The name Filipino was derived from the term las Islas Filipinas ("the Philippine Islands"),[41] the

name
given to the archipelago in 1543 by the Spanish explorer and Dominican priest Ruy López de
Villalobos, in honour of Philip II of Spain (Spanish: Felipe II).
During the Spanish colonial period the term Filipino was used to classify Spaniards born in the
Philippine islands, while the indigenous Austronesian peoples of the islands were
called Indio.[42] Historian Ambeth Ocampo has suggested that the first documented use of the word
to Filipino to refer to Indios was the Spanish-language poem A la juventud filipina, published in 1879
by José Rizal.[43]. Apolinario Mabini (1896) used the term Filipino to refer to all inhabitants of the
Philippines. Father Jose Burgos earlier called all natives of the archipelago as Filipinos.[44]
The lack of the letter "F" in the pre-1987 Tagalog alphabet (Abakada) caused the letter "P" to be
substituted for "F", though the alphabets and/or writing scripts of some non-Tagalog ethnic groups
included the letter "F". Upon official adoption of the modern, 28-letter Filipino alphabet in 1987, the
term Filipino was preferred over Pilipino.[citation needed] Locally, some still use "Pilipino" to refer to the
people and "Filipino" to refer to the language, but in international use "Filipino" is the usual form for
both.
A number of Filipinos refer to themselves colloquially as "Pinoy" (feminine: "Pinay"), which is a slang
word formed by taking the last four letters of "Filipino" and adding the diminutive suffix "-y".
Other collective endonyms for the Filipino people include: "Patria Adorada" (Spanish for "Beloved
Fatherland") as popularized by Jose Rizal through his poem "Mi último adiós", "Bayang Pilipino"
(Tagalog: "Filipino nation") or the more poetic "Sambayanáng Pilipino" (a formal term in Tagalog
meaning "one/entire Filipino nation").

History[edit]
Main article: History of the Philippines

Prehistory[edit]
In 2010, a metatarsal from "Callao Man", discovered in 2007, was dated through uranium-series
dating as being 67,000 years old.[45]
Prior to that, the earliest human remains found in the Philippines were thought to be the fossilized
fragments of a skull and jawbone, discovered in the 1960s by Dr. Robert B. Fox,
an anthropologist from the National Museum.[46] Anthropologists who examined these remains
agreed that they belonged to modern human beings. These include the Homo sapiens, as
distinguished from the mid-Pleistocene Homo erectus species.
The "Tabon Man" fossils are considered to have come from a third group of inhabitants, who worked
the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BCE. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level
containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates like 45 or 50
thousand years ago.[47] Researchers say this indicates that the human remains were pre-Mongoloid,
from about 40,000 years ago. Mongoloid is the term which anthropologists applied to the ethnic
group which migrated to Southeast Asia during the Holocene period and evolved into
the Austronesian people (associated with the Haplogroup O1 (Y-DNA) genetic marker), a group
of Malayo-Polynesian-speaking people including those from Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia,
Malagasy, the non-Chinese Taiwan Aboriginals or Rhea's.[48]
Fluctuations in ancient shorelines between 150,000 BC and 17,000 BC connected the Malay
Archipelago region with Maritime Southeast Asia and the Philippines. This may have enabled
ancient migrations into the Philippines from Maritime Southeast Asia approximately 50,000 BC to
13,000 BC.[49]
A January 2009 study of language phylogenies by R. D. Gray at the University of California, Los
Angeles published in the journal Science, suggests that the population expansion of Austronesian
peoples was triggered by rising sea levels of the Sunda shelf at the end of the last ice age. This was
a two-pronged expansion, which moved north through the Philippines and into Taiwan, while a
second expansion prong spread east along the New Guinea coast and into Oceania and
Polynesia.[50]
The Negritos are likely descendants of the indigenous populations of the Sunda landmass and New
Guinea, pre-dating the Mongoloid peoples who later entered Southeast Asia.[51]Multiple studies also
show that Negritos from Southeast Asia to New Guinea share a closer cranial affinity with Australo-
Melanesians.[51][52] They were the ancestors of such tribes of the Philippines as the Aeta, Agta,
Ayta, Ati, Dumagat and other similar groups. Today they comprise just 0.03% of the total Philippine
population.[53]
The majority of present-day Filipinos are a product of the long process of evolution and movement of
people.[54] After the mass migrations through land bridges, migrations continued by boat during the
maritime era of South East Asia. The ancient races became homogenized into the Malayo-
Polynesians which colonized the majority of the Philippine, Malaysian and Indonesian
archipelagos.[55][56]

