Insect Ecology and Integr Pest anagement ARUN KUMAR K M IPh.D. Agricultural Entomology UAS, GKVK, BengaluruEcology: The term ecology is derived from the Greek term “oikos” mean “house” combined with “logy” meaning “the science of” or “the st of’. Ecology is ‘the science of inter-relations between living organisms < their environment including both the physical and the bic environments and emphasizing inter species and intra species relatio (Allee, 1949). The term ecology was coined by a German biologist Ernst Hae (1869).Ecology related terminology * Autecology: Study of an individual organism, or an individ species in relation to environment. *Synecology: Study of the groups organisms associated in community in the same environment. *Biome: The grouping of communities that have similar struct composed of ecosystem of a similar vegetation typei. Habitat is the place where the organism lives. ii. Population denotes groups of individuals of any kind of organi: Insect populations are groups of individuals set in a frame that limited in time and space. iii. Community in the ecological sense includes all the populations a given area.iv. Ecosystem * Ecosystem or ecological system is the functioning together | community and the nonliving environment where continuo exchange of matter and energy takes place. *Examples of natural ecosystem: Ponds, lakes and forests ecosystem v. Biosphere All of the earth’s ecosystems functioning together on the glob scale.Balance of Nature The natural tendency of plant and animal population resultin from natural regulative processes in an undisturbed ecosyster (environment) to neither decline in numbers to extinction no increase to indefinite density.i)Reproductive potential /biotic potential The ability of an insects to multiply in the given time, in the abser of environmental resistance. Decided by : Initial population, fecundity, length of development period and sex ratio.* Insect pests with high reproductive rate and low survival rate are calle r-strategists. E.g. Aphids. * K-strategists reproduce slowly but effectively compete | environmental resources and so their survival rate is high. eg. Codling moth of apple.ii) Environmental resistance The sum total of all factors in an environment that tend to reduce the rate of multiplication an insect. |. Biotic factors - includes a) Food b) Other organisms i) Competition (interspecific and intraspecific) ii) Natural enemies (predators, parasites and pathogens) . 2. Abiotic factors - +a) Temperature *b) Light *c) Moisture and water ed) RH *E) Air and Rain fallBIOTIC FACTORS ( density dependent factors.) A) Food:. According to nutritional requirements, insects are categorized into: 1. Omnivorous: Which feed on both plants and animal. Eg. Wasps, cockroaches 2. Carnivorous: which feed on other animal as parasites and predators. Eg: Predators (L: bird beetles and Mantids) 3. Herbivorous: which feed on living plants (crop pests) (1) Polyphagous: which feed on wide range of cultivated and wild plants. Eg. Locu grasshoppers (b) Monophagous:which feed on single species of plants. Eg: Rice stem borer (c) Oligophagous:which feed on plants of one botanical family. Eg: Diamondback m Cabbage butterfly. 4. Saprophagous (Scavengers): which feed on decaying plants and dead organic matter. Drosophila flies, House flies, scarabaeid beetles.* Beneficial associations: i) Symbiosis: Inter relationship between organisms of different species which in close union without harmful effects are known as symbiosis, each mer being known as symbiont. Eg pollinator insects ii) Commensalism: One insect is benefited by living on or inside another i without injuring the other and is known as commensalism. Eg: Gall forming insects. When the commensal uses its host as a means of transport the phenomen: termed as phoresy. iii) Mutualism: When both the symbionts are benefited by the association known mutualism Eg: Ants and aphids. Termites and flagellates.Factors influencing population growth. Competition : Competing with one another or with members of another species for limited resources like food, mates, suitable site for oviposition or pupation. a)Intraspecific competition: When members of population of the same species compete for resources we cal intraspecific competition. Examples: * Cannibalism in American bollworm larvae * Cannibalism in later stage grubs of Chrysopid.* b) Interspecific competition. *This is the competition occurring between members of two or m species. Two or more competing species with identical requirements can coexist in a same place for a long time. * The elimination of one species by another as a result of interspec competition has come to be known as the competitive exclus principle or Gause’s principle. * For example when flour beetles Tribolium castaneum and Tribol confusum were grown in the same jar of flour, one species eliminz2) Predators and Parasites Predators : Predators are free living organisms that feed on othe animals, their prey, devouring them completely and rapidly. Parasites: An organism that is dependent for some essentia metabolic factor on another throughout its all life stages, Parasitoid: An insect parasite of an arthropod that is parasitic in it immature stage killing the host in the process of development anc adults are free living.ABIOTIC FACTORS ( Density independent)Temperature *1) Warm Blooded Animals (Homeothermic): These animals maintain a constant body temperature within certain narrow limits irrespecti the temperature variations in the external environment. These are also called as ‘Endoth animals’ Eg. Mammals 2)Insects are poikilothermic (cold blood animals) They do not have internal mechanism of temperature regulation and therefore their temperature varies with that of the surroundings. These are also called as ‘Ectothermic animé Eg. Insects *3) Socio-homeothermic Animals: body temperature slightly above the atmospheric temper and are able to air condition their nests . Fo Honev hees* Thermal constant: The total heat energy required to complete a certain stage development in the life cycle or in the completion of a physiologic process of a species is constant * |) Hibernation: (during winter) A period of suspended activity in individuals occurring during seasonal low temperature Eg: Mexican beetle 2) Aestivation: (during summer) A period of suspended activity of individual occurring during seasor high temperature or in a dry weather. Eg cotton boll worm Heliver* MOISTURE 1. Body pigments: Insects develop dark pigment in cooler areas which hel absorb more heat from sun for raising body temperature. This aids in getting of excessive moisture from the body. 2. Integument: Well developed integument and fused sclerites in beetles weevils aid in conserving body moisture. Waxy coating of integument saves from excessive evaporation. 3. Winglessness: Grasshoppers and crickets in arid regions have po developed wings and some are wingless by which the area of evaporatio reduced. 4. Pilocity: Dense hairs on the body prevent evaporation. 5. Form of body: Oval and compressed body of some desert beetles prot them from hot winds 6. By reabsorption of water from products of excretion.Relative humidity Different species and their different immature stages have their own range. Humidity effects the speed of development, fecundity, colour etc. If water content of the body is high, dry air accelerates the development. Locusts sexually mature quicker and the number of eggs laid are more at 70% R.H.* Rainfall Rainfall also plays an important role in movement of swarms of desert locu Saturated condition of moisture is injurious for the development of spotted | worm Earias vetilla Rain induces emergence of most of the insects from soil. Eg: Ants, termites, red hairy caterpillar, root grub beetles etc., emerge out fi the soil after the receipt of rains. * Wind - Interferes with feeding, mating, oviposition - Wind aids in dispersal of insects - Aphids, mites (Eriophyid mites also) disperse through wind - Helicoverpa flies upto 90 km with the aid of windsThe word ‘Pest’ derived from the Latin word ‘Pestis’ meaning Plague. ‘Pest’ is defined as insect or other organism that causes any damage to crops, stored produce and animals.* CATEGORIES OF PESTS Based on occurrence following are pest categories * Regular pest: Frequently occurs on crop - Close association e.g. Rice sem borer, Brinjal fruit borer * Occasional pest: Infrequently occurs, no close association e.g. Caseworm o rice, Mango stem borer * Seasonal pest: Occurs during a particular season every year e.g. Red hairy caterpillar on groundnut, Mango hoppers * Persistent pests: Occurs on the crop throughout the year and is difficult to control e.g. Chilli thrips, mealy bug on guava * Sporadic pests: Pest occurs in isolated localities during some period. e.g. Coconut slug caterpillarBased on level of infestation *Pest epidemic: Sudden outbreak of a pest in a severe form in a region at a particular time e.g. BPH in Tanjore, RHC in Madurai, Pollachi *Endemic pest: Occurrence of the pest in a low level in few pockets, regularly and confined to particular area e.g. Rice gall midge in Madurai, Mango hoppers in Periyakulam* Parameters of insect population levels * General equilibrium position (GEP) It is the average population density of insect over a long period of t unaffected by temporary interventions of pest control However the econo injury level may be at any level well above or below the general equilibrium. Economic threshold level (ETL) Population density at which control mea: should be implemented to prevent an increasing pest population from reach the ETL. * Economic injury level (EIL) The lowest population density that will ca economic damage * Damage boundary (DB) The lowest level of damage which can be measur ETL is alwavs less than FIL. Provides sufficient time for control measures.* PEST CATEGORIES ACCORDING TO EIL, GEP AND DB * (i) Key pest — * Most severe and damaging pests * - GEP lies above EIL always * - Spray temporarily bring population below EIL + - These are persistent pests + - The environment must be changed to bring GEP below EIL e.g. Cotton bollworm, Diamond backmoth * (ii) Major pest * - GEP lies very close to EIL or coincides with EIL * - Economic damage can be prevented by timely and repeated sprays e.g. Cotton jassid, Rice stem borer(iii) Minor pest/Occasional pest - GEP is below the EIL usually - Rarely they cross EIL - Can be controlled by spraying e.g. Cotton stainers, Rice hispa, Ash weevils (iv) Sporadic pests - GEP generally below EIL - Sometimes it crosses EIL and cause severe loss in some places/periods e.g. Sugarcane pyrilla, White grub, Hairy caterpillar (v) Potential pests - They are not pests at present - GEP always less than EIL - If environment changed may cause economic loss e.g. S. litura is potentia pest in North India 9CAUSES OF PEST OUTBREAK i. Deforestation and bringing under cultivation - Pest feeding on forest trees are forced to feed on cropped. - Biomass/unit area more in forests than agricultural land - Weather factors also altered - Affects insect development ii.Destruction of natural enemies - Due to excess use of insecticides, na enemies are killed -This affects the natural control mechanism and pest outbreak occurs, Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides kill NE. iii. Intensive and Extensive cultivation — Monoculture (Intensive) leads to multiplication of pests — Extensive cultivation of susceptible variety in large area - No competition for food - multiplication increases e.g. Stem borers in rice. Introduction of new varieties and crops. Varieties with favourable physiological and morphological factors cause multiplication of insects. e.g. — Succulent, dwarf rice varieties favour leaf folder — Combodia cotton favours stem weevil and spotted bollworm — Hybrid sorghum (CSH 1), cumbu (HB1) favour shoot flies and gall midges y. Improved agronomic practices -High leaf folder and BPH incidence on rice - Closer planting - Granular insecticides - Possess phytotoxic effect on rice vi. Introduction of new pest in new environment * — Pest multiplies due to absence of natural enemies in new area — Apple wooh aphid Eriosoma lanigerum multiplied fast due to absence of Aphelinus mali (Parasite)* vii. Accidental introduction of pests from foreign countries (through ait ports) e.g. a, Diamondback moth on cauliflower (Plutella xylostella) b. Potato tuber moth Phthorimaea operculella c. Cottony cushion scale Jcerya purchasi on wattle tree d. Wooly aphid - Eriosoma lanigerum on apple e. Psyllid - Heteropsylla cubana on subabul f. Spiralling whitefly - Adeyrodichus dispersus on most of horticultural crops viii. Large scale storage of food grains — Serve as reservoir for stored grain pests - changes ecological balance Rats found in underground drainageEconomic Injury Level -Defined as the lowest population density that will cause economic damage (Stern et al., 1959) - Also defined as a critical density where the loss caused by the pest equals the cost of control measure Economic threshold level (ETL) or Action threshold -ETL is defined as the pest density at which control measures should be applied to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching Economic Injury Level (EIL) - ETL represents pest density lower than EIL to allow time for initiation of control measurePest Management (or) Integrated Pest Management IPM is defined as It is a judicious combination of feasible pest manage! components to keep insects below economic injury level Need for Pest Management (or) Why Pest Management * 1. Development of resistance in insects against insecticides e.g. OP synthetic pyrethroid resistance in Helicoverpa armigera. * 2. Out break of secondary pests e.g. Whiteflies emerged as major pest 1 spraying insecticide against H. armigera. * 3. Resurgence of target pests e.g. BPH of rice increased when some chemicals are applied.4. When number of application increases, profit decreases. 5. Environmental contamination and reduction in its quality. 6. Killing of non-target animals and natural enemies. 7. Human and animal health hazards.* Objectives of pest management * 1. To reduce pest status below economic injury level. Complete eliminat of pest is not the objective. * 2. To manage insects by not only killing them but by preventing feedi multiplication and dispersal. * 3. To use ecoftiendly methods, which will maintain quality of environm (air, water, wild life and plant life) * 4. To make maximum use of natural mortality factors, apply con measures only when needed. * 5. To use component in sustainable crop production.Pest : any organism which interferes with the welfare of man directly or indirectly. Generally from the total insects, only 0.1 % are pests. If the damage caused by the pest is less than 5 % > negligible pest 5-10 % > negligible pest more than 5 % > negligible pestIntegrated Pest Management It is a judicious combination of feasible pest management components tc keep insects below economic injury level Need for Pest Management (or) Why Pest Management 1. Development of resistance in insects against insecticides e.g. OP anc synthetic pyrethroid resistance in Helicoverpa armigera. 2. Out break of secondary pests e.g. Whiteflies emerged as major pes when spraying insecticide against H. armigera. 3. Resurgence of target pests e.g. BPH of rice increased when some OF chemicals are applied.Objectives of pest management * To reduce pest status below economic injury level. Complete elimination of pest is not the objective. * To manage insects by not only killing them but by preventing feeding, multiplication and dispersal. * To use ecofriendly methods, which will maintain quality of environment (air, water, wild life and plant life) * To make maximum use of natural mortality factors, apply control measures only when needed. * To use component in sustainable crop production.CULTURAL CONTROL Definition : Manipulation of cultural practices to the disadvantage of pests. Farm level practices: * 1. Ploughing - Red hairy caterpillar * 2. Puddling - Rice mealy bug * 3. Trimming and plastering- Rice grass hopper * 4. Pest free seed material - Potato tuber moth + 5. High seed rate - Sorghum shootfly * 6. Row space planting - Rice brown planthopper + 7. Plant density - Rice brown planthopper * 8 Earthine up Sugarcane whitefly+ 9. Detrashing Sugarcane whitefly + 10. Destruction of weed hosts Citrus fruit sucking moth + 11. Destruction of alternate host Cotton whitefly * 12. Flooding Rice armyworm + 13. Trash mulching Sugarcane early shoot borer + 14. nipping Rice stem borer + 15. Intercropping Sorghum stem borer * 16. Trap cropping Diamond back moth + 17. Water management Brown planthopper + 18. Judicious application of fertilizers Rice leaf folder + 19. Timely harvesting Sweet potato weevilII. Community level practices +1. Synchronized sowing : Dilution of pest infestation (eg) Rice, Cotton 2. Crop rotation : Breaks insect life cycle * 3. Crop sanitation + a) Destruction of insect infested parts (eg.) Mealy bug in brinjal * b) Removal of fallen plant parts (eg.) Cotton squares * c) Crop residue destruction (eg.) Cotton stem weevilPHYSICAL CONTROL * Modification of physical factors in the environment to minimise (or) prev pest problems. Use of physical forces like temperature, moisture, etc. managing the insect pests. A. Manipulation of temperature +1. Sun drying the seeds to kill the eggs of stored product pests. +2. Hot water treatment (50 - 550 C for 15 min) against rice white tip nematod +3. Flame throwers against locusts. 4, Burning torch against hairy caterpillars. 2 ot storage of fruits and vegetables to kill fruit flies (1 — 2 0 C for 12 - jays).B. Manipulation of moisture «1. Alternate drying and wetting rice fields against BPH. +2. Drying seeds (below 10% moisture level) affects insect development. 3. Flooding the field for the control of cutworms. C. Manipulation of light *1. Treating the grains for storage using IR light to kill all stages of insects ( Infra-red seed treatment unit. + 2. Providing light in storage godowns as the lighting reduces the fertilit Indian meal moth, Plodia. 3. Light trapping.D. Manipulation of air 1. Increasing the CO2 concentration in controlled atmosphere of sto grains to cause asphyxiation in stored product pests. E. Use of irradiation Gamma irradiation from Co60 is used to sterilize the insects laboratory which compete with the fertile males for mating wl released in natural condition. (eg.) cattle screw worm fly, Cochliom hominivorax control in Curacao Island by E.F.Knipling.F. Use of greasing material Treating the stored grains particularly pulses with vegetable oils to prevent th oviposition and the egg hatching. eg., bruchid adults. G. Use of visible radiation : Yellow colour preferred by aphids, cotton whitefly : yellow sticky traps. H. Use of Abrasive dusts + 1. Red earth treatment to red gram : Injury to the insect wax layer. + 2. Activated clay : Injury to the wax layer resulting in loss of moisture leadir to death. It is used against stored product pests. + 3. Drie-Die : This is a porous finely divided silica gel used against storas insects.MECHANICAL CONTROL * Use of mechanical devices or manual forces for destruction or exclusion of p A. Manual Force 1.Hand picking the caterpillars 2. Beating : Swatting housefly and mosquito 3. Sieving and winnowing : Red flour beetle (sieving) rice weevil (winnowing) 4. Shaking the plants : Passing rope across rice field to dislodge caseworm + shaking neem tree to dislodge June beetles 5. Hooking : Iron hook is used against adult rhinoceros beetle 6. Crushing : Bed bugs and lice 7. Combing : Delousing method for Head louse 8. Brushing : Woolen fabrics for clothes moth, carper beetle.B. Mechanical force 1. Entoletter : Centrifugal force - breaks infested kernels - kill insect stages whole grains unaffected - storage pests. 2. Hopper dozer : Kill nymphs of locusts by hording into trenches and fille with soil. 3. Tillage implements : Soil borne insects, red hairy caterpillar. 4. Mechnical traps : Rat traps of various shapes like box trap, back break tray wonder trap, Tanjore bow trap.C. Mechanical exclusion Mechanical barriers prevent access of pests to hosts. 1. Wrapping the fruits : Covering with polythene bag against pomegrante fr borer. 2. Banding : Banding with grease or polythene sheets - Mango mealybug. 3. Netting : Mosquitoes, vector control in green house. 4. Trenching : Trapping marching larvae of red hairy catepiller. 5. Sand barrier : Protecting stored grains with a layer of sand on the top. 6. Water barrier : Ant pans for ant control. 7. Tin barrier : Coconut trees protected with tin band to prevent rat damage. 8. Electric fencing : Low voltage electric fences against rats.APPLIANCES IN CONTROLLING THE PESTS 1. Light traps : Most adult insects are attracted towards light in night. This principle is used to attract the insect and trapped in a mechanical device. a) Incandescent light trap : They produce radiation by heating a tungst filament. The spectrum of lamp include a small amount of ultraviol considerable visible especially rich in yellow and red. (eg.) Simple incandese light trap b) Mercury vapour lamp light trap : They produce primarily ultraviolet, blue a green radiation with little red. (eg.) Robinson trap c) Black light trap : Black light (Fig.5) is popular name for ultraviolet radi: energy with the range of wavelengths from 320-380 nm.2. Pheromone trap ; Synthetic sex pheromones are placed in traps to attract ma used in insect monitoring / mass trapping programmes. Sticky trap, water pan { and funnel type models are available for use in pheromone based insect con programmes. 3. Yellow sticky trap : Cotton whitefly, aphids, thrips prefer yellow cok Yellow colour is painted on tin boxes and sticky material like castor oil / vase’ is smeared on the surface. These insects are attracted to yellow colour and trap on the sticky material. 4, Bait trap : Attractants placed in traps are used to attract the insect and kill th (eg.) Fishmeal trap: This trap is used against sorghum shootfly. Moistened meal is kept in polythene bag or plastic container inside the tin along with cot soaked with insecticide (DDVP) to kill the attracted flies.LEGAL CONTROL Preventing the entry and establishment of foreign plant and anin pests in a country or an area and eradication of pests established ir limited area through compulsory legislation or enactment. Quarantine eIsolation to prevent spreading of infection Plant Quarantine Legal restriction of movement of plant materials betwe countries and between states within the country to prevent or limit introducti and spread of pests and diseases in areas where they do not exist.PEST LEGISLATIONS * 1905 - ‘Federal Insect Pest Act’ - first Quarantine act against SanJose scale * 1912 - ‘US Plant Quarantine Act’ *1914 - ‘Destructive Insects and Pests Act’ of India (DIPA) * 1919 - ‘Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act’ *1968 - ‘The Insecticides Act’DIFFERENT CLASSES OF QUARANTINE 1, Foreign Quarantine (Legislation to prevent the introduction of new pests, diseases and weeds from foreign countries) * a. Plant quarantine inspection and treatments at sea ports of Mumbai, Kolkat Cochin, Chennai and Visakapattinam and airports of Amritsar, Mumbai, Koll Chennai and New Delhi + b. Import by post parcel prohibited except by scientists + c. Import of plant materials prohibited or restricted ¢ d. Import permits required for importation of plant material * e. Phytosanitary certificate from the country of origin is required Phytosanitary certificate is issued by State Entomologist and Pathologists to th effect that the plant or seed material is free from any pest or disease * a. Fumigation of imported plant material based on needRestriction imposed on the importation of *i. Sugarcane setts - to prevent West Indies sugar weevil *ii. Coffee seeds - to prevent coffee berry borer *iii.Cotton seeds - to prevent cotton boll weevil *a. Export of pepper, cardamom and tamarind restricted * b. In 1946, Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Government of India established - for inspection of export and import of agricultural commodities. 2. Domestic quarantine (within different parts of country) - Flutted scale Icerya puchasi noticed in Nilgiris and Kodaikanal in 1943 in Wattle trees. Quarantine stations at Mettupalayam and Gudalur for Nilgiris a1 Shenbaganur for Kodaikanal to prevent spread of flutted scale in TN. - Preventing movement of Banana from Palani hills to prevent Bunchy top sp13. Legislation to take up effective measures to prevent spread of establis pests Example: Cotton stem weevil, Groundnut RHC, Coffee stem borer, Coconut b! headed caterpillar (BHC), Sugarcane top borer. i, Stem weevil of cotton (Combodia cotton, 1913) Previous crop to be remo before Aug.1 Next crop to be sown not before Sep. 1 to keep land fre cotton for sometime ii. RHC of groundnut (1930) - Collection of pupae in summer ploughing - Putting light traps and bonfires - Hand picking of egg and larvae - Spread leaves in field, trench, collect and destroyiii. Stem borer of coffee (1946) This act is still in force in Salem, Coimbatore, Madurai and Nilgiris -All infested plants to be removed and destroyed by 15th December every year - Swabbing with wettable powder (Carbary!) on stem and branch* THE INSECTICIDES ACT, 1968 - Implemented in 1971 (Insecticides Rule, 1971) - Safety oriented legislation - Regulates import, manufacture, storage, transport, sale, distribution and us insecticides with a view to prevent risk to human beings and animals - Regulatory provision - compulsory registration, licensing, inspection, drawal analysis of samples, detention, seizure and confiscation of stocks, suspension cancellation of licences, ete. - Enforcement of the act is joint responsibility of central and state governments - Statutory bodies - (i) Central Insecticides Board (CIB) (28 members) Chairman (CIB) - Dire General of Health Services (ii) Registration Committee (RC) (5 members) Chairman (RC) - De Director General, Crop Sciences, ICARBiological control Definition The study and utilization of parasitoids, predators and pathogens for the regulation of pest population densities. + Antient times - In China Pharoah’s ant Monomorium pharaonis was used to control stored grain pest. Red ant Oecophylla spp. used to control foliage feeding caterpilla 1762 - ‘Mynah’ bird imported from India to Mauritius to control locust. 1770 - Bamboo runways between citrus trees for ants to control caterpillars.First well planned and successful biological control attempt made -During 1888 citrus industry in California (USA) seriously threatened by cott cushion scale, Icerya purdian -Mr. Albert Koebele was sent to Australia - He found a beetle called Ved: (Rodolia cardinalis) attacking and feeding on seeds - Vedalia beetle (Rodolia cardinalis) was imported in November 1888 into U and allowed on scale infested trees* 1898 - A coccinellid beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri was imported India from Australia and released against coffee green scale, Cocus viridis. | today it is effective against mealybugs in South India. +1920 - A parasitoid Aphelinus mali introduced from England into Ind control Woolly aphid on Apple, Eriosoma lanigerum. * 1929-31 - Fodolia cardinalis imported into India (from USA) to control cot cushion scale Icerya purchasi on Wattle trees. * 1958-60 - Parasitoid Prospatella perniciosus imported from China * 1960 - Parasitoid Aphytis diaspidis imported from USA Both parasi used to control Apple Sanjose scale Quadraspidiotus perniciosus * 1964 - Egg parasitoid Telenomus sp. imported from New Guinea to co Castor semilooper Achaea janata * 1965 - Predator Platymeris laevicollis introduced from Zanzibar to co coconut Rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinocerosThree major techniques of biological control 1. Conservation and encouragement of indigenous NE Defined as actions preserve and increase NE by environmental manipulation. e.g. Use of sele insecticides, provide alternate host and refugia for NE. 2. Importation or Introduction Importing or introducing NE into a new loc (mainly to control introduced pests). 3. Augmentation Propagation (mass culturing) and release of NE to increas population. Two types, * (i) Inoculative release: Control expected from the progeny and subsec generations only. * (ii) Inundative release: NE mass cultured and released to suppress pest dir wage We adicmmeeciees mame soc eT I cece a cee aPredators A free living organism throughout its life, kills its prey, is usually larger than its prey and requires more than one prey to complete _ its development.Rodolia cardinalis Cottony cushion scaleCryptolaemus montrozieri on mealy bugsCoccinella septumpunctata on AphidsGround beetle on catterpillars on BPH Tiger bettle on catterpilars on soil and leaf folder. dwelling insectsPreying mantisRhinoceros beetle Assasin bugCyrtorhinus lividipennis Rice BPHHOVER FLYDRAGONFLY DAMSELFLYion grub AntlParasitoids It is an insect parasite of an arthropod which is parasitic in immature stages and adults are free living.Parasitism : kind of symbiosis in which parasitoids lives at the expense of host killing the host in the process of development . * Simple parasitism: a single attack of the parasitoid on the host irrespective of no. of eggs laid. * Eg. Gonizus nephantidis on CBHC larvae * Super parasitism : many individuals of the same species of parasitoids attack a single host a time . * Eg. Trichospilus pupivora on CBHC pupae* Multi parasitism: parasitism by different species of the parasitoids on the same host at a time. * Eg. Bracon brevicornis, Eriborus trochanteratus and Goniozus nephantidis on CBHC * Hyper parasism: a parasitoid attacking another parasitoid * Eg. Pleurotropis sp. on Bracon brevicornis * Autoparasitism: females develops as a primary parasitoid, but the male is a secondary parasitoid through female of its own speceis. * Eg. Encarsia formosa attacking on scales and white flies.* Cleptoparasitism: a parasitoid attacking a host, already parasitized by another species of parasitoid. * Eg. Pine shoot moth attacked either by Eurytoma pini and Rhyaciona buoliana one followed by another. * Endoparasite : parasitoid developing within the host body internally. * Eg. Aphelinus mali on s.cane wooly aphid. * Ectoparasitoid : parasitoid developing externally on host body. * Eg. Epiricania melanoleuca on sugarcane pyrillaEgg pasitoids T. chilonis — cotton bollworms, s.cane internode borers and rict leaf folderT. japonicum - rice YSBBraconidae —> Aphidius colemani - aphidsarval para toids Braconidae -> Chelonis blackburni - spotted boll wormsEncyrtidae -> Copidosoma koehleri - PTMLarval parasitoids Ichneumonidae -> Eriborus trochanteratus - CBHCBraconidae -> B.hebetor and B. brevicornis - CBHC EePlatygastridae -> Platygaster oryzae - rice gall midge larvae-arval pupa paras tolds Ichneumonidae -> Isotima javensis — s. cane TSBEulopidae -> Trichospilus pupivora and tetrasticus israeli - CBHC pupaeNymphal adult parasitoids * Aphelinidae -> Encarsia formosa — cotton whitefly * Epiricanidae -> Epiricania melanoleuca - pyrilