
variable SQLServer2005onlySQLServer2005only.
 cursor
5
Reference to a cursor object

table
6
Stores a result set for later processing

SQL - OPERATORS
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What is an Operator in SQL?

An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL statement's

WHERE clause to perform operationss, such as comparisons and arithmetic
operations. These Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement and to
serve as conjunctions for multiple conditions in a statement.

 Arithmetic operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Operators used to negate conditions

SQL Arithmetic Operators

Assume 'variable a' holds 10 and 'variable b' holds 20, then −

Show Examples

Operator Description Example

Adds values on either side of the operator. a+b

+ AdditionAddition will give
30
 Subtracts right hand operand from left hand a - b will
- SubtractionSubtraction
operand. give -10

Multiplies values on either side of the operator. a * b will

* MultiplicationMultiplication
give 200

Divides left hand operand by right hand b / a will

/ DivisionDivision
operand. give 2

Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b%a

% ModulusModulus and returns remainder. will give
0

SQL Comparison Operators

Assume 'variable a' holds 10 and 'variable b' holds 20, then −

Show Examples

Operator Description Example

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then a=ba=b is
=
condition becomes true. not true.

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are a!=ba!=b is
!=
not equal then condition becomes true. true.

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are a<>ba<>b is
<>
not equal then condition becomes true. true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right a>ba>b is
>
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. not true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right a<ba<b is
<
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.
 Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the a>=ba>=b is
>=
value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. not true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value a<=ba<=b is
<=
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.

Checks if the value of left operand is not less than the value of a!<ba!<b is
!<
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. false.

Checks if the value of left operand is not greater than the value of a!>ba!>b is
!>
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.

SQL Logical Operators

Here is a list of all the logical operators available in SQL.

Show Examples

Sr.No. Operator & Description

ALL
1 The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set.

AND
2
The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.

ANY
3
The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list as per
the condition.

BETWEEN
4
The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of values,
given the minimum value and the maximum value.
 EXISTS
5
The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table
that meets a certain criterion.

IN
6
The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have been
specified.

LIKE
7
The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard
operators.

NOT
8
The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used.
Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.

OR
9
The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.

IS NULL
10
The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL value.

UNIQUE
11
The UNIQUE operator searches every row of a specified table for
uniqueness noduplicatesnoduplicates.

SQL - EXPRESSIONS
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An expression is a combination of one or more values, operators and SQL functions

that evaluate to a value. These SQL EXPRESSIONs are like formulae and they are
written in query language. You can also use them to query the database for a specific
set of data.
Syntax

Consider the basic syntax of the SELECT statement as follows −

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [CONDITION|EXPRESSION];

There are different types of SQL expressions, which are mentioned below −

 Boolean
 Numeric
 Date

Let us now discuss each of these in detail.

Boolean Expressions

SQL Boolean Expressions fetch the data based on matching a single value. Following
is the syntax −

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE SINGLE VALUE MATCHING EXPRESSION;

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

The following table is a simple example showing the usage of various SQL Boolean
Expressions −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY = 10000;

+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Numeric Expression

These expressions are used to perform any mathematical operation in any query.
Following is the syntax −

SELECT numerical_expression as OPERATION_NAME

[FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION] ;

Here, the numerical_expression is used for a mathematical expression or any formula.

Following is a simple example showing the usage of SQL Numeric Expressions −

SQL> SELECT (15 + 6) AS ADDITION

+----------+
| ADDITION |
+----------+
| 21 |
+----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

There are several built-in functions like avg, sum, count, etc., to perform what is
known as the aggregate data calculations against a table or a specific table column.

SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) AS "RECORDS" FROM CUSTOMERS;

+---------+
| RECORDS |
+---------+
| 7 |
+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Date Expressions

Date Expressions return current system date and time values −

SQL> SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;

+---------------------+
| Current_Timestamp |
+---------------------+
| 2009-11-12 06:40:23 |
+---------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Another date expression is as shown below −

SQL> SELECT GETDATE();;

+-------------------------+
| GETDATE |
+-------------------------+
| 2009-10-22 12:07:18.140 |
+-------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SQL - CREATE DATABASE

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The SQL CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new SQL database.

Syntax
The basic syntax of this CREATE DATABASE statement is as follows −

CREATE DATABASE DatabaseName;

Always the database name should be unique within the RDBMS.

Example

If you want to create a new database <testDB>, then the CREATE DATABASE
statement would be as shown below −

SQL> CREATE DATABASE testDB;

Make sure you have the admin privilege before creating any database. Once a
database is created, you can check it in the list of databases as follows −

SQL> SHOW DATABASES;

+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
| testDB |
+--------------------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

SQL - DROP OR DELETE DATABASE

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The SQL DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing database in SQL
schema.

Syntax

The basic syntax of DROP DATABASE statement is as follows −

DROP DATABASE DatabaseName;

Always the database name should be unique within the RDBMS.

Example

If you want to delete an existing database <testDB>, then the DROP DATABASE
statement would be as shown below −

SQL> DROP DATABASE testDB;

NOTE − Be careful before using this operation because by deleting an existing

database would result in loss of complete information stored in the database.

Make sure you have the admin privilege before dropping any database. Once a
database is dropped, you can check it in the list of the databases as shown below −

SQL> SHOW DATABASES;

+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
+--------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

SQL - SELECT DATABASE, USE STATEMENT

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When you have multiple databases in your SQL Schema, then before starting your
operation, you would need to select a database where all the operations would be
performed.

The SQL USE statement is used to select any existing database in the SQL schema.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the USE statement is as shown below −

USE DatabaseName;

Always the database name should be unique within the RDBMS.

Example

You can check the available databases as shown below −

SQL> SHOW DATABASES;

+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
+--------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Now, if you want to work with the AMROOD database, then you can execute the
following SQL command and start working with the AMROOD database.

SQL> USE AMROOD;

SQL - CREATE TABLE

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Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each
column's data type.

The SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the CREATE TABLE statement is as follows −

CREATE TABLE table_name(

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);

CREATE TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you want to do. In
this case, you want to create a new table. The unique name or identifier for the table
follows the CREATE TABLE statement.

Then in brackets comes the list defining each column in the table and what sort of data
type it is. The syntax becomes clearer with the following example.

A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the CREATE

TABLE statement and the SELECT statement. You can check the complete details
at Create Table Using another Table.

Example

The following code block is an example, which creates a CUSTOMERS table with an
ID as a primary key and NOT NULL are the constraints showing that these fields
cannot be NULL while creating records in this table −

SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
 PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

You can verify if your table has been created successfully by looking at the message
displayed by the SQL server, otherwise you can use the DESC command as follows −

SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;

+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID | int(11) | NO | PRI | | |
| NAME | varchar(20) | NO | | | |
| AGE | int(11) | NO | | | |
| ADDRESS | char(25) | YES | | NULL | |
| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES | | NULL | |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Now, you have CUSTOMERS table available in your database which you can use to
store the required information related to customers.

SQL - DROP OR DELETE TABLE

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The SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to remove a table definition and all the
data, indexes, triggers, constraints and permission specifications for that table.

NOTE − You should be very careful while using this command because once a table
is deleted then all the information available in that table will also be lost forever.

Syntax

The basic syntax of this DROP TABLE statement is as follows −

DROP TABLE table_name;

Example

Let us first verify the CUSTOMERS table and then we will delete it from the database
as shown below −
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID | int(11) | NO | PRI | | |
| NAME | varchar(20) | NO | | | |
| AGE | int(11) | NO | | | |
| ADDRESS | char(25) | YES | | NULL | |
| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES | | NULL | |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

This means that the CUSTOMERS table is available in the database, so let us now
drop it as shown below.

SQL> DROP TABLE CUSTOMERS;

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)

Now, if you would try the DESC command, then you will get the following error −

SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;

ERROR 1146 (42S02): Table 'TEST.CUSTOMERS' doesn't exist

Here, TEST is the database name which we are using for our examples.

SQL - INSERT QUERY

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The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table in the
database.

Syntax

There are two basic syntaxes of the INSERT INTO statement which are shown below.
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);

Here, column1, column2, column3,...columnN are the names of the columns in the
table into which you want to insert the data.

You may not need to specify the columnss name in the SQL query if you are adding
values for all the columns of the table. But make sure the order of the values is in the
same order as the columns in the table.

The SQL INSERT INTO syntax will be as follows −

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...valueN);

Example

The following statements would create six records in the CUSTOMERS table.

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (3, 'kaushik', 23, 'Kota', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (4, 'Chaitali', 25, 'Mumbai', 6500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (5, 'Hardik', 27, 'Bhopal', 8500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (6, 'Komal', 22, 'MP', 4500.00 );

You can create a record in the CUSTOMERS table by using the second syntax as
shown below.
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS
VALUES (7, 'Muffy', 24, 'Indore', 10000.00 );

All the above statements would produce the following records in the CUSTOMERS
table as shown below.

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Populate one table using another table

You can populate the data into a table through the select statement over another table;
provided the other table has a set of fields, which are required to populate the first
table.

Here is the syntax −

INSERT INTO first_table_name [(column1, column2, ... columnN)]

SELECT column1, column2, ...columnN
FROM second_table_name
[WHERE condition];

SQL - SELECT QUERY

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The SQL SELECT statement is used to fetch the data from a database table which
returns this data in the form of a result table. These result tables are called result-sets.

Syntax
The basic syntax of the SELECT statement is as follows −

SELECT column1, column2, columnN FROM table_name;

Here, column1, column2... are the fields of a table whose values you want to fetch. If
you want to fetch all the fields available in the field, then you can use the following
syntax.

SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following code is an example, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary fields
of the customers available in CUSTOMERS table.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+

If you want to fetch all the fields of the CUSTOMERS table, then you should use the
following query.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

This would produce the result as shown below.

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL - WHERE CLAUSE

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The SQL WHERE clause is used to specify a condition while fetching the data from
a single table or by joining with multiple tables. If the given condition is satisfied,
then only it returns a specific value from the table. You should use the WHERE clause
to filter the records and fetching only the necessary records.

The WHERE clause is not only used in the SELECT statement, but it is also used in
the UPDATE, DELETE statement, etc., which we would examine in the subsequent
chapters.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the SELECT statement with the WHERE clause is as shown
below.

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

You can specify a condition using the comparison or logical operators like >, <, =, LIKE,
NOT, etc. The following examples would make this concept clear.

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following code is an example which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary fields
from the CUSTOMERS table, where the salary is greater than 2000 −

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
The following query is an example, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary fields
from the CUSTOMERS table for a customer with the name Hardik.

Here, it is important to note that all the strings should be given inside single
quotes ′′″. Whereas, numeric values should be given without any quote as in the
above example.
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE NAME = 'Hardik';

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+----------+

SQL - AND AND OR CONJUNCTIVE OPERATORS

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The SQL AND & OR operators are used to combine multiple conditions to narrow
data in an SQL statement. These two operators are called as the conjunctive operators.

These operators provide a means to make multiple comparisons with different

operators in the same SQL statement.

The AND Operator

The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the AND operator with a WHERE clause is as follows −

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] AND [condition2]...AND [conditionN];
You can combine N number of conditions using the AND operator. For an action to
be taken by the SQL statement, whether it be a transaction or a query, all conditions
separated by the AND must be TRUE.

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary fields from the
CUSTOMERS table, where the salary is greater than 2000 and the age is less than 25
years −

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 AND age < 25;

This would produce the following result −

+----+-------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+-------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+-------+----------+

The OR Operator

The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's

WHERE clause.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the OR operator with a WHERE clause is as follows −

SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] OR [condition2]...OR [conditionN]

You can combine N number of conditions using the OR operator. For an action to be
taken by the SQL statement, whether it be a transaction or query, the only any ONE of
the conditions separated by the OR must be TRUE.

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following code block hasa query, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary
fields from the CUSTOMERS table, where the salary is greater than 2000 and the age
is less than 25 years.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 OR age < 25;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+

SQL - UPDATE QUERY

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The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing records in a table. You can
use the WHERE clause with the UPDATE query to update the selected rows,
otherwise all the rows would be affected.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the UPDATE query with a WHERE clause is as follows −

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2...., columnN = valueN
WHERE [condition];

You can combine N number of conditions using the AND or the OR operators.

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following query will update the ADDRESS for a customer whose ID number is 6
in the table.
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET ADDRESS = 'Pune'
WHERE ID = 6;

Now, the CUSTOMERS table would have the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to modify all the ADDRESS and the SALARY column values in the
CUSTOMERS table, you do not need to use the WHERE clause as the UPDATE
query would be enough as shown in the following code block.

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET ADDRESS = 'Pune', SALARY = 1000.00;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records −

+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Pune | 1000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+

SQL - DELETE QUERY

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The SQL DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table.
You can use the WHERE clause with a DELETE query to delete the selected rows,
otherwise all the records would be deleted.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the DELETE query with the WHERE clause is as follows −

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE [condition];

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following code has a query, which will DELETE a customer, whose ID is 6.

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE ID = 6;

Now, the CUSTOMERS table would have the following records.

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
If you want to DELETE all the records from the CUSTOMERS table, you do not need
to use the WHERE clause and the DELETE query would be as follows −

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS;

Now, the CUSTOMERS table would not have any record.

SQL - LIKE CLAUSE

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The SQL LIKE clause is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard
operators. There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE operator.

 The percent sign

 The underscore _ _

The percent sign represents zero, one or multiple characters. The underscore
represents a single number or character. These symbols can be used in combinations.

Syntax

The basic syntax of % and _ is as follows −

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX%'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE '%XXXX%'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX_'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX_'
You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators. Here, XXXX
could be any numeric or string value.

Example

The following table has a few examples showing the WHERE part having different
LIKE clause with '%' and '_' operators −

Sr.No. Statement & Description

WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%'

1 Finds any values that start with 200.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '%200%'

2
Finds any values that have 200 in any position.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '_00%'

3
Finds any values that have 00 in the second and third positions.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '2_%_%'

4
Finds any values that start with 2 and are at least 3 characters in length.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '%2'

5
Finds any values that end with 2.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '_2%3'

6
Finds any values that have a 2 in the second position and end with a 3.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '2___3'

7
Finds any values in a five-digit number that start with 2 and end with 3.

Let us take a real example, consider the CUSTOMERS table having the records as
shown below.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would display all the records from the CUSTOMERS
table, where the SALARY starts with 200.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%';

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL - TOP, LIMIT OR ROWNUM CLAUSE

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The SQL TOP clause is used to fetch a TOP N number or X percent records from a
table.

Note − All the databases do not support the TOP clause. For example MySQL
supports the LIMITclause to fetch limited number of records while Oracle uses
the ROWNUM command to fetch a limited number of records.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the TOP clause with a SELECT statement would be as follows.

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following query is an example on the SQL server, which would fetch the top 3
records from the CUSTOMERS table.

SQL> SELECT TOP 3 * FROM CUSTOMERS;

This would produce the following result −

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+

If you are using MySQL server, then here is an equivalent example −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

LIMIT 3;

This would produce the following result −

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+

If you are using an Oracle server, then the following code block has an equivalent
example.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;

This would produce the following result −

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+

SQL - ORDER BY CLAUSE

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The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or descending
order, based on one or more columns. Some databases sort the query results in an
ascending order by default.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the ORDER BY clause is as follows −

SELECT column-list
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];

You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause. Make sure whatever
column you are using to sort that column should be in the column-list.

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in an ascending
order by the NAME and the SALARY −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in the
descending order by NAME.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME DESC;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL - GROUP BY
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The SQL GROUP BY clause is used in collaboration with the SELECT statement to
arrange identical data into groups. This GROUP BY clause follows the WHERE
clause in a SELECT statement and precedes the ORDER BY clause.

Syntax

The basic syntax of a GROUP BY clause is shown in the following code block. The
GROUP BY clause must follow the conditions in the WHERE clause and must
precede the ORDER BY clause if one is used.

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table_name
WHERE [ conditions ]
GROUP BY column1, column2
ORDER BY column1, column2

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table is having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to know the total amount of the salary on each customer, then the GROUP
BY query would be as follows.
SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS
GROUP BY NAME;

This would produce the following result −

+----------+-------------+
| NAME | SUM(SALARY) |
+----------+-------------+
| Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| Hardik | 8500.00 |
| kaushik | 2000.00 |
| Khilan | 1500.00 |
| Komal | 4500.00 |
| Muffy | 10000.00 |
| Ramesh | 2000.00 |
+----------+-------------+

Now, let us look at a table where the CUSTOMERS table has the following records
with duplicate names −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now again, if you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer, then the
GROUP BY query would be as follows −

SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS

GROUP BY NAME;

This would produce the following result −

+---------+-------------+
| NAME | SUM(SALARY) |
+---------+-------------+
| Hardik | 8500.00 |
| kaushik | 8500.00 |
| Komal | 4500.00 |
| Muffy | 10000.00 |
| Ramesh | 3500.00 |
+---------+-------------+

SQL - DISTINCT KEYWORD

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The SQL DISTINCT keyword is used in conjunction with the SELECT statement to
eliminate all the duplicate records and fetching only unique records.

There may be a situation when you have multiple duplicate records in a table. While
fetching such records, it makes more sense to fetch only those unique records instead
of fetching duplicate records.

Syntax

The basic syntax of DISTINCT keyword to eliminate the duplicate records is as

follows −

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2,.....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
First, let us see how the following SELECT query returns the duplicate salary records.

SQL> SELECT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce the following result, where the salary 20002000 is coming twice
which is a duplicate record from the original table.

+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+

Now, let us use the DISTINCT keyword with the above SELECT query and then see
the result.

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce the following result where we do not have any duplicate entry.

+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+

SQL - SORTING RESULTS

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The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or descending
order, based on one or more columns. Some databases sort the query results in an
ascending order by default.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the ORDER BY clause which would be used to sort the result in
an ascending or descending order is as follows −

SELECT column-list
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];

You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause. Make sure that
whatever column you are using to sort, that column should be in the column-list.

Example

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would sort the result in an ascending order by NAME
and SALARY.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in a descending
order by NAME.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME DESC;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

To fetch the rows with their own preferred order, the SELECT query used would be as
follows −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

 ORDER BY (CASE ADDRESS
WHEN 'DELHI' THEN 1
WHEN 'BHOPAL' THEN 2
WHEN 'KOTA' THEN 3
WHEN 'AHMADABAD' THEN 4
WHEN 'MP' THEN 5
ELSE 100 END) ASC, ADDRESS DESC;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

This will sort the customers by ADDRESS in your ownoOrder of preference first and
in a natural order for the remaining addresses. Also, the remaining Addresses will be
sorted in the reverse alphabetical order.