Archaic epoch (to 1565)[edit]

A painting of a young mother and her child belonging to the Maharlikacaste. Their abode is the torogan in the
background

Since at least the 3rd century, various ethnic groups established several communities. These were
formed by the assimilation of various native Philippine kingdoms.[53] South Asian and East
Asian people together with the people of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay Peninsula,
traded with Filipinos and introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the native tribes of the Philippines.
Most of these people stayed in the Philippines where they were slowly absorbed into local societies.
Many of the barangay (tribal municipalities) were, to a varying extent, under the de
jure jurisprudence of one of several neighboring empires, among them
the Malay Srivijaya, Javanese Majapahit, Brunei, Malacca,
Indian Chola, Champa and Khmer empires, although de facto had established their own
independent system of rule. Trading links with Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Cambodia, Malay
Peninsula, Indochina, China, Japan, India and Arabia. A thalassocracy had thus emerged based on
international trade.
Even scattered barangays, through the development of inter-island and international trade, became
more culturally homogeneous by the 4th century. Hindu-Buddhist culture and religion flourished
among the noblemen in this era.
In the period between the 7th to the beginning of the 15th centuries, numerous prosperous centers
of trade had emerged, including the Kingdom of Namayan which flourished alongside Manila
Bay,[57][57][58] Cebu, Iloilo,[59] Butuan, the Kingdom of Sanfotsi situated in Pangasinan, the Kingdom of
Luzon now known as Pampanga which specialized in trade with most of what is now known as
Southeast Asia, and with China, Japan and the Kingdom of Ryukyu in Okinawa.
From the 9th century onwards, a large number of Arab traders from the Middle East settled in the
Malay Archipelago and intermarried with the local Malay, Bruneian, Malaysian, Indonesian, and
Luzon and Visayas indigenous populations.[60]
In the years leading up to 1000 AD, there were already several maritime societies existing in the
islands but there was no unifying political state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago.
Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomous barangays (settlements ranging is
size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competing thalassocracies ruled
by datus, rajahs or sultans[61] or by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty plutocrats". States
such as the Wangdoms of Ma-i and Pangasinan, Kingdom of Maynila, Namayan, the Kingdom of
Tondo, the Kedatuans of Madja-as, and Dapitan, the Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu and the
sultanates of Maguindanao, Lanao and Suluexisted alongside the highland societies of
the Ifugao and Mangyan.[62][63][64][65] Some of these regions were part of the Malayan empires
of Srivijaya, Majapahit and Brunei.[66][67][68]
Historic caste systems[edit]
Datu – The Tagalog maginoo, the Kapampangan ginu, and the Visayan tumao were the nobility
social class among various cultures of the pre-colonial Philippines. Among the Visayans, the tumao
were further distinguished from the immediate royal families, or a ruling class.

A Tagalog couple belonging to the Maharlika caste described in the Boxer codex.

Timawa – The timawa class were free commoners of Luzon and the Visayas who could own their
own land and who did not have to pay a regular tribute to a maginoo, though they would, from time
to time, be obliged to work on a datu’s land and help in community projects and events. They were
free to change their allegiance to another datu if they married into another community or if they
decided to move.
Maharlika – Members of the Tagalog warrior class known as maharlika had the same rights and
responsibilities as the timawa, but in times of war they were bound to serve their datu in battle. They
had to arm themselves at their own expense, but they did get to keep the loot they took. Although
they were partly related to the nobility, the maharlikas were technically less free than the timawas
because they could not leave a datu’s service without first hosting a large public feast and paying the
datu between 6 and 18 pesos in gold – a large sum in those days.
Alipin – Commonly described as "servant" or "slave". However, this is inaccurate. The concept of
the alipin relied on a complex system of obligation and repayment through labor in ancient Philippine
society, rather than on the actual purchase of a person as in Western and Islamic slavery. Members
of the alipin class who owned their own houses were more accurately equivalent to medieval
European serfs and commoners.
By the 15th century, Arab and Indian missionaries and traders from Malaysia and Indonesia brought
Islam to the Philippines, where it both replaced and was practiced together with indigenous religions.
Before that, indigenous tribes of the Philippines practiced a mixture
of Animism, Hinduism and Buddhism. Native villages, called barangays were populated by locals
called Timawa (Middle Class/ freemen) and Alipin (servants & slaves). They were ruled
by Rajahs, Datus and Sultans, a class called Maginoo (royals) and defended by
the Maharlika (Lesser nobles, royal warriors and aristocrats).[53] These Royals and Nobles are
descended from native Filipinos with varying degrees of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian, which is evident
in today's DNA analysis among South East Asian Royals. This tradition continued among the
Spanish and Portuguese traders who also intermarried with the local populations.[69]

Hispanic settlement and rule (1521–1898)[edit]

Native Filipinos as illustrated in the Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734)

The Philippines was settled by the Spanish. The arrival of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand
Magellan (Portuguese: Fernão de Magalhães) in 1521 began a period of European colonization.
During the period of Spanish colonialism the Philippines was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain,
which was governed and controlled from Mexico City. Early Spanish settlers were mostly explorers,
soldiers, government officials and religious missionaries born in Spain and Mexico. Most Spaniards
who settled were of Andalusian ancestry but there were also Catalan, Moorish and Basque settlers.
The Peninsulares (governors born in Spain), mostly of Castilian ancestry, settled in the islands to
govern their territory. Most settlers married the daughters of rajahs, datus and sultans to reinforce
the colonization of the islands. The Ginoo and Maharlika castes (royals and nobles) in the
Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spanish formed the privileged Principalía (nobility) during the
Spanish period. In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese traders also migrated to the
Philippines and assimilated into the local population.[70]
Leaders of the reform movement in Spain: left to right: José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Mariano Ponce(c.
1890)

As a part of the Seven Years' War, British forces occupied Manila between 1762 and 1764.
However, the only part of the Philippines which the British held was the Spanish colonial capital of
Manila and the principal naval port of Cavite, both of which are located on Manila Bay. The war was
ended by the Treaty of Paris (1763). At the end of the war the treaty signatories were not aware that
Manila had been taken by the British and was being administered as a British colony. Consequently,
no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that
all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish
Empire.[71] Many Indian Sepoy troops and their British captains mutinied and were left in Manila and
some parts of the Ilocos and Cagayan. The ones in Manila settled at Cainta, Rizal and the ones in
the north settled in Isabela. Most were assimilated into the local population.

Typical costume of a Principalía family of the late 19th century. Exhibit in the Villa Escudero Museum, San
Pablo, Laguna, Philippines.

The arrival of the Spaniards to the Philippines attracted new waves of immigrants from China, and
maritime trade flourished during the Spanish period. The Spanish recruited thousands of Chinese
migrant workers called sangleysto build the colonial infrastructure in the islands. Many Chinese
immigrants converted to Christianity, intermarried with the locals, and adopted Hispanized names
and customs and became assimilated, although the children of unions between Filipinos and
Chinese that became assimilated continued to be designated in official records as mestizos de
sangley. The Chinese mestizos were largely confined to the Binondo area until the 19th century.
However, they eventually spread all over the islands, and became traders, landowners, and
moneylenders.
A total of 110 Manila-Acapulco galleons set sail between 1565 and 1815, during the Philippines
trade with Mexico. Until 1593, three or more ships would set sail annually from each port bringing
with them the riches of the archipelago to Spain. European criollos, mestizos and Portuguese,
French and Mexican descent from the Americas, mostly from Latin America came in contact with the
Filipinos. Japanese, Indian and Cambodian Christians who fled from religious persecutions and
killing fields also settled in the Philippines during the 17th until the 19th centuries.
With the inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1867, Spain opened the Philippines for international
trade. European investors such as British, Dutch, German, Portuguese, Russian, Italian and French
were among those who settled in the islands as business increased. More Spaniards arrived during
the next century. Many of these European migrants intermarried with local mestizos and assimilated
with the indigenous population.

Late modern[edit]
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After the defeat of Spain during the Spanish–American War in 1898, Filipino general, Emilio
Aguinaldo declared independence on 12 June while General Wesley Merritt became the first
American governor of the Philippines. On 10 December 1898, the Treaty of Paris formally ended the
war, with Spain ceding the Philippines and other colonies to the United States in exchange for
$20 million.[72][73] The Philippine–American War resulted in the deaths of at least 200,000 Filipino
civilians.[74] Some estimates for total civilian dead reach up to 1,000,000.[75][76] After the Philippine–
American War, the United States civil governance was established in 1901, with William Howard
Taft as the first American Governor-General.[77] A number of Americans settled in the islands and
thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and Filipinos have taken place since then.
Due to the strategic location of the Philippines, as many as 21 bases and 100,000 military personnel
were stationed there since the United States first colonized the islands in 1898. These bases were
decommissioned in 1992 after the end of the Cold War, but left behind thousands
of Amerasian children.[78] The country gained independence from the United States in 1946.
The Pearl S. Buck International Foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians scattered
throughout the Philippines. However, according to the center of Amerasian Research, there might be
as many as 250,000 Amerasians scattered across the cities of Angeles, Manila, Clark,
and Olongapo.[79] In addition, numerous Filipino men enlisted in the US Navy and made careers in it,
often settling with their families in the United States. Some of their second- or third-generation
families returned to the country.
Following its independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the
country, mostly involving American, European, Chinese, and Japanese peoples. After World War
II, South Asians continued to migrate into the islands, most of which assimilated and avoided the
local social stigma instilled by the early Spaniards against them by keeping a low profile and/or by
trying to pass as Spanish mestizos. This was also true for the Arab and Chinese immigrants, many
of whom are also post WWII arrivals. More recent migrations into the country
by Koreans, Persians, Brazilians, and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of
the country's ethnic landscape, language and culture. Centuries of migration, diaspora, assimilation,
and cultural diversity made most Filipinos accepting of interracial marriage and multiculturalism.
Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principle of jus sanguinis and, therefore,
descent from a parent who is a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of
acquiring national citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer
Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide
a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens born in the Philippines. Filipinos of mixed
ethnic origins are still referred to today as mestizos. However, in common parlance, mestizos are
only used to refer to Filipinos mixed with Spanish or any other European ancestry. Filipinos mixed
with any other foreign ethnicities are named depending on the non-Filipino part.

Term Definition

Negrito indigenous person of purely Negrito ancestry

Indio indigenous person of purely Austronesian ancestry

indigenous person of the Islamic faith living in the Archipelago of the

Sangley/Chino person of purely Chinese ancestry

Mestizo de
person of mixed Chinese and Austronesian ancestry
Sangley/Chino

Mestizo de
person of mixed Spanish and Austronesian ancestry
Español

Tornatrás person of mixed Spanish, Austronesian and Chinese ancestry

Insulares/Filipino person of purely Spanish descent born in the Philippines

person of Criollo (either pure Spanish blood, or mostly), Castizo (1/4 Native
Americanos American, 3/4 Spanish) or Mestizo (1/2 Spanish, 1/2 Native American) descent
born in Spanish America ("from the Americas")

Peninsulares person of purely Spanish descent born in Spain ("from the Iberian peninsula")
Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero, the only Spanish prime minister of Insulares (Filipino) descent

People classified as 'blancos' (whites) were the insulares or "Filipinos" (a person born in the
Philippines of pure Spanish descent), peninsulares (a person born in Spain of pure Spanish
descent), Español mestizos (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian and Spanish
ancestry), and tornatrás (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian, Chinese and
Spanish ancestry). Manila was racially segregated, with blancos living in the walled city
of Intramuros, un-Christianized sangleys in Parían, Christianized sangleys and mestizos de sangley
in Binondo, and the rest of the 7,000 islands for the indios, with the exception of Cebu and several
other Spanish posts. Only mestizos de sangley were allowed to enter Intramuros to work for whites
(including mestizos de español) as servants and various occupations needed for the colony. Indio
were native Austronesians, but as a legal classification, Indio were those who embraced Roman
Catholicism and Austronesians who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies.[citation needed]

Manuel L. Quezon was the Philippine President during the Commonwealth era.

People who lived outside Manila, Cebu and the major Spanish posts were classified as such:
'Naturales' were Catholic Austronesians of the lowland and coastal towns. The un-Catholic Negritos
and Austronesians who lived in the towns were classified as 'salvajes' (savages) or 'infieles' (the
unfaithful). 'Remontados' (Spanish for 'situated in the mountains') and 'tulisanes' (bandits)
were indigenous Austronesians and Negritos who refused to live in towns and took to the hills, all of
whom were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in Spanish
colonials everyday life, as well as determining social class in the colony. People of pure Spanish
descent living in the Philippines who were born in Spanish America were classified as 'americanos'.
Mestizos and africanos born in Spanish America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification
as such, and usually came as indentured servants to the 'americanos'. The Philippine-born children
of 'americanos' were classified as 'Ins'. The Philippine-born children of mestizos and Africanos from
Spanish America were classified based on patrilineal descent.

A mestiza de sangleywoman in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp, c. 1875

The term negrito was coined by the Spaniards based on their appearance. The word 'negrito' would
be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both
Christianized negritos who lived in the colony and un-Christianized negritos who lived in tribes
outside the colony were classified as 'negritos'. Christianized negritos who lived in Manila were not
allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for indios.
A person of mixed Negrito and Austronesian ancestry were classified based on patrilineal descent;
the father's ancestry determined a child's legal classification. If the father was 'negrito' and the
mother was 'India' (Austronesian), the child was classified as 'negrito'. If the father was 'indio' and
the mother was 'negrita', the child was classified as 'indio'. Persons of Negrito descent were viewed
as being outside the social order as they usually lived in tribes outside the colony and resisted
conversion to Christianity.
This legal system of racial classification based on patrilineal descent had no parallel anywhere in the
Spanish-ruled colonies in the Americas. In general, a son born of a sangley male and an indio or
mestizo de sangley female was classified as mestizo de sangley; all subsequent male descendants
were mestizos de sangley regardless of whether they married an India or a mestiza de sangley. A
daughter born in such a manner, however, acquired the legal classification of her husband, i.e., she
became an India if she married an indio but remained a mestiza de sangley if she married a mestizo
de sangley or a sangley. In this way, a chino mestizo male descendant of a paternal sangley
ancestor never lost his legal status as a mestizo de sangley no matter how little percentage of
Chinese blood he had in his veins or how many generations had passed since his first Chinese
ancestor; he was thus a mestizo de sangley in perpetuity.
However, a 'mestiza de sangley' who married a blanco ('Filipino', 'mestizo de español', 'peninsular',
or 'americano') kept her status as 'mestiza de sangley'. But her children were classified as tornatrás.
An 'India' who married a blanco also kept her status as India, but her children were classified as
mestizo de español.
A mestiza de español who married another blanco would keep her status as mestiza, but her status
will never change from mestiza de español if she married a mestizo de español, Filipino, or
peninsular.
On the contrast, a mestizo (de sangley or español) man's status stayed the same regardless of
whom he married. If a mestizo (de sangley or español) married a filipina (woman of pure Spanish
descent), she would lose her status as a 'filipina' and would acquire the legal status of her husband
and become a mestiza de español or sangley. If a 'filipina' married an 'indio', her legal status would
change to 'India', despite being of pure Spanish descent.
The social stratification system based on class that continues to this day in the Philippines has its
beginnings in the Spanish colonial area with this caste system.
The Spanish colonizers reserved the term Filipino to refer to Spaniards born in the Philippines. The
use of the term was later extended to include Spanish and Chinese mestizos, or those born of mixed
Chinese-indio or Spanish-indio descent. Late in the 19th century, José Rizal popularized the use of
the term Filipino to refer to all those born in the Philippines, including the Indios.[80] When ordered to
sign the notification of his death sentence, which described him as a Chinese mestizo, Rizal refused.
He went to his death saying that he was indio puro.[81][80]
The Spanish caste system based on race was abolished after the Philippines' independence
from Spain in 1898, and the word 'Filipino' expanded to include the entire population of the
Philippines regardless of racial ancestry.[clarification needed][citation needed]

Origins and genetic studies[edit]

Migration of the Austronesian peoples and their languages.[82]

The aboriginal settlers of the Philippines were primarily Negrito groups, an Australoid group and a
left-over from the first human migration out of Africa to Australia. Negritos comprise a small minority
of the nation’s overall population. They, along with Papuans, Melanesians and Australian
Aboriginals also hold sizable Denisovan admixture in their genomes.[83] The majority population of
Filipinos, however, are Austronesians, a linguistic and genetic group whose historical ties lay
in maritime Southeast Asia, but through ancient migrations can be found as indigenous peoples
stretching as far east as the Pacific islands and as far west as Madagascar off the coast of
Africa.[84][85] The current predominant theory on Austronesian expansion holds that Austronesians
settled the Philippine islands through successive southward and eastward seaborne migrations from
the Neolithic Austronesian populations of Taiwan.[86]

According to the Y-DNA study of Filipino males from the gene bank of the company, Applied Biosystems, most
Philippine Y-DNA haplogroups were found to be O1 (O1a) and O2 (O1b1), both of which are common in
populations from Southeast Asia as far north as the Yangtze Delta.[87] However, around 13% of the population
is confirmed to have the Y-DNA haplogroup R1b, which has spread to the Philippines from Spain and Latin
America, and another 13% belong to haplogroup O3 (O2-M122), which is especially common in populations
of China. The same Y-DNA study showed an estimated 1% frequency of the South Asian (Indian)
haplogroup H1a. Making about an amount of 1 percent of Filipino men having Indian ancestry. Furthermore, a
similar 1% frequency of the Haplogroup I1 which is of Nordic European origin makes another 1 percent of
Filipino men, of Nordic ancestry. The above circular statistical graphic incorrectly reads "L1" (in one of its
Haplogroup indentifications), when it should be "I1" [88].

Other hypotheses have also been put forward based on linguistic, archeological, and genetic
studies. These include an origin from mainland South China (linking them to the Liangzhu
culture and the Tapengkeng culture, later displaced or assimilated by the expansion of Sino-Tibetan
peoples);[89][90] an in situ origin from the Sundalandcontinental shelf prior to the sea level rise at the
end of the last glacial period (c. 10,000 BC);[91][92] or a combination of the two (the Nusantao Maritime
Trading and Communication Network hypothesis) which advocates cultural diffusion rather than a
series of linear migrations.[93]
The most frequently occurring Y-DNA haplogroups among modern Filipinos are haplogroup O1a-
M119, which has been found with maximal frequency among the indigenous peoples of Nias,
the Mentawai Islands, and Taiwan, and Haplogroup O2-M122, which is found with high frequency in
many populations of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Polynesia. In particular, the type of O2-M122
that is found frequently in Filipinos, O-P164(xM134), is also found frequently in other Austronesian
populations.[94][95] Trejaut et al. 2014 found O2a2b-P164(xO2a2b1-M134) in 26/146 = 17.8% of a pool
of samples of Filipinos (4/8 = 50% Mindanao, 7/31 = 22.6% Visayas, 10/55 = 18.2% South Luzon,
1/6 = 17% North Luzon, 2/22 = 9.1% unknown Philippines, 2/24 = 8.3% Ivatan). The distributions of
other subclades of O2-M122 in the Philippines were sporadic, but it may be noted that O2a1c-
JST002611 was observed in 6/24 = 25% of a sample of Ivatan and 1/31 = 3.2% of a sample from the
Visayas. A total of 45/146 = 30.8% of the sampled Filipinos were found to belong to Haplogroup O2-
M122.[94] Haplogroup O1a-M119 is also commonly found among Filipinos (25/146 = 17.1% O1a-
M119(xO1a1a-P203, O1a2-M50), 20/146 = 13.7% O1a1a-P203, 17/146 = 11.6% O1a2-M50, 62/146
= 42.5% O1a-M119 total according to Trejaut et al. 2014) and is shared with other Austronesian-
speaking populations, especially those in Taiwan, western Indonesia, and Madagascar.[85][96]
After the 16th century, the colonial period saw the influx of genetic influence from other populations.
This is evidenced by the presence of a small percentage of the Y-DNA Haplogroup R1b present
among the population of the Philippines. DNA studies vary as to how small these lineages are. A
year 2001 study conducted by Stanford University Asia-Pacific Research Center stated that only
3.6% of the Philippine population had European Y-DNA. However, only 28 individuals from the
isolated rural island of Palawan were genotyped for this study, a sample size far below the minimum
sample size needed to account for credible test results in a population of over 100 million
individuals.[97] According to another genetic study done by the University of California (San
Francisco), they discovered that a more "modest" amount of European genetic ancestry was found
among some respondents who self-identified as Filipinos.[98] A 2015, Y-DNA compilation by the
Genetic Company: "Applied Biosystems", using samples taken from all over the Philippines, resulted
in a still modest 13.33% frequency of the European/Spanish Y-DNA R1b which reached the
Philippines via military settlement from Peru or Mexico where these soldiers had Spanish Fathers
and Amerindian Mothers.[99] The same Y-DNA study showed an estimated 1% frequency of the
South Asian (Indian) haplogroup H1a, and less than 1% frequency of the Haplogroup I1 which is of
Nordic European origin and disseminated, in part, with Viking migrations.
The largest and most recent genetic study thus far, conducted by the National Geographic's "The
Genographic Project", based on a massive genetic testing of 80,000 Filipinos by the National
Geographic in 2008–2009 found that the Philippines’ autosomal genepool is overwhelmingly Asian,
consisting of 53% Southeast Asian and Oceanian genes, and 36% East Asian genes, with only
5% Southern European genes, 3% South Asian (Indian subcontinent) genes, and 2% Native
American genes.[100] Note that these percentages do not represent the average admixture of every
Filipino, but rather represents the genepool of all Filipinos combined, with each individual Filipino
varying or even lacking any degree of admixture from one or more said ancestries.
That the genome of the Philippines is estimated to be 5% Southern European (largely Iberian; i.e.
Spanish and/or Portuguese) but an almost similar amount of 2% is also Native American attests to
the fact that most of the few Hispanic settlers of the Philippines were actually Latin
American mestizos (people of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry) rather than Spaniards
from Spain, as the Philippines was administered by the Viceroyalty of New Spain (today’s Mexico)
instead of Spain. The Stanford study says that 3.6% (that is 1 out of 28) have shown to have
European paternal markers. That is, the Y chromosome passed by the males to their male
offspring/descendants (aka unbroken male lineage). The European ancestry was actually more of a
side note as the study was geared towards "interbreeding" between Homo erectus and homo
sapiens.[85] Furthermore, the Stanford study was conducted on an isolated portion of the Philippines
barely touched by Spanish colonization, had the study been conducted in the more densely
populated areas of the north, there would have been more European ancestry detected due to the
location being the center of Hispanic settlements (Latin Americans and Spaniards) during the
colonial period. In relation to that, a population survey conducted by German ethnograper Fedor
Jagor concluded that 1/3rd of Luzon which holds half of the Philippines' population had varying
degrees of Spanish and Latin American ancestry.[101]
Dental morphology provides clues to prehistoric migration patterns of the Philippines, with Sinodont
dental patterns occurring in East Asia, Central Asia, North Asia, and the Americas. Sundadont
patterns occur in mainland and maritime Southeast Asia as well as Oceania.[102] Filipinos
exhibit Sundadonty,[102][103] and are regarded as having a more generalised dental morphology and
having a longer ancestry than its offspring, Sinodonty.

Languages[edit]
Main articles: Languages of the Philippines and Philippine languages
The indigenous (native) Philippine languages spoken around the country that have the largest number of
speakers in a particular region with Tagalog being the largest. Note that on regions marked with black
diamonds, the language with the most number of speakers denotes a minority of the population.

Universidad de Sta. Isabel, founded in 1867 through the royal order of Queen Isabella II of Spain

Austronesian languages have been spoken in the Philippines for thousands of years. According to a
2014 study by Mark Donohue of the Australian National University and Tim Denham of Monash
University, there is no linguistic evidence for an orderly north-to-south dispersal of the Austronesian
languages from Taiwan through the Philippines and into Island Southeast Asia (ISEA).[91] Many
adopted words from Sanskrit and Tamil were incorporated during the strong wave of Indian (Hindu-
Buddhist) cultural influence starting from the 5th century BC, in common with its Southeast Asian
neighbors. Chinese languages were also commonly spoken among the traders of the archipelago.
However with the advent of Islam, Arabic and Persian soon came to supplant Sanskrit and Tamil as
holy languages. Starting in the second half of the 16th century, Spanish was the official language of
the country for the more than three centuries that the islands were governed through Mexico City on
behalf of the Spanish Empire. The variant of Spanish used was Mexican-Spanish, which also
included much vocabulary of Nahuatl (Aztec) origin. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Spanish
was the preferred language among Ilustrados and educated Filipinos in general. Significant
agreements exist, however, on the extent Spanish use beyond that. It has been argued that the
Philippines were less hispanized than Canaries and America, with Spanish only being adopted by
the ruling class involved in civil and judicial administration and culture. Spanish was the language of
only approximately ten percent of the Philippine population when Spanish rule ended in 1898.[104] As
a lingua franca or creole language of Filipinos, major languages of the country
like Chavacano, Cebuano, Tagalog, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Bicolano, Hiligaynon,
and Ilocano assimilated many different words and expressions from Castilian Spanish.
Chavacano is the only Spanish-based creole language in Asia. Its vocabulary is 90 percent Spanish,
and the remaining 10 percent is a mixture of predominantly Portuguese, Nahuatl (Mexican
Indian), Hiligaynon, and some English. Chavacano is considered by the Instituto Cervantes to be a
Spanish-based language.[105][failed verification]
In sharp contrast, another view is that the ratio of the population which spoke Spanish as
their mother tongue in the last decade of Spanish rule was 10% or 14%.[106] An additional 60% is said
to have spoken Spanish as a second language until World War II, but this is also disputed as to
whether this percentage spoke "kitchen Spanish", which was used as marketplace lingua compared
to those who were actual fluent Spanish speakers.[106]
In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced universal education, creating free public schooling in Spanish,
yet it was never implemented, even before the advent of American annexation.[107] It was also the
language of the Philippine Revolution, and the 1899 Malolos Constitution proclaimed it as the
"official language" of the First Philippine Republic, albeit a temporary official language. Spanish
continued to be the predominant lingua franca used in the islands by the elite class before and
during the American colonial regime. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the
imposition of English, the overall use of Spanish declined gradually, especially after the 1940s.
According to Ethnologue, there are about 180 languages spoken in the Philippines.[108] The 1987
Constitution of the Philippines imposed the Filipino language.[109][110] as the national language and
designates it, along with English, as one of the official languages. Regional languages are
designated as auxiliary official languages. The constitution also provides that Spanish
and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.[111]
Other Philippine languages in the country with at least 1,000,000 native and indigenous speakers
include Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Central
Bikol, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Chavacano (Spanish-based creole), Albay
Bikol, Maranao, Maguindanao, Kinaray-a, Tausug, Surigaonon, Masbateño, Aklanon and Ibanag.
The 28-letter modern Filipino alphabet, adopted in 1987, is the official writing system. Also, language
of each ethnicity has also their own writing scripts, which are no longer used and set of alphabets.[112]

Religion[edit]
Main article: Religion in the Philippines

Devotees flock to the Basilica Minore del Santo Niño during the novena Masses.

Devotees inside the Bascilica del Santo Niño in Cebu City

As of 2010, over 90% of the population were Christians, with over 80% professing Roman
Catholicism.[113] The latter was introduced by the Spanish beginning in 1565, and during their 300-
year colonization of the islands, they managed to convert a vast majority of Filipinos, resulting in the
Philippines becoming the largest Catholic country in Asia. There are also large groups
of Protestant denominations, which either grew or were founded following the disestablishment of
the Catholic Church during the American Colonial period. The Iglesia ni Cristois currently the single
largest indigenous church, followed by United Church of Christ in the Philippines. The Iglesia Filipina
Independiente(also known as the Aglipayan Church) was an earlier development, and is a national
church directly resulting from the 1898 Philippine Revolution. Other Christian groups such as
the Victory Church,[114] Jesus Miracle Crusade, Mormonism, Orthodoxy, and the Jehovah's
Witnesses have a visible presence in the country. Other native inhabitants follow Islam.[115], forming a
large minority. Islam in the Philippinesis mostly concentrated in southwestern Mindanao and
the Sulu Archipelago which, though part of the Philippines, are very close to the neighboring Islamic
countries of Malaysia and Indonesia. The Muslims call themselves Moros, a Spanish word that
refers to the Moors (albeit the two groups have little cultural connection other than Islam).
Historically, ancient Filipinos held animistic beliefs that were influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism,
which were brought by traders from neighbouring Asian states. Indigenous groups like the Aeta are
Animists, while Igorot and Lumad tribes still observe traditional religious practises, often alongside
Christianity or Islam.
As of 2013, religious groups together constituting less than five percent of the population
included Sikhism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Seventh-day Adventists, United Church of Christ, United
Methodists, the Episcopal Church in the Philippines, Assemblies of God, The Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and Philippine (Southern) Baptists; and the following domestically
established churches: Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ), Philippine Independent
Church (Aglipayan), Members Church of God International, and The Kingdom of Jesus Christ, the
Name Above Every Name. In addition, there are Lumad, who are indigenous peoples of various
animistic and syncretic religions.[116]

Diaspora[edit]
Main article: Overseas Filipinos
Further information: Filipinos in the New York metropolitan area and Filipinos in Hawaii

Spectators at the annual Philippine Independence Day Parade on Madison Avenue in Manhattan, New York
City
Filipino migrant workers in Victoria Park in Hong Kong

There are currently more than 10 million Filipinos who live overseas. Filipinos form a minority ethnic
group in the Americas, Europe, Oceania,[117][118] the Middle East, and other regions of the world.
There are an estimated four million Americans of Filipino ancestry in the United States, and more
than 300,000 American citizens in the Philippines.[119] According to the U.S. Census Bureau,
immigrants from the Philippines made up the second largest group after Mexico that sought family
reunification.[120]
Filipinos make up over a third of the entire population of the Northern Marianas Islands, an American
territory in the North Pacific Ocean, and a large proportion of the populations of Guam, Palau,
the British Indian Ocean Territory, and Sabah.[118][failed verification]

See also[edit]
 Pinoy
 Philippines
 Demographics of the Philippines
 Ethnic groups in the Philippines
 Philippine nationality law
 List of rulers of the Philippines
 List of Filipino athletes
 List of Filipino actors
 List of Filipino actresses
 List of Filipino comedians
 List of Filipino writers
 Overseas Filipinos
 Filipino cuisine
 Filipinos in Hawaii
 Filipinos in the New York metropolitan area
 Philippine music
 Philippine cinema

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sums that reënforcements of such men waste for, and cost, your Majesty. I cannot see what
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