Module 1

Introduction to Manufacturing Processes

 Manufacturing processes
 Materials processing technologies
 Types and properties of engineered materials
 Physics based modelling approach at different scale –
continuum to Nano
 Evaluation of properties of manufactured products
 Statistical and data driven modelling approach
 Manufacturing processes

Conversion of resource into raw materials – mining and metallurgy

Raw materials to final product – manufacturing processes

Joining
Machining
Casting Finishing
Forming
Assembly
Design – Most economic manner
Production – Selection of
Understanding of important process parameters
Manufacturing process Development of new techniques
and modification of existing
technologies
Production process – can not be solved by conventional methods
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Unconventional manufacturing processes
 Manufacturing processes

Basic manufacturing processes

• Casting, foundry and molding
• Forming or metalworking processes
• Machining or material removing processes
• Joining and assembly
• Surface treatment or finishing processes
• Heat treatment
• Non-Conventional processes
• Additive manufacturing
 Materials processing technologies
Materials processing - manufacture of raw-materials into finished
goods
Industrial processes - various mechanical or chemical procedures,
and produce large quantities or batches.
Raw materials - either extracted from minerals or produced from
basic chemicals or natural substances.
Metallic raw materials - crude ore is processed to increase the
concentration of the desired metal
It involves crushing, roasting, magnetic separation, flotation, and
leaching.
Additional processes - smelting and alloying are used to produce the
metal that is to be fabricated into parts that are eventually assembled
into a product
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 Materials processing technologies
Iron – Found as mineral compound, such as ores
Iron ores – iron oxides + impurities

Chemical reducing reactions is used to extract metallic iron

Ore + limestone + coke + air – reacted in furnace

Oxides are reduced, but other elements are mixed with iron such as

Carbon – 3 – 4.5%
Manganese – 0.15 – 2.5%
Phosphorus – 0.1 – 2 5 Pig iron
Silicon – 1 – 3 %
Sulfur – 0.05 – 0.1 %

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 Materials processing technologies

Pig iron is cast into shape – which is called cast iron

Other impurities forms the slag

Steel: made by an oxidation process that decrease the

amount of carbon, Mn, P, S from molten pig iron and steel
scrap

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 Types of engineered materials
Metals/metallic materials Ceramics & Glasses
•good conductors of electricity and •thermally and electrically
heat insulating
•lustrous appearance •resistant to high temperatures
•susceptible to corrosion and harsh environments
•strong, but deformable •hard, but brittle

Composites Polymers
•consist of more than one material type •very large molecules
•designed to display a combination of •low density, low weight
properties of each component •maybe extremely flexible

Ceramics: Al2O3, SiC, SiO2 (oxides, nitrides and carbides)- bricks,

refractories
Polymer: Plastic and rubber materials, organic – C, H2, other non
metallic materials
Composites: Concrete, plywood, fiberglass 7
 Structure and properties of materials
Structure ->Property->Processing->Performance
Structure: Subatomic, Atomic, microscopic, macroscopic
Property: Mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical

Advanced materials – (Magnetic information storage, liquid crystal display, fiber optics)

Semiconductor – Silicon, germanium based, tantalum oxide(Ta2O5) used for ceramic

capacitor (electrical properties between conductors and insulators;
electrical properties can be precisely controlled)

Biomaterials – Bones and teeth – hydroxyapatite (ceramic); artificial organ – plastic;

bone replacement – titanium alloy (implanted in human body)

Smart materials – Respond to change in temperature, stress, humidity or chemical

environment

Shape memory alloy, piezoelectric ceramics, magnetorheological fluid

Nanoengineered materials (High-technology application)

Modern materials need

High performance engine/Nuclear waste processing/Hypersonic flight/
Communication industry/Construction
 Metals and alloys
• A solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable,
fusible, and ductile, with good electrical and thermal
conductivity
• (e.g. iron, gold, silver, and aluminum, and alloys such as
steel)
• An alloy is a material composed of two or more metals or
a metal and a nonmetal.
 Metals and alloys

Metals & Alloys

Ferrous Non-ferrous
Steels Cu-Alloys
Ni-Alloys
Cast Irons Al-Alloys
Ti-alloy
Plain Carbon Steels Superalloy
Alloy Steels

White Cast Iron

Malleable Cast Iron
Grey Cast Iron
 Metals and alloys
Plain Carbon Steels: Iron + carbon
Small amount of P, S, Mn, Si
Low carbon steel < 0.3% C
Structure are usually ferrite and pearlite

Medium carbon steel 0.3 – 0.8% C

Form bainite or Martensite

High carbon steel > 0.8% C

Can form Martensite

 Strength increases with increasing carbon content

 Ductility, toughness – decreases with increasing carbon content

 Metals and alloys
Alloy steel: Alloying elements are added to steels in small quantity
(usually less than 5%) to improve strength or hardenability
- Alloying elements is added to much quantity (upto 20%) to
produce special properties (such as corrosion resistance)

Alloying elements: Mn, Si, Cu, Cr, Ni, Mo, V, W, Co, B, P, S

HSLA steel – structural application (bridges and building)

Microalloyed steel – substitutes for heat treated steel
Maraging steel – super high strength and toughness
Stainless steel – corrosion resistance
Tool steel – wear resistance, toughness and high strength
Silicon steel – electric and magnetic application
 Metals and alloys
Cast iron: Alloys more than 2% carbon
- Mo and Ni are frequently added to improve hardenability
- Properties decided by the formation of graphite of cementite

Gray cast iron – low ductility, excellent compressive strength,

machinability, wear resistance, sound and damping
characteristics
- carbon in the form of graphite flakes
White cast iron – carbon in the form of carbide
- very hard and brittle
- applied where abrasion resistance is required
Malleable cast iron – controlled heat treatment of white cast iron
- Cementite dissociates and forms regular graphite
spheroids
- greater ductility than gray cast iron
-
 Metals and alloys - Summary
• Ferrous: iron as main constitute
• Non ferrous: other than iron as main constitute
• Steel: carbon less than 2 %
• Cast iron: carbon more than 2%
• Cu alloy: Pure Cu – electrical industry
• Al alloy: Automotive frame
• Ni alloy: Outstanding strength and corrosion resistance
• Ti alloy: High temperature engineering material
• Superalloys: High strength, creep resistance, oxidation and
corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance even at high temperature
- Jet engine, rocket and nuclear application
- Ni based – Inconel, Hastelloy
- Iron-based
- Cobalt- based
 Polymer
• Polymer materials are made up of “many” (poly)
repeating “units”(mers).
• Polymers are mostly organic substances containing
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Some have Si, F, Cl, S

Low density, corrosion resistance, design

versatility
H H
Covalent bonds in CnH2n+2 (quite strong)
C C
H Cl Thermosetting and thermoplastic –
n
response to elevated temperature

PVC
 Polymer
Thermosetting: at elevated temperature it is soften with
increasing temperature. When it cooled, becomes harder and
stronger. No chemical change is involved. Thermosetting
polymer is significantly stronger and more rigid than
thermoplastic
Thermoplastic: Soften over a range of temperature. It is
formed by injection molding. Large amount of permanent
deformation is available. Having useful strength.
Thermoplastic - heat forming
Thermoset - heat setting
Thermoplastic - bonds are covalent
Thermoset - bonds are covalent and crosslinked
 Elastomers
Elastomer: Elastic polymer, special class of linear polymer
that display large amount of elastic deformation
Acquire crosslinked structure

Natural rubber – oldest elastomer

Polyurethanes - Used in the textile industry for the
manufacture of elastic clothing
Polybutadiene - used on tires of vehicles
Neoprene – wetsuits, wire insulation, industrial belts
Silicone - Medical prostheses
 Composites
Comprised of two or more physically distinct materials with
at least one material providing reinforcing properties

Natural Composites: Bone, Wood, Bamboo

Engineering Composites: Glass fibers, carbon fibers,

synthetic fibers, metal fibers, ceramic fibers

Composites
Laminar
Particle Reinforced
Fibre Reinforced
 Ceramics and Glasses
 Complex compounds and solutions that contain both
metallic and nonmetallic elements (C, N, O, P, or S)
 typically hard and brittle
 exhibit high strength and high melting points
 exhibit low thermal and electrical conductivity
 Good chemical and thermal stability, good creep
resistance
 Can be made amorphous structure with a random pattern,
like glass (silicates)
Applications: Pottery, brick, tile, glass, ovenware, magnets,
refractories, cutting tools
Types: Aluminum oxide, Magnesium oxide, silicon oxide,
silicon nitride
 Semiconductors
 Conduct electricity intermediately (Neither good
conductor nor good insulator)
 Si, Ge, Sn in periodic table serve as a boundary between
metallic and nonmetallic elements
 Si and Ge are widely used semiconductors
 O to Te(Tellurium) and Zn to Hg (Mercury) are used
with Si and Ge to form a semi conductor
 GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) which is used as a high
temperature rectifier and a laser material
 CdS which is used as a low-cost solar cell for conversion
of solar energy to electrical energy
 Some ceramics display semi-conducting behavior, e.g.,
ZnO which is widely used in color television
 Crystal Structure in Metals

Majority of Metals falls in either of the

following crystal structure

BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

FCC (Face Centered Cubic)
HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed)
 Crystal Structure in Metals

𝝆metal > 𝝆ceramics > 𝝆polymers

Metals - close-packing (metallic bonding) and large

atomic mass
Ceramics - less dense packing (covalent bonding) and
often lighter elements
Polymers - poor packing (often amorphous) and lighter
elements (C, H, O)
Composites - intermediate values
 Physical properties
Density: Of a substance is its mass per unit volume
Mathematically: Density is mass divided by volume

where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume

Melting point of a solid - temperature at which the solid phase

changes to liquid at atmospheric pressure

Specific heat: Energy required to change the temperature of an object

by unit degree or Kelvin.
Metals have lower specific heat capacity than plastics. To attain a
particular temperature, metal needs less heat energy than plastic
 Physical properties
Thermal conductivity: Property of a material to conduct
heat flow
High thermal conductivity material – Copper, Aluminum,
Silver, Gold
Materials with low thermal conductance – Polymer,
alumina – can be used for insulation purpose

Thermal expansion - Change in volume in response to

change in temperature
 Creates thermal strain in solid
 Degree of expansion per unit change in temperature is
called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion
 However, it varies with temperature
 Mechanical properties
Strain 𝜺 : Change in dimension per unit original dimension
Stress 𝝈 𝒐𝒓 𝝉 : Applied force per unit area
Normal Stress and Shear stress
Strength: Ability of a material to resist the applied force
without breaking or yielding.
Stiffness: Ability of material to resist deformation under
stress
Elasticity: Property of material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external force are removed
Steel is more elastic than rubber
Plasticity: Property of a material which retains permanent
deformation with the applied load
 Mechanical properties
Ductility: Ability of a material enabling it to be drawn in to
wire with the application of a tensile force
Brittleness: It is property of a material opposite to ductility.
Cast iron is a brittle material
Malleability: Special case of ductility which permits
materials to be rolled or hammered in to thin sheets.
Ex. aluminum
Toughness: Property of material to resist fracture due to
high impact load
Measurement - Energy absorbed before fracture
Resilience: Amount of energy when deformed elastically
and release upon unloading
 Mechanical properties
Creep: Material is subjected to a constant stress at
elevated temperature for long period of time - it
creates slow and permanent deformation
Fatigue: When a material is subjected to cyclic
stresses, it fails below yield point stress
Hardness: Resistance to wear or scratching
 Other properties

 Latent Heat of Material, Thermal diffusivity

 Viscosity
 Electrical conductivity, Electrical resistivity
 Magnetic properties – induction welding

 In machining, welding, casting - thermal properties of

the work is important
 Casting and welding – Fluid property is significant
 Semiconductor manufacturing - electrical properties of
silicon is important
 Mass diffusion coefficient – surface hardening or
diffusion welding
Physics based modelling approach at
different scale – continuum to Nano

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Physics based modelling approach at different scale –
continuum to Nano
The general format to represent a physical system
 Equilibrium system – Form governing equations
 Dynamic system (Analyse the kinematics) – Form
governing equations
 May use constitutive equation
 With essential and natural boundary conditions
 Also need initial condition
 Constitutive equation relates two different physical
quantities
 It does not directly follow physical laws
 It can be combined with other equations such as
equilibrium and kinematical equations which do
represent physical laws 30
Physics based modelling approach at different scale –
continuum to Nano
The constitutive law parameter can be derived from
experimental observation – called phenomenological
modelling
 The methodology is to explicitly include variables from
physics as internal state variables
 The other possibility is to determine the format of the
constitutive equation based on knowledge about the
physical mechanisms causing the deformation (For
example, Failure mechanism)
An alternate to phenomenological modelling is to derive
constitutive equations from low-scale where laws of physics is well
understood
For example: parameters for grain size models for microstructural
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evolution
Physics based modelling approach at different scale –
continuum to Nano
Example: Determine the material property Young’s modulus
from experiment and use it to develop mathematical
continuum model that predicts material’s response.

 Micromechanics model take into account more fine detail

of the material’s structure at grain scale
 The properties at the micro scale are averaged and passed
to the continuum model is through homogenization theory
 Micromechanical models can provide local variation of
material behavior than the simpler continuum model

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 Importance of Multiscale Methods?
Limitations of industrial simulations today:
a) Continuum models are good, but not always adequate
• Problems in fracture and failure of solids require improved
constitutive models to describe material behavior
• Macroscopic material properties of new materials and
composites are not readily available, while they are needed in
simulation-based design
• Detailed atomistic information is required in regions of high
deformation or discontinuity
b) Molecular dynamics simulations
• Limited to small domains (~ 106 - 108 atoms) and small time
frames ( ~ nanoseconds)
• Experiments, even on nano-systems, involve much larger systems
over longer times 33
 Hierarchical vs. Concurrent
Hierarchical approach
– Use known information at one scale to generate
model for larger scale
– Information passing typically through some sort of
averaging process
– Example: bonding models/potentials, constitutive laws

Concurrent approach
– Perform simulations at different length scales
simultaneously
– Relationships between length scales are dynamic

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 Multi-scale model
Continuum methods: Assume that matter is continuous and treat the
properties of the system as field quantities. Numerically solve balance
equations coupled with phenomenological equations to predict the
properties of the systems.
Pros:
– Can in principle handle systems of any (macroscopic) size and
dynamic processes on longer timescales.
Cons:
• Require input (elastic tensors, diffusion coefficients, equations of
state, etc.) from experiment or from a lower-scale methods that
can be difficult to obtain.
• Cannot explain results that depend on the electronic or molecular
level of detail.

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 Multi-scale model
Connection between the scales: Upscaling
Using results from a lower-scale calculation to obtain
parameters for a higher-scale method. This is relatively
easy to do; deductive approach. Examples:
• Calculation of phenomenological coefficients (e.g.
elastic tensors, viscosities, diffusivities) from atomistic
simulations for later use in a continuum model.

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 Multi-scale model
Connection between the scales: Downscaling
• Using higher-scale information (often experimental) to build
parameters for lower-scale methods. This is more difficult, due to
the non-uniqueness problem.
• For example, the results from a meso-scale simulation do not
contain atomistic detail, but it would be desirable to be able to use
such results to return to the atomistic simulation level. Inductive
approach.
• Example:
The stress- strain curve for a randomly oriented polycrystal can be
used to predict the 𝜏 − 𝛾 curve for a single crystal

ഥ and 𝜎 = M
𝜀𝑥 = 𝛾/M ഥ 𝜏 are used ഥ - Taylor factor
M
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 Challenges in Multiscale modeling

• Large number of degrees of freedom at the atomic scale

• Interfaces: mismatch of dynamic properties, and other
issues
• Multiple time scales
• Interdisciplinary nature of multiscale methods
- continuum mechanics
- classical particle dynamics (MD), and lattice
mechanics
- quantum mechanics and quantum chemistry
- thermodynamics and statistical physics
• Atomic scale plasticity: lattice dislocations
• Algorithmic issues in large scale coupled simulations38
 Constitutive models for single crystal
• The Schmid Law predicts the elastic-perfectly plastic
behavior of a crystal - Yield will begin on a slip system
when the shear stress on this system reaches a critical value
(CRSS), independent of the tensile stress or any other
normal stress on the lattice plane
• In fact, there is a smooth transition from elastic to plastic
behavior that can be described by a power-law behavior
• The shear strain rate on each slip system is estimated by
constitutive relation. By assuming this kinetics of plastic
flow (rate-sensitive), we avoid the non-uniqueness of the
set of active slip systems typically present in rate-
insensitive models. 39
 Conclusions
 Concurrent scale-coupling techniques have evolved
significantly in the past decades
 Now, robust and stable methods become available,
applicable to an increasingly wider range of problems
 Concurrent multi-scale methods are readily available, and
simulation codes can be downloaded from websites (e.g.
www.qcmethod.com)
 Some researchers think that concurrent coupling is
difficult and associated with many numerical and physical
difficulties, and therefore favor hierarchical methods as a
cleaner way to convey information across the scales

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 Evaluation of properties of
manufactured products

 Statistical and data driven

modelling approach

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 Properties evaluation
Characteristics of sample by different experimental
techniques
Physical properties: Density, melting point, optical
properties, thermal properties of specific heat, coefficient of
thermal expansion and thermal conductivity, electrical
conductivity, and magnetic properties
Microstructural characterization: Optical microscope,
Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction

Mechanical properties: Static properties

Uniaxial tensile testing – standard specimen
Size effect is eliminated – engineering stress-strain curve as
compared to load-deflection curve 42
 Mechanical Properties
Characteristic information from stress-strain curve
Proportional limit, Young’s modulus, Resilience or
Modulus of Resilience, Yield strength, Offset yield point
(0.2% strain), Ultimate tensile strength, Fracture strength

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 Mechanical Properties
Ductility and Brittleness
Toughness
True stress-strain curve (Mostly increasing order)
Elongation – uniform and non-
uniform, necking
Strain-hardening

Damping capacity – Loading and

unloading path are different
Gray cast iron – high damping
capacity
Steel – transmits sound and
vibration
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 Mechanical Properties
Hardness: Resistance to permanent deformation under
static or dynamic loading

Brinell hardness test: (hard ball is used with standard load)

Cannot be used either very hard or very soft material
Not suitable for thin sheet

Rockwell hardness test: (Either small steel ball or cone)

Basis is – increment in depth due to increment in load
Should not be used on thin material, on rough surface or
nonhomogeneous material (such as gray cast iron)
Used for monitoring of quality during mass production since
it is rapid process
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 Mechanical Properties - Hardness
Vickers hardness test: (similar to Brinell test, but square-
based diamond pyramid is used)
Increase in accuracy by the diagonal of square impression as
opposed to circular section and reaches plastic deformation
even at very low load
Microhardness test: (Under high magnification)
Knoop test – indention is measured using microscope
Vickers test can be used for microhardness
Compression test: In general, compression test is more
difficult than a tensile test
Test specimen must have larger cross-sectional area to resist
bending and buckling
Bauschinger effect
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 Mechanical Properties
Torsion test: Shear stress under torsional forces or twisted
Bending test: Typically performed to determine the
ductility or resistance to fracture of that material. The
purpose is to deform the sample into a specific shape
Ring compression test - to evaluate friction coefficient
Upsetting test - how material perform under compressive
load or Measurement of friction in metal forming process

Evaluating plastic strain ratio of sheet materials in different

rolling direction - sheet material is pulled in uniaxial tension
beyond its elastic limit

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 Dynamic Properties
Loading condition in engineering components
 Impact load or rapidly change in magnitude
 Repeated cycle of loading and unloading
 Frequent change in mode of loading

Impact test – to evaluate the fracture resistance of material

Charpy test – simply supported bean with notch
Izod test – cantilever beam with notch

Fatigue testing: Cyclic loading pattern is followed or

entirely random variation in stress is followed
Count number of cycles to induce failure
Stress vs. number of cycles curve
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May conducted at different temperature
 Creep Properties
Properties at elevated temperature subjected to constant
load
Tensile specimen elongate continuously until rupture occurs
even the applied stress is below yield strength at that
temperature
Important for: Gas turbine, power plant, high-temperature
pressure vessel
Represented by strain vs. time curve at a particular
temperature

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 Properties evaluation
Physical properties: Standard experimental methodologies

Microstructural measurement:
Average grain size and distribution – line intercept
method
Residual stress - X-ray diffraction (XRD) method,
Neutron diffraction
Chemical composition of a metallic sample – Energy
Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDX)
Various phases in component – XRD method

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Statistical and data driven modelling approach
Sensors - to provide the data through data acquisition system
Mainly in the form of current, voltage or directly temperature
Sensor data can be used for online monitoring of the system
such that collected data may be passed to the robotic system
The data can be used for offline properties evaluation
Sensors - directly measure technological parameters
including voltage, current and wire feed speed
These data is mostly use for online monitoring of the system
Optical sensors
 A laser beam that is projected in a scanning motion across
the seam
 A CCD (Charged Coupled Device) is used to measure
features of the weld joint in combination with a 51laser
stripe
 Sensors for technological parameters

Two types of sensors for measuring the current - Current

Shunt and Hall Effect

Current Shunt - the principle is to let the current flow

through a resistor and measure the voltage drop across it.
The major drawback of this method is that the resistor must
be kept low (hence the voltage signal measured will be
small and sensitive to noise).

The main benefit of the Hall Effect device is that it is a

non-contact sensor and does not interfere with the current
of the welding power source
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 Other sensors for measurement

Measuring of temperature
Contact (thermocouples) or non-contact (thermo vision
camera or infrared thermometer) method

Main drawback - it is necessary to maintain constant

contact with the work piece during welding

Infrared thermometer - uneven surface thermal emission

becomes an issue

However, infrared thermometers have a faster response (than

thermocouples) what makes it possible to implement them in
a real time closed loop system 53
 Other sensors in fusion welding

Measuring of temperature

According to that, accuracy of the sensor system depends on

the sensors themselves and the thermo model designed.

In order to achieve a precise thermo model, impact factors

like work piece thickness, thermal conductivity, material
composition etc. have to be defined in advance.

These sensors are also used for discontinuity detection, seam

tracking and for cooling rate measurement

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 Other sensors in fusion welding

 Ultrasonic testing of welds is a proven and efficient

method for detection of defects, irregularities, cracks,
inclusions and other defects.
 This method is applicable on all materials and there is
also a possibility of detecting very small irregularities.
 It is necessary to develop non-contact probes which
would emit and receive reflected ultrasound waves.
 Different thermo gradients - it is possible that they
could reflect ultrasound waves and in that way limit the
quality and accuracy of sensing.

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 Data acquisition

 The sensor data is collected with predefined sample rate

and transfer the data to a data buffer or temporary
memory.
 The sample rate and transfer of data is controlled by a
central processor unit (CPU) or microprocessor.

 Discrete data points are evaluated through different

property evaluation techniques
 For example: Strength properties of weld joint or
hardness and surface roughness of machined surface

How to analyze these types of data?

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 Process modelling and optimization

Few research techniques

 Wavelet packet analysis

 Hilbert-Huang Transform with wavelet analysis

 Fractal theory

 Artificial Neural Network

 Support vector Machine

 Process modelling and optimization
Example: Establishment of input-output relationships
for metal active gas (MAG) welding
Regression analysis (RA) was performed on data
collected as per Taguchi design of experiments.
Adequacy of RA model was verified using ANOVA
method.
RA model was then embedded into a optimization
algorithm to determine optimal process parameters
for weld bead geometry specification.
Predicts the process parameters for weld bead
geometry
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 Process modelling and optimization

Important input parameters in MAG:

Welding speed, Welding voltage, Wire feed
rate, nozzle-to-plate distance, torch angle

Output parameters (responses):

Bead height, bead width, bead penetration

Three levels are considered:

Full factorial design – huge experiments
Taguchi DOE – limited experiments 59
 Process modelling and optimization

Combinatorial optimization: Evolutionary algorithms (GA

or DE or SA) can be used
 Sets of mathematical equations: linear, curvilinear or
logarithmic
 developed to model relationships between process
variables and weld bead geometry (WBG) in gas metal
arc welding.
 Optimization algorithm determine optimal values for
process parameters with respect to any given bead
geometry.
 Determine best process variables through minimization of
an error function with respect to any desired weld
bead specifications 60
 Process modelling and optimization

Taguchi DOE matrix –

Adequacies of models were checked by analysis of
variance (ANOVA) within confidence limit (~ 95% )
and correlation factor for these models

Choose the superior model among – linear,

curvilinear model, logarithm

Few experiments are used to test the mathematical

model
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 Process modelling and optimization

Mathematical models furnished to provide one to one

relationships between process variables and weld
dimensions
Can be used in two ways:

1. Predicting bead dimensions based on given welding

variables
2. Determining process parameters for a desired weld bead
specification. In order to determine proper values of
welding parameters, a set of non-linear equations are to
be solved simultaneously

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 Thank you
for your kind attention

End of Module 1
Introduction to Manufacturing processes

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