FORMULA STUDENT

SUSPENSION DESIGN

[DATE]
[COMPANY NAME]
[Company address]
Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Kingpin Inclination .................................................................................................................................... 4
Caster ........................................................................................................................................................ 4
Camber ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
Toe Angle .................................................................................................................................................. 5
Scrub Radius .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Mechanical Trail ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Spring Rate ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Wheel Rate................................................................................................................................................ 5
Motion Ratio ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Roll rate ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Roll Gradient ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Algorithm for Suspension Design .................................................................................................................. 5
Gather Feedback from Driver ....................................................................................................................... 6
Tire Selection ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Rim Selection ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Assumptions.............................................................................................................................................. 6
Suspension Hard Points ................................................................................................................................ 6
Front .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Rear ........................................................................................................................................................... 8
Suspension and Steering Parameters ......................................................................................................... 12
Static Parameter ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Front Suspension Behavior ..................................................................................................................... 13
Camber Angle ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Toe Angle ............................................................................................................................................ 14
Caster Angle ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Kingpin Angle ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Roll Center Height ............................................................................................................................... 15
Scrub Radius ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Caster Trail .......................................................................................................................................... 16
Rear Suspension Behavior....................................................................................................................... 17
 Camber Angle ...................................................................................................................................... 17
Toe Angle ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Roll Center Height ............................................................................................................................... 18
Steering Percentage Ackermann......................................................................................................... 18
Vibrational Analysis and Spring and Damper Selection .............................................................................. 19
Assumptions............................................................................................................................................ 19
Spring Rate Calculation ........................................................................................................................... 20
Wheel Rate Calculation ........................................................................................................................... 20
Roll Rates ................................................................................................................................................ 20
Roll Gradient from Ride Springs .............................................................................................................. 21
Vibrational Analysis................................................................................................................................. 21
Vehicle Weight Shift during Braking and Acceleration ............................................................................... 24
Braking .................................................................................................................................................... 24
Acceleration ............................................................................................................................................ 25
Safety Measurements ................................................................................................................................. 25
References .................................................................................................................................................. 27
Abstract

Formula student is a competition of students of different universities of different part of the world that
have built race cars according to FSAE rules. In this report we have designed suspension system of
Formula Student Vehicle. The suspension is double wishbone with push rods on front and double
wishbone with damper mounted on upper wishbone on rear. This suspension is adjustable in
characteristics and should meet all demand. In this report hard points of suspension are mentioned with
static suspension parameters, suspension behavior during bump, roll and steer and vibrational analysis
of vehicle, spring and shock assembly.
Introduction
There are basic three categories of suspension which are:

 Dependent suspension
 Independent suspension

Common suspension used in our vehicles these are:

 Solid Axle ( Dependent suspension )

 Beam axle ( Dependent suspension )
 Four bar ( Dependent suspension )
 De Dion suspension ( Dependent suspension )
 Macpherson strut ( Independent suspension )
 Double wishbone ( Independent suspension )
 Twin I-beam ( Independent suspension )
 Trailing arm ( Independent suspension )
 Air suspension ( Independent suspension )
 Multi-link suspension ( Independent suspension )
 Transverse leaf spring (Independent suspension )

All of these suspension have its pros and cons. Some suspension like multi-link suspension give you
more options for tweaking more suspension parameters but are expensive and are complicated, some
are cheap like Macpherson Strut, solid axle etc. To reduce unsprung mass more preferred suspension is
independent suspension. To reduce unsprung weight the spring and damper are mounted inside the
vehicle and connected to the suspension with the bell crank and push rod. This configuration makes the
suspension system more responsive as it has to move less weight when it travels.

Some important parameters used in suspension design are mentioned below.

Kingpin Inclination
King pin angle is defined as the angle between the steering axis and an axis extending
perpendicular from the contact patch, viewed front on perpendicular to the vertical -lateral plane.
Positive king pin angle is defined as the top of the steering axis being closer to the vehicle
centerline.

Caster
Caster is defined as the angle between the steering axis and the wheel centerline extending
perpendicular from the contact patch, viewed perpendicular to the side view (vertical longitudinal
plane). Positive caster is defined as the steering axis tilting back from the wheel centerline in side view
(perpendicular to the longitudinal-vertical axis).

Camber
Camber is defined as the inclination angle between the side plane (vertical-longitudinal plane) and the
rim plane lying on the centerline of the rim. Positive camber is defined as the tops of the wheels tipping
away from the vehicle. Camber plays an important role on lateral forces provided by the tire. Static
camber angle can compensate camber gain on the outside wheel when the vehicle is rolling.
Toe Angle
Toe is defined as the angular deflection from the vehicles centerline and the centerline of the rim.
Positive toe (toe out) is defined as a wheel splaying out from the direction of travel. This static angles
play a very important role in the vehicle behavior and tire wear. Traditionally, automotive
manufacturers adopt a negative toe angle (toe in) on the rear suspension to stabilize the rear of the
vehicle and promote understeer, with a negative camber angle in order to decrease tire wear.

Scrub Radius
Scrub Radius is defined as the distance between the intersection of the steering axis and the ground
measured to the center of the contact patch, viewed perpendicular to the vertical- lateral plane. Positive
scrub radius is defined as the steering axis intersecting the ground plane between the vehicle centerline
and the contact patch.

Mechanical Trail
Mechanical Trail is defined as the distance between the intersection of the steering access and the
ground measured to the center of the contact patch, viewed perpendicular to the vertical longitudinal
plane. Positive mechanical trail is defined as the steering axis intersecting the ground plane before the
contact patch.

Spring Rate
Spring rate is the amount of weight that is needed to compress the spring one inch e.g. if the spring
compresses 1 inch by applying 300 lbs then its spring rate is 300 lbs/inch.

Wheel Rate
Wheel rate is basically the spring rate but measured at the wheels instead of where spring is attached.

Motion Ratio
It is the ratio of distance of wheel from the pivot point of suspension arm to the distance between and
of springs from the pivot arm. It can also be estimated by comparing how much wheel is travelled to
how much spring is compressed.

Roll rate
Roll rate is defined as the moment resisting body roll per degree of body roll from the lateral force.

Roll Gradient
It is the rate of change in vehicle roll angle with respect to change in lateral acceleration on level road.

Algorithm for Suspension Design

While designing a suspension it must be noted that design is an iterative process and there is no
particular direction to design a suspension, however this below mentioned algorithm is best to design
suspension.

 Gather Driver/experienced racers feedback and make a design matrix

 Tire selection
  Rim Selection
 Suspension Hard points
 Vibrational analysis to select spring and damper assembly

During suspension design budget and material availability are one of the driving factors during design it
must be kept in mind that design is cost effective and indigenous.

Gather Feedback from Driver

First and foremost thing during suspension design is that you gather data from the ones who have
actually drive on race tracks so that you might get an idea of parameters you need to tweak in order to
design an effective suspension design.

Tire Selection
Front tires are used is 6.2/20.0-13 and rear we used is 7.0/20.0-13. We have used two different tires for
front and rear because in formula student we are limited to 710 cc engines so in order to increase
performance of vehicle we are limited to either traction or transmission utilization. Since formula
students are rear wheel drive so rear tire is kept wider. Wider tires usually have high friction coefficient
so they provide better traction. This tire has optimal slip angles.

Rim Selection
Assumptions
 Brake disc thickness is 25mm
 Bearing 6205 NR is used, reference given, in hub which is 15mm thickness so hub thickness is
15mm bearing specifications are mentioned in the reference.
 Brake caliper mounting is 15mm thick in order to provide rigidity to calipers when brake is
applied and avoid any flex.

These assumptions were made since these are the typical values which are used as the data for this
aspect was not accessible.

Based on these packaging assumptions rim used is of +25mm offset.

Suspension Hard Points

After selecting tire and rim we start our work to get the optimized hard points. So for that purpose we
have made several iterations, we have tweaked different hard points of chassis unless we achieve our
desired output parameters. So final hard points we found using lotus shark are mentioned below. One
thing must be kept in mind that in suspension design we cannot adjust all the values as we desired
because by changing one value other value is affected so it is always a tradeoff. Sometimes we have to
go for one value of one particular parameter to get the other parameter in our desired range.

