Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Elements affecting food waste in the food service sector

Lotta Heikkilä, Anu Reinikainen ⇑, Juha-Matti Katajajuuri, Kirsi Silvennoinen, Hanna Hartikainen
Natural Resources Institute Finland, Luke, Bio-based Business and Industry, 00790 Helsinki, Finland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Avoidable food waste is produced in the food service sector, with significant ecological and economical
Received 17 December 2015 impacts. In order to understand and explain better the complex issue of food waste a qualitative study
Revised 31 May 2016 was conducted on the reasons for its generation in restaurants and catering businesses. Research data
Accepted 13 June 2016
were collected during three participatory workshops for personnel from three different catering sector
Available online xxxx
companies in Finland. Based on synthesized qualitative content analysis, eight elements influencing pro-
duction and reduction of food waste were identified. Results revealed the diversity of managing food
Keywords:
waste in the food service sector and how a holistic approach is required to prevent and reduce it. It is
Food waste
Restaurant
crucial to understand that food waste is manageable and should be an integral component of the man-
Qualitative agement system. The model of eight factors provides a framework for recognition and management of
Food service sector food waste in the food service sector.
Element Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Framework

1. Introduction Comprehensive, detailed and reliable studies, especially for the

entire food chain, are yet very few. Furthermore, concern has been
One third of the environmental impact of Finnish consumption growing for the environment and food sufficiency, making food
is related to food (Seppälä et al., 2011). Avoidable food waste is waste an important research topic and fuelling social debate
produced at all stages of the food chain with significant ecological (Koivupuro et al., 2010). Also, the issue of responsibility is consid-
and economic impacts (Williams et al., 2015). It has been esti- ered to play a significant role in the minds of consumers and
mated (Katajajuuri et al., 2014) that the total climate impact of regarding business strategies among companies in the food pro-
food waste in Finland, including households, retailers, restaurants duction chain (Lindgreen et al., 2009; Beer, 2009).
and the food industry, is approximately 1000 million kilograms The food service sector is a notable part of the food chain
of CO2-equivalent per year. This is more than one percent of the because in Finland, around 889 million food portions are cooked
Finnish total annual greenhouse gas emissions. Further, the value in food service businesses every year (Taloustutkimus, 2011),
of food discarded by Finnish households is estimated to be €400– which corresponds to around 395 million kilos of food. This figure
550 million annually. It is ecologically, socially and economically is exceeded because some food is already wasted at the storing and
unsustainable to waste edible food rather than consume it, because cooking stages. Minimizing food waste improves resource effi-
in addition to wasted money the environmental impacts of produc- ciency and sustainability in the food service sector. Workplace
ing the raw materials and processing them into food are restaurants and canteens serve 14% of all food in the Finnish food
considerable. service sector. One-third of the population uses public food ser-
The volumes of food waste produced have been increasingly vices on a daily basis.
studied internationally, especially at the household level, but also The volumes of food waste in the food service sector have been
for the entire food supply chain and system (e.g. Betz et al., studied over the last fifteen years in Europe and the United States
2015; BMELV, 2012; European Commission, 2010; Evans, 2012; (Silvennoinen et al., 2015; Wrap, 2011; Schneider and Obersteiner,
Hanssen and Schakenda, 2011; Jones, 2005; Kantor et al., 1997; 2007; Karlsson, 2001; Marthinsen and Bjorn, 2004; Adams et al.,
Parfitt et al., 2010; Schneider and Obersteiner, 2007; Wrap, 2008, 2005; Jones, 2005; RVF Utveckling, 2006). For example, it is esti-
2009; Dias-Ferreira et al., 2015). It is estimated that roughly one- mated that in 2009 UK hotels, pubs, restaurants and QSRs (e.g.
third of food produced is lost or wasted globally, which amounts quick service restaurants) produced just over 3.4 million tonnes
to about 1.3 billion tonnes per annum (Gustavsson et al., 2011). of waste (Wrap, 2011). According to the United States Department
of Agriculture (USDA) households and food service operations
⇑ Corresponding author. (restaurants, cafeterias, fast food, and caterers) together lost 39 bil-
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Reinikainen).
lion kilograms (86 billion pounds) of food in 2008 (Gunders, 2012).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.06.019
0956-053X/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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2 L. Heikkilä et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

In Finland about 20% of all food produced and served in licensed of the workshops was to provide an open, inspiring and interactive
restaurants is discarded (Silvennoinen et al., 2015), which roughly forum for discussion.
corresponds to 79 million kilograms. The estimation is based on The research data was collected from three case companies.
the Foodspill project where the kitchen staff weighed edible food Two of the case study companies represented communal food ser-
waste in 72 restaurant outlets (Silvennoinen et al., 2015). An Amer- vices and one company was responsible for catering for the restau-
ican study (Jones, 2005) reveals that (in fast food restaurants) the rants of Helsinki University. 61% of the meals eaten outside home
amount of food waste varies significantly from 5 to 50% of all food are served by food service outlet types like day-care centres,
prepared, depending on the business concept. A questionnaire schools, hospitals, elderly service centres, and workplace restau-
study conducted by Agrifood Research Finland (MTT) revealed that rants and canteens (The Nielsen Company, 2008). The case compa-
food waste is monitored during the preparation and service phases nies represented all these outlet types, providing the observational
in communal food services (Risku-Norja et al., 2010). The amount richness (Yin, 1994) that is needed for understanding the relative,
of food waste was estimated to vary from a few per cent up to contextual concept of food waste in restaurants.
20% of all food produced, depending on the food offered. The
majority of the respondents estimated the loss to be slightly larger 2.1. Workshop structure and material gathering
than for the food service at the manufacturing stage.
On the whole, studies on wastage of food in food service insti- Three participatory workshops, lasting two to three hours, were
tutions have produced variable results and it is difficult to assess organized in March 2011 and included a total of 34 participants.
the amount of food that is wasted based on published studies. The participants were chosen and invited to the workshops by con-
Moreover, existing studies, both Finnish, European and American, tact persons from the case companies based on the following crite-
have focussed on the amount of food waste and not on the reasons ria: (1) they were interested in the theme of food waste (2) they
behind it. Thus an illustrative framework of the dimensions of had positive attitude towards change, open mind and willingness
avoidable food waste is still lacking. The aim of this research is to develop restaurant performance. The participants were divided
to contribute to this research gap and explain the complex issue into groups in the workshops (6–9 persons per group), and they
of food waste and the reasons behind its generation in the food ser- represented either kitchen staff or company management. Kitchen
vice sector. In order to gain a holistic view of food waste in the food staff (chefs, cooks) represented the operational level of the com-
service sector, a qualitative research approach was applied. In this pany whereas management the planning level responsible for divi-
study the food service sector is defined as one part of the food sys- sion of financial resources. The idea was to bring together different
tem, business or institutional activities, responsible for any food or company-level representatives to jointly discuss the topic. Partici-
meal prepared and served outside the home. The sector includes pants were encouraged to speak openly about the theme without
different types of food service outlets that serve and prepare food, worrying about the company hierarchy. Representatives were aged
such as school day-care centres and restaurants. Avoidable food 24–60 and 2/3rds of them were women. The majority of the partic-
waste is defined in this study as wasted food and raw material that ipants represented operational-level workers. Each group had a
could have been consumed had it been stored or prepared differ- moderator running it and a secretary to document the discussion.
ently. So it does not contain other organic waste like vegetable peel The role of moderators (projects researchers and authors of this
and coffee grounds. article) were facilitative; they asked questions (for instance
‘‘Why during food preparation did edible food end up being
wasted”) and kept the conversation on topic.
2. Materials and methods In small groups participants discussed reasons for three avoid-
able food waste categories: kitchen waste, serving loss and plate
A qualitative research approach was applied in this study leftovers. Kitchen waste in this study is defined as waste produced
because it enables the illustrating of unstructured phenomena, before or during the cooking process (e.g. cook’s mistakes or passed
unlike quantitative approach. In order to gain a holistic view of best before day), serving loss as edible, served food which cannot, for
avoidable food waste, a deep understanding of the involved details one reason or another, be reserved later and plate leftovers as edible
in the food service sector is required (Malhotra and Birks, 2003). food which diners have taken but have not eaten. This division of
The research was based on participatory action research, with fea- food waste categories (comprising kitchen waste, serving loss and
tures of the focus group method. Data were analysed with an plate leftover) was chosen as the framework of the workshop exer-
inductive approach and it has characteristics of grounded theory cises and data gathering because it has been workable in a quantita-
where qualitative data is systematically categorized and a model tive food waste study in Finland (Silvennoinen et al., 2015) and it
or formal theory can be formed about the phenomena (Birks and describes the raw-material flow within the kitchen process and it
Mills, 2011). was logical from the perspective of workshop participants.
In participatory action research the interaction between partic- In the workshops, participants produced thoughts about the rea-
ipants and a research group is essential. The participants role is sons for food wastage on post-it notes like ‘‘doesn’t taste good”,
active and it can be described as ‘‘co-researchers” (Cornwall and ‘‘kitchen processes not planned” and ‘‘estimating the amount of cus-
Jewkes, 1995). Participants are involved to generate knowledge tomers”, which were stuck on the blackboard. There were three sec-
about issues that affect them in their daily lives (Park, 2001). Par- tions on the wall for the different waste categories: kitchen waste,
ticipatory methods are often described as reflexive, flexible and serving loss and plate leftovers. After the workshops the post-it
iterative (Cornwall and Jewkes, 1995). The participatory approach notes were photographed and converted into electronic form.
was implemented by organizing and facilitating participatory
workshops to generate knowledge and viewpoints about the con- 2.2. Analysis
tent of avoidable food waste, especially where it is produced. The
workshops had features of the focus group method where interac- The qualitative content analysis with inductive approach was
tion among participants forms a relevant part of the method deployed in order to interpret the workshop outputs. In content
(Onwuegbuzie et al., 2009). In focus groups people are encouraged analysis, data are observed and categorized with the aim of finding
to talk to one another, ask questions, and comment on each other’s similarities, differences and connections within phenomena. The
experiences. The focus group method is particularly useful for overall aim is to generate a summary description of the phenom-
exploring knowledge and experience (Kitzinger, 1995). The role ena (Miles and Huberman, 1994).

Please cite this article in press as: Heikkilä, L., et al. Elements affecting food waste in the food service sector. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.wasman.2016.06.019
 L. Heikkilä et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3

In three workshops participants produced over 100 post-it notes. categories were established, i.e. eight elements that influence
Each note contained only a single thought, for example ‘‘wrong pro- avoidable food waste in the food service sector were identified.
duct circulation”, ‘‘not planning the kitchen operations”, ‘‘language The purpose was to reveal qualitative meanings (e.g. content);
barrier”, ‘‘waitress-cook cooperation”, ‘‘too big serving bowl”. In this hence the analysis did not focus on the mutual importance and
research one post-it note with a single thought represents an ana- value of the elements or the amount of analytical units per each
lytical unit, the starting point of the analysis. As preparatory work identified element.
for the analysis, the analytical units were checked and coded. Seven After defining the eight affecting elements the linkages between
analytical units were discarded because of unclearness (for example these elements were examined. This was systematically done by
if the idea concerned other organic waste food like tomato stalks it viewing each element through the following questions: (1) Does
was discarded). The analytical units were colour coded (kitchen this factor affect food waste directly or/and indirectly? (For exam-
waste = yellow, service loss = brown and plate leftover = orange) ple society affects food waste indirectly). (2) How does the factor
according to the theme to ensure that the data were at all times have a direct effect on food waste? (For example diners affect food
traceable back to the starting point. After this stage the division of waste directly by taking more food than they can eat and then
food waste categories, (e.g. the data gathering framework) was throwing it away). (3) How does the factor have an indirect effect
put aside and it did not lead or channel the analysis. and through which factors? (For example, society affects food
The analysis began by reading carefully through all units and waste indirectly through the eating habits of diners and legisla-
dividing them into thematic categories. In the next phase, the the- tion). These interactions were at first studied by one of the authors,
matic categories were carefully read through and possible emerg- followed by critical evaluation of all authors about the entity and
ing higher level categories were studied. In the first phase visualization of interaction. This critical evaluation was conducted
altogether ten thematic categories were identified, and in the sec- in a meeting with all authors. Based on the evaluation some mod-
ond phase four of them were merged under the higher-level terms. ifications were made and the schematic model was defined to
For example, in the second phase the categories ‘‘legislation” and answer the question: ‘‘What kind of entity of factors affect food
‘‘values” were merged under the term ‘‘society”. If no higher-level waste in the restaurant sector?” According to Miles and
category was identified the original thematic category remained Huberman (1994) it is essential that explanatory models are logical
independent. These first two phases were completed by one of and coherent, and in addition the explanatory model created
the authors of this article. Thereafter, all authors held a meeting through the analysis should be validated with empirical data. In
where the categorization was critically evaluated and, as a result this study, the schematic model was tested by entering the analyt-
of this common examination, the categorizing was fine tuned. ical units into it and examining the consistency of the relationship
Through these two analysis phases the data were compiled in a between the elements and the whole model. Phases of the data
new way to identify elements that affected avoidable food waste in gathering and analysis is described in the following picture
the food service sector services. According to this analysis eight (Picture 1).

Three workshops with 34 parcipants were held.

Queson asked in the workshops: what pracces Data gathering
and reasons in everyday life causes kitchen waste,
serving loss and plate leover?

Output: raw data of the study, over 100 post-it notes

One of the authors All authors of the arcle

Forming themac element held a meeng for Analysis
categories through the evaluang and fine-tuning
qualitave content analysis the elements

Result: eight elements

One of the authors All authors held a meeng

exanimated linkages for crically evaluang the Analysis
between elements through interacons and visualizing
three quesons the model

Result: shemac model

Picture 1. Phases of the analysis and data gathering.

Please cite this article in press as: Heikkilä, L., et al. Elements affecting food waste in the food service sector. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.wasman.2016.06.019
4 L. Heikkilä et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

3. Results company’s menu can accommodate a daily changing ‘‘chef’s

special,” which can be made using ingredients from the fridge,
Based on the analysis, eight elements (Table 1) in the data were whose expiration date is drawing near.
identified that influence the creation and reduction of food waste
in the catering sector. Next, all these elements are introduced more 3.3. Product development and procurement
precisely.
The quality of the ingredients used and the sizes of the batches
available were found to affect both kitchen waste and plate waste.
3.1. Society
For example, when using bought (frozen) bread, its poor quality in
comparison with fresh bread was found to increase plate waste.
The results reveal that society as a whole creates a framework
Similarly, the sizes of the batches bought are sometimes a problem.
where people and companies operate. This means that society’s
Not all products are available in suitable and sufficiently small
culture with its norms, values and legislation have an effect on
batches, in which case the ingredient may be left on the shelf to
people’s behaviour and existing procedures. It defines how, for
expire. Also the amount of resources available for procurement is
example, food is valued, what are the accepted virtues in business
relevant. How much can be spent on, e.g., raw-materials and suit-
ethics or what procedures exist when providing institutional ser-
able equipment like serving bowls. A buffet must also look full and
vices like school meals. The tradition in Finnish schools to offer a
tempting at the end of the lunch time when, there should not be
proper meal with good nutritional value as a school lunch fulfils
much food left in order to avoid food waste. If only big bowls are
not only nutritional values but also educational purposes. The
available, more food is also required in order to achieve the attrac-
results reveal that the school lunch is considered as a means to
tive appearance of the buffet. The above examples are reflected in
learn manners, implement health education and transfer Finnish
the company’s procurement policies and often in their procure-
food culture and habits to pupils. For instance, the teachers have
ment criteria.
lunch with the pupils, encourage students to taste different foods
and use proper table manners, and thus teachers as well as kitchen
3.4. Management
staff play an important role in setting an example of good table
manners and dining culture. The study also established that meals
The results reveal that a restaurant’s management influences
are opportunities for pupils to hone their social and interaction
the amounts of kitchen waste, serving loss and plate leftovers alike.
skills.
For example, the management system has a significant effect on
The study revealed that legislation has an influence on the cre-
how kitchen activities are controlled and regulated and how vari-
ation of waste in the kitchen. Legislation sets limits on how long
ous practicalities like maintaining and correcting recipes, deciding
products can be kept in a bain-marie (e.g. bowl with hot water that
on the amounts of food to be prepared, menu planning and inven-
keeps food warm in a buffet) and how these products may be
tories are dealt with.
re-utilized. For example, unpacked and perishable products can
The results indicate that mistakes in recipes and preparing
be kept for a maximum of four hours in a bain-marie, after which
excess amounts of food increase kitchen and buffet waste (i.e.
the food needs to be disposed (Ministry of Agriculture and
incorrectly sized (too large) portions increase buffet waste). In care
Forestry, Statute 1367/2011, 8§). Also, the National Food Act
services, where food is dispensed on plates beforehand, too-large
obliges risk management for mass caterers, which often means
portions increase the amount of plate waste. Also, instructions
preparatory actions like samples from each meal prepared as part
and steps on how to replace staff shortages with skilled stand-ins
of a company’s in-house control. Every day of the year, as many as
are recorded in the management system. Using trained stand-ins
ten dishes may be prepared in a kitchen, meaning that these sam-
reduces the risk of spoiled food and the subsequent increase of
ples represent hundreds of kilograms of edible, but uneaten food.
kitchen waste. The management system determines how the mon-
itoring, documentation and control of food waste is organized. An
3.2. Business concept effective management system is a tool for organizing and planning
practical actions and influences the amount of food waste created.
A company’s business concept expresses the idea behind the Managerial work in restaurants involves managing people,
company’s activities in the market, and this is reflected in all the activities and processes. Through these, managers have an influ-
company’s activities, including the amount of created food waste. ence on the food waste created in restaurants. The work performed
One factor arising from the business concept, and which influences by managers is also linked to other factors affecting food waste,
the amount of waste created, is buffet-style of catering, which such as professional skills (competence) and the management sys-
involves having the food ready and available for customers to help tem. Managers need to improve their employees’ skills and run the
themselves. In such cases, controlling the amount of buffet waste, activities of the kitchen, using the management system. The way
as part of serving loss, is a considerable challenge, since it is very managers carry out their duties has a particular bearing on the cre-
difficult to predict the number of diners. A factor affecting the ation of kitchen and buffet waste. A manager has to be able to
amount of kitchen waste, on the other hand, is whether the motivate, encourage and give instructions to staff so that they
can carry out their duties professionally and to the best of their
Table 1
abilities. In terms of waste control, it is essential to have trained
Starting point and eight affecting factors identified through the analysis. people working on tasks to which they are suited. Further, the
results in the school context reveal the need for manager skills
Data gathering division Affecting elements identified through the analysis
when organizing the school lunch schedules and surroundings;
1. Kitchen waste 1. Society too little time for lunch breaks and a noisy environment have an
2. Serving loss 2. Business concept
3. Plate leftovers 3. Product development and procurement
impact on plate waste.
4. Management
5. Professional skills 3.5. Professional skills
6. Diners
7. Competitors
Professional skills refer to a person’s ability to master their
8. Communication
duties and act appropriately in various situations. It is easier for

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10.1016/j.wasman.2016.06.019
 L. Heikkilä et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 5

an untrained employee to make mistakes in cooking, which may deliveries. Reaching an understanding on suitable portion sizes,
lead to throwing food away. Mistakes may also be due to interpret- which affect plate waste, requires communication between the
ing or reading a recipe incorrectly or carelessly. Care, meticulous- orderer and producer in, for example, a service kitchen that
ness and the ability to follow instructions are important orders its food from a central kitchen.
components of professional skills. The study shows that employ- The results illustrate that it is important for information to tra-
ees’ experience of methods, mastering new recipes and carrying vel also inside the company, between staff members. For example,
out general tasks has an effect on the creation of both kitchen information about products that will soon be out of date, or about
and buffet waste. Dividing the cooking process into sections and expired dates or spoilage, has an influence on product rotation and
preparing food in stages requires the ability to anticipate and will prevent the use of expired products. Communication with cus-
assess future situations. Professional skills and competence also tomers occurs, for example, as the need arises to inform them
refer to employees’ ability to apply ‘‘common sense” and to learn about the contents or nutritional values of portions and meals
from their mistakes, as well as their willingness to take responsi- (products), or in a school and kindergarten environment about
bility for carrying out the given tasks. Estimating and ordering suit- ways to behave during meal times. If a company wishes to do so,
able amounts of food is also a part of professional skills. customers can also be informed about matters relating to food,
Competence and professional skills in the prevention of food waste such as the environmental impacts of meals. Knowing the cus-
are also evident in the organization and planning of meal times. tomers and interacting with them represent an essential part of
Matters connected to meal times, such as the appropriate order establishing and building customer satisfaction.
of food served in the buffet, sufficiently long meal times, displayed The study elucidates that communication can be improved
model portions, attractive buffet serving points and correct-size with, for example, the use of notice boards, written messages or
serving equipment were recognized as methods to reduce the instructions. It is also important that staff members know where
amount of buffet waste. to find the information they need and who to ask. Mass caterers,
such as schools and staff restaurants, can improve their flow of
3.6. Diners information by informing their staff in advance about absences,
or by notifying them about events that will have an effect on the
Food waste is created in restaurants also by the diners. If the number of diners. The amount of food waste created can be
quality or taste of the food is poor, customers find that they are less directly influenced by preparing the correct amount of food.
hungry than they thought, or if the food does not meet their expec-
tations, it is easily left on the plate. The study revealed that, in 3.9. Linkages between factors
addition to taste, the appearance of the food is linked to the cre-
ation of food waste. If the food does not look tempting enough, din- The eight factors presented above form a schematic model of
ers will not take it. the linkages between elements affecting avoidable food waste in
Customers’ images and hopes for the food being served con- the food service sector (Fig. 1). Analysis reveals that two of the fac-
tribute to the amount of food waste created, particularly when it tors directly affect food waste: professional skills and diners,
comes to plate waste, but also buffet waste. The study found that whereas all six other factors, society, competitors, business con-
low appreciation of food (for example, free food at schools) and pil- cept, product development and procurement, management and
ing too much food on the plate (and not being able to finish it) communication, have an indirect affect through one or more fac-
increase the amount of plate waste. People learn their preferences, tors. The model illustrates the relationships between the elements.
get used to different tastes and form ideas about good and healthy Society indirectly affects food waste in restaurants through
food already as children. School, student and staff canteens and both diners and companies. It includes values, norms, legislation
visits to restaurants can solidify or weaken these preconceptions. and culture guiding people’s way of acting and behaviour. Diners’
It is evident that diners’ values and attitudes have an effect on food expectations and concepts of what is edible is constructed by the
waste. culture. Legislation affects restaurants by establishing minimum
requirements for activities within the catering sector, and every
3.7. Competitors company in the field is obliged to adhere to them. For instance, leg-
islation has an indirect effect by defining how long food can be on
Competitors were identified as having an influence on food the buffet before it is no longer safe to eat and thus must be wasted
waste in restaurants. For example, the content and attractiveness (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Statute 1367/2011, 8§). Soci-
of a competitors’ daily changing lunch menus makes it more diffi- ety as a whole creates a framework where each company defines
cult to forecast the needed food amount in one’s own buffet. One’s its own business concept, the basis of all its activities. The business
own buffet must be very fresh, full and tempting from the begin- concept affects a company’s product development, procurement
ning of the lunch time until the end of it, otherwise diners more policies and management.
easily head to a competitor’s buffet. This phenomenon often leads The goal of management is to implement the business concept
to serving losses at the end of the lunch time. and enable more concrete procurement and product development.
The management system works as a tool for running the com-
3.8. Communication pany’s everyday activities. It is applied to control recipes and por-
tion sizes, etc., and provides guidelines on activities, such as
Communication (e.g. act of transferring information from one documenting the waste created. Managers affect the employees’
place to another), or lack of it, has an influence on the amount of professional skills by directing employees and updating and devel-
kitchen, buffet and plate waste. Without communication, informa- oping the management system. Furthermore, the whole staff’s pro-
tion is not shared and working becomes difficult, which also fessional skills play an important role and are supported by the
reflects on how the staff deal with customers. Communication is work of the managers.
necessary with suppliers, customers and their orders, as well as In addition to professional skills of kitchen staff, the creation of
between staff members and inside the company. The results indi- food waste is directly influenced by the diners and their habits,
cate that the creation of kitchen waste can be reduced by better characteristics and wishes. A crucial factor is how well the diners’
communication when, for example, complaints are made about tastes and wishes are known, for example, in schools and staff
poor-quality products or reacting to defective or incorrect restaurants. Competitors indirectly affect food waste by, for

Please cite this article in press as: Heikkilä, L., et al. Elements affecting food waste in the food service sector. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.wasman.2016.06.019
6 L. Heikkilä et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. The explanatory model of factors affecting food waste in restaurants.

example, forcing one to keep their buffet full until the end of the The identified elements and their individual importance to dis-
lunch time, which often leads to serving loss. carded food accumulation may vary. For instance, an a la carte
Communication connects all the other elements; excluding restaurant has different business ideas compared to a public food
society and competitors identified in the study. There must be service company. A la carte restaurants have a menu where dishes
effective communication both between the company and its cus- are listed separately and individually priced; customers order from
tomers and inside the company among different levels of the orga- this menu. Public food services often offer a buffet where cus-
nization. The role of communication is extremely important in all tomers pay one price and get to fill their plate with a selection of
companies in the food service sector. Lack of internal communica- different alternatives. From this perspective, interesting future
tion in a company also impacts customers. In order to maintain research topics could include clarifying the importance of the eight
customer satisfaction, continuous communication and interaction elements in different types of restaurant and food service compa-
with customers is necessary. nies, both in Finland and abroad. However, it is a matter of busi-
ness strategy; companies operate in order to make profits.
Customer satisfaction is the cornerstone of business vitality and
4. Discussion thus close cooperation between a company and customers is
essential in order to both perform in a more environmentally
The schematic model was formed through the qualitative con- friendly way and better satisfy customer needs. Meeting cus-
tent analysis by a research group based on the data gathered in tomers’ needs can create customer loyalty and represent competi-
the workshops. So, only the linkages supported by the data were tive advantages (Chen et al., 2006; Hart, 1995; Peattie, 1992; Porter
drawn to the visualization. However, it is assumed that a few more and van der Linde, 1995). It could also be beneficial for the catering
linkages could have been found if the data had been enriched with, sector to explore customers’ environmental needs more deeply and
for example, interviews of experts. For example, communication to focus their communication from this perspective. The research
between companies’ internal elements and diners was revealed material consisted of 34 participants from three companies, which
but not between society and diners. This communication link could had hundreds of outlets, providing meals for various day-care cen-
have existed because, as commonly known in the field of communi- tres, schools, hospitals, service centres for the elderly, and work-
cation, its styles and ways are affected by a society and its culture. place restaurants and canteens. The canteens the participants
The focus group method with or without the participatory action represented were not identified. Further, the contact person in
approach has been applied in several food waste studies dealing the case companies selected the study participants based on their
with households and, e.g., consumer perceptions on food waste interest in food waste. Thus this may have limited the viewpoints
and reasons for it (e.g. Refsgaard and Magnussen, 2009; Stefan presented. Moreover, even though each group had a moderator
et al., 2013; Wrap, 2008). In turn, studies dealing with the food ser- guiding the conversation, there is a possibility that company hier-
vice sector have mainly been conducted using quantitative meth- archy affected the content of the group discussion. In other words,
ods (Karlsson, 2001; Silvennoinen et al., 2015; RVF Utveckling, some opinions might have remained unsaid because of fear of
2006; Marthinsen and Bjorn, 2004). For example, the study by freely expressing opinions. There are mixed results about how
Karlsson (2001) using the quantitative approach stated that focus- hierarchy steepness affects group performance. Some results sup-
ing on the actors and procedures inside the canteens and restau- port the idea of a steeper hierarchy leading to worse group perfor-
rants will help control food waste. Also, Silvennoinen et al. (2015) mance and vice versa). We have no knowledge of the nature of the
addressed that buffet style and overproduction are relevant factors hierarchy in the participating companies or how it affected the
when managing serving loss. The results and conclusions of these focus group hierarchy. However, the role of the moderator was to
studies are in line and support the results of this article. prevent a single participant from dominating the conversation.

Please cite this article in press as: Heikkilä, L., et al. Elements affecting food waste in the food service sector. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.wasman.2016.06.019
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Please cite this article in press as: Heikkilä, L., et al. Elements affecting food waste in the food service sector. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/
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