Front

X (mm ) Y ( mm ) Z ( mm )
Lower wishbone front pivot toward vehicle
front 3995 198 298
Lower wishbone rear pivot toward vehicle
rear 4195 198 298
Lower Wishbone outer ball joint (knuckle
Lower ball joint Point) 4109 571 245
Upper wishbone front pivot toward vehicle
front 3992.5 210 400
Upper wishbone rear pivot toward vehicle
rear 4192.5 210 400
Upper wishbone outer ball joint (knuckle
upper ball joint point) 4119.5 558 360.6
Push rod wishbone end 4092 463.0372 258.3774
Push rod rocker end 4092 272.455 475
Outer track rod ball joint 4036 589 400
Inner track rod ball joint 4103.782 305.3735 425.9702
Damper to body mount 4688 75 473.947
Damper to rocker point 4095 78.2031 485.4361
Wheel spindle point 4092.5 550 313.1
Wheel center point 4092.5 620 313.1
Rocker axis 1st point 4105 190 500
Rocker axis 2nd point 4092.5 188.978 502.6697
Part 1 C of G 220 415 185
Part 2 C of G 255 355 385
Part 3 C of G 30 475 390
Part 4 C of G 160 450 350
Part 5 C of G 220 190 475
Part 6 C of G 135 790 335

Part1 c of g to part6 c of g are software determined center of gravity of suspension carts they have
nothing to do with suspension geometry and vehicle center of gravity is mentioned in the in static
parameters table below.
Rear

X ( mm ) Y (mm) Z (mm)
Lower wishbone front pivot toward
vehicle front 5541.5 300 266
Lower wishbone rear pivot toward
vehicle rear 5786.5 300 266
Lower Wishbone outer ball joint (knuckle
lower ball joint point) 5664 603.1108 235.8723
Upper wishbone front pivot toward
vehicle front 5524.5 316 386
Upper wishbone rear pivot toward
vehicle rear 5759.5 316 386
Upper wishbone outer ball joint (knuckle
upper ball joint point) 5642 580 390.3275
Damper wishbone end 5695 502 400
Damper body end 5730 332 699
Outer track rod ball joint 5764.5 606.7882 265.2923
Inner track rod ball joint 5795.5 316.2654 305.7449
Upper spring pivot point 5730 335 702
Lower spring pivot point 5695 502 397
Wheel spindle point 5642.5 573.6907 315.6
Wheel center point 5642.5 640 315.6
Part 1 C of G 5580 440 197.5
Part 2 C of G 5720 520 452.5
Part 3 C of G 5780 525 222.5
Part 4 C of G 5680 720 277.5

These all hard points are relative to each other it do not matters where do you place the origin. Now
when you go to design stage you export these hard points in your CAD software and make
corresponding brackets or place ball joint. And after that design corresponding chassis.
Suspension and Steering Parameters
Now following are the parameters that we achieved after number of iterations.

Static Parameter
Static parameters of our vehicle is mentioned in the table below

Front Static Camber Angle ( degree ) -1

Rear Static Camber Angle ( degree ) -0.5
Front Static Toe Angle ( degree ) 0.5
Rear Static Toe Angle ( degree ) 0.5
Kingpin Angle ( degree ) 6.4
Caster Angle ( degree ) 5.1
Scrub Radius ( mm ) 28
Caster Trail ( mm ) 23
Front Track Width ( mm ) 1220
Rear Track Width ( mm ) 1280
Wheel Base ( mm ) 1550
Roll Gradient ( degree / g ) 0.81
Roll Center Height ( mm ) 116
Center of Gravity Height ( mm ) 200
Bump Travel ( mm ) 30
Rebound Travel ( mm ) 25
Front Suspension Double wishbone with push rods
Rear Suspension Double wishbone with damper mounted to upper wishbone
Front upper wishbone length (mm) 350
Front Lower wishbone length (mm) 377
Rear upper wishbone length (mm) 264
Rear lower wishbone length (mm) 305

Vehicle is kept wider from rear in order to place engine.

Front Suspension Behavior
Camber Angle

As we see that during bump maximum camber angles come is -0.8867 degree during roll it moves
between +-2.886 degree and during steer it is not moves between +-3 degree , so as we deduce from
the results that during all the three operations so there we be good contact of road with the tire.
Formula student is all about racing so and for racing proper tire and road contact is very important and
for this camber angle and camber gain is one of the important factor. Generally a static negative camber
is given in formula vehicles this is because during turning and rolling there is a bit of wheel travel and
with wheel travel there comes camber due to which contact patch between road and tire reduces and
hence there is possibility to slip so in order to avoid it we provide initial static camber so that when
turning when camber due to turning and rolling comes both camber cancel each other and there is zero
camber angle at turning and rolling and we get best performance out of our vehicle.

Camber Gain is the gain of camber angle as the wheel travels. It is defined as follow:

Camber gain = Tan-1(1/fvsa)

Camber gain = 0.035 degree / mm

0.035 degree / mm is our camber gain value.

Now based on this camber gain calculation we give a static camber of -1 degree to front tires since
during roll if wheel travels around 20 mm in case of extreme turning, with a lateral acceleration of 1.3 to
1.4 g, there is a good contact between road and tire during turning since turning weight shift to one side
so one wheel would travel and during that travel it will gain camber and have good contact with ground.
Toe Angle

Now the next factor that comes into play is Toe angle, if the toe angle is not controlled the
vehicle will tend to steer when vehicle is accelerated or braked, its tires get to wear and this can
be dangerous so in order to avoid it Toe Angle must be controlled during all the three
operations that are bump, roll and steer. Graphs shows that throughout the bump and the
droop toe angle is between -0.214 to 0.817 degree, during roll it is between -0.14 to 0.44
degree.

Caster Angle

Above shown is our vehicle caster angle response for all the three, bump, roll and camber which is
between 5.18 and 5.19 degree during bump 5.15 and 5.22 degree during roll and 5.18 and 5.19 degree
for steering. Caster is the angle between upper ball joint and lower ball joint in side view so it directly
affects steering and steering effort of vehicle. Typical caster angle value is between 2o - 8o. So we can
easily steer car without the need of power steering.
Kingpin Angle

Above shown is our vehicle kingpin inclination angle response as vehicle bumps, roll and steer which is
between 5.9 and 7.2 during bump 3.48 and 9.4 during roll and 6.4 and 6.45 for steer. KPI angle is
basically the angle in front view on the our wheel hub tends to rotate that is the line joining Upper ball
Joint and Lower Ball Joint so it directly affects steering and steering effort so it should be taken care off.
Typical values used by different formula vehicles is between 2o – 8o. Kingpin angle actually tends to lift
the car as you try to steer so for this purpose kingpin angle should not be greater than the mentioned
values.

Roll Center Height

Generally roll center height is kept between ground and center of vehicle tire height. So the data shows
that our vehicle roll center height is between 39 and 163 mm during bump, 108 and 155 mm during roll
and 116.2 and 116.7 mm during steer from the ground. Vehicle roll over is very much dependent on roll
center height since this is the point about which vehicle tends to so roll center height is given
appropriate significance while designing suspension. Above figs show roll center height response as
vehicle bumps, rolls and steers.
Scrub Radius

Scrub radius another important factor that plays a vital role in steering. Graphs shows that our
scrub radius is between 28.2 and 28.3 mm for bump and droop between 27.7 and 28.4 mm in roll
and 22.7 and 34.3 during steer. Typical scrub radius value is between 18 – 35 mm which experts
says and also used by different teams as mentioned in article of Improvement of the Suspension
System of FS Cars, so our scrub radius is fine.

Caster Trail

Graphs shows that our vehicles caster trail values are between 22.4 and 23.5 mm during bump, 22.62
and 23 mm for roll and -13 and 49.3 mm for steer. These are typical values of caster trail as the data for
this aspect was not accessible.
Rear Suspension Behavior
Camber Angle

Above shown are the camber values in our rear wheels when our vehicle bumps, roll and steers which is
between -2 and 1.1 degree during bump and -2.1 and 2 degree for roll. Just like front camber angle rear
camber angle is also important to be catered. Our rear camber gain values is calculated to be 0.05
degree/ mm so -0.5 degree static angle so that during turning with lateral acceleration of 1.3-1.4 g tire
camber angle is close to 0 degree and have good contact with the ground and provide road grip instead
of slippage.

Toe Angle

Above shown are the toe angle response of our vehicle during bump and roll which is -1 to 1.67 degree
during bump, and -1.33 to 1.26 degree during roll. If toe angle is not controlled then it cause bump steer
or tire wear which are both not liked. These are values which are also used in various vehicles in formula
student as mentioned in article of Improvement of the Suspension System of FS Cars.
Roll Center Height

Typically rear roll center is kept high as compared to front in order to give roll axis inclination which
provide stability during cornering so we have tried to kept rear roll center higher and give and
inclination of 0.4-0.6 degree here is our rear roll center height which is between 37.1 to 183.2 mm for
bump and 123.3 to 127.3 mm for steer. Our roll angle inclination is

Roll Axis Inclination = Tan-1 ( ( 123 - 114 ) / ( 5642 – 4092 ) )

Roll Axis Inclination = 0.44o

Steering Percentage Ackermann

Ideally best Percentage Ackermann is 100 % which means that during taking a turn if a perpendicular
line drawn from tire center all intersects at one point and there is no slippage between any tire and
ground, but in reality due to compliance of various rubber parts among which tire is major one, bushings
etc. required percentage Ackermann is not 100 %. In racing safety it is a good practice to go for
understeer, it is not necessary that you go for understeer always this can vary from case to case. So we
have made our vehicle to understeer rather than over steer. So we have kept Ackermann between 75.8
to 87.5 % which is less than 100% since with Ackermann less than 100% the vehicle tends to understeer
since slippage is there in front wheels which occurs in understeer.
Vibrational Analysis and Spring and Damper Selection
Assumptions
 Front Unsprung Masses

Part Mass (kg)

Upright 0.9
Wheel Hub with bearing 0.91
Wheel 9.07
Rotor Assembly 2.72
Total 14
Rear Unsprung Mass

Part Mass (kg)

Differential 9.1
Rear Axle 7.3
Sprocket 1.5
Total 23

 Weight Assumption and distribution

Front Weight (kg) 132.96
Rear Wight (kg) 144.04
Total Weight with driver (kg) 277
Driver Weight ( kg ) 65
With this some more parts the total front sprung mass on front on one wheel is 66.48 kg

that is muf =66.48 kg

With this some more parts the total rear sprung mass on one wheel is 73.5 kg

that is mur = 72.02 kg

These are the typical ride frequencies of formula vehicles

Front ride Frequency = ff = 3.2 Hz

Rear ride Frequency = fr = 2.8 Hz

Ride frequency is basically the undammed frequency of the body in right. Reference for these values is
given in the reference.

Front Motion ratio = Rf = 1.3

Rear Motion ratio = Rr = 1.8

Rear motion ratio is usually higher as compared to the front this is what experienced designers prefer.
Spring Rate Calculation
For front

Front Spring rate = 𝐾𝑠𝑓 = 4 𝜋 2 𝑓𝑓 2 𝑚𝑢𝑓 𝑅𝑓 2

Putting values we get

𝐾𝑠𝑟 = 45372 𝑁/𝑚

For rear

Rear Spring rate = 𝐾𝑠𝑟 = 4 𝜋 2 𝑓𝑟 2 𝑚𝑢𝑟 𝑅𝑟 2

Putting values we get

𝐾𝑠𝑟 = 72149 𝑁/𝑚

Wheel Rate Calculation

For front
𝐾
Front wheel rate = 𝐾𝑓 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑓2
𝑓

Putting values we get

𝐾𝑓 = 26.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚

For rear
𝐾𝑠𝑟
𝐾𝑟 =
𝑅𝑟 2
Putting values we get

Rear wheel rate = 𝐾𝑟 = 22.26 𝑘𝑁/𝑚

Roll Rates
𝜋 𝑡𝑓 2 𝐾𝑓
𝐾𝐹 =
180 2
With tf = front track width = 1220 mm

Putting values we get

𝐾𝐹 = front roll rate = 348 Nm/deg

𝜋 𝑡𝑟 2 𝐾𝑓
𝐾𝑅 =
180 2
With tr = rear track width = 1280 mm
Putting values we get

Rear roll rate = 𝐾𝑅 = 318 𝑁𝑚/𝑑𝑒𝑔

Roll Gradient from Ride Springs

𝑊 ℎ𝑐𝑔
Roll Gradient = 𝑟 = 𝐾𝐹 +𝐾𝑅

Where W = Wight of vehicle in Newton

hcg =center of gravity height = 200 mm

putting values in roll gradient equation we get roll gradient

r= 0.81 deg/g

experience of previous teams shows that roll gradient has very much effect on the cornering if roll
gradient is not appropriate then it can slow down cornering so teams usually try to have roll gradient
between 0.76 - 0.83 deg/g this shows that our other factor like roll rates, spring rate, wheel travel are
also appropriate since roll gradient is very much dependent on these factors as mentioned in article of
Improvement of the Suspension System of FS Cars.

All of the above mentioned equations were taken from Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics. Reference
given.

Vibrational Analysis
Tire Data

 Damping Constant is 10 N s / m
 Spring Constant is 200 kN / m

These are typical values of tire damping ratio and stiffness as the data for this aspect was not accessible.

We have already selected spring stiffness i.e 45.4 kN / m for front and 72.15 kN / m for rear and we
already have all the data regarding mass of vehicles so based on that a mathematical model was made
in MATLAB Simulink and after various iterations damping coefficient of shock was selected

System for quarter vehicle model was taken from mathworks website which is MATLAB Simulink official
site reference given below and is shown in the figure below
Bump load is shown in the figure below
We have modelled this bump load and exited the system with this load. Vehicle speed was set at 60 km
/ hr for passing through this bump. The response of the system is shown in the figure below on Y- axis is
the wheel travel and X-axis is time

For Front

For Rear Wheel

After a number of iterations we found that that the damping coefficient is

For front 3000 N s /m

For rear 4000 N s / m

Vehicle Weight Shift during Braking and Acceleration

Braking

Now in order to check the response when brake is applied we have to make certain calculations
Wt  Htcg
Wdf  Wb  D  W fs
Where

Wdf = Front dynamic weight (N)

Wt = Total vehicle weight (kg)

Htcg = Height of the center of gravity (m)

Wb = Wheelbase (m)

D = Deceleration (ms-2)

Wfs = Static front weight (N)

The dynamic weight on the front tires Wdf can be calculated by taking the sum of the moments about
the front tire to road contact point.

As you can see from this equation the front dynamic weight is equal to the front static weight Wfs plus
the product of the total vehicle weight Wt times the height of the C.G. (Htcg) divided by the wheelbase
(Wb) and multiplied by the deceleration (D). Then, of course, the dynamic rear weight is just the total
vehicle weight minus the front dynamic weight.

Now we assume that vehicle is stopped from 60 km/hr in 10 sec so

D= 1.667 ms-2

Wdf = 136.01 kg

Now due to this weight shift vehicle tends to pitch.

Acceleration
Similarly dynamic load on rear is given by
Wt  Htcg
Wdr  Wb  a  W fr

Typical acceleration for formula vehicles is around 1g i.e.

a= 9.8 ms-2

Wdr = 161.5 kg

These equations were used from Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics, reference given below.

Safety Measurements

Since this vehicle would be driven by students on the track rather than professional driver so special
measurements are taken in order to avoid any miss hap. Some of these factors are
 We have designed our vehicle in a way that it is kept under steer during race and chances to roll
are reduced.
 Steering is not very much sensitive.
 There is a possibility for the driver change static camber and toe so that driver can change
camber and toe if required. This can be done through two ways one is either using camber bolts
and other is keeping knuckle ball joints length variable by placing an adjustable bolt with ball
joints.
References

(Collins), Complete Guide to car suspension https://www.carbibles.com/guide-to-car-suspension/

(Constant, 2013), Suspension design: definition and effects on vehicle behavior http://www.car-
engineer.com/suspension-design-definitions-and-effects-on-vehicle-behavior/

(Avalon Tire Motor Sport) http://www.avonmotorsport.com/motorsport/crossply/13-crossply-slicks

(SKF Bearings Manufactures) https://www.skf.com/group/products/bearings-units-housings/ball-

bearings/deep-groove-ball-bearings/deep-groove-ball-
bearings/index.html?designation=6205%20NR&unit=metricUnit

(Mathworks website)
http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?example=Suspension&section=SimulinkModeling

(Karlsson, June 2018), Design of a suspension system for a formula student race car
https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/31391/1/MSc_Ingi_Niels_Karlsson_2018.pdf

(Milliken), Race Car Vehicle Dynamics

(Gillespie), Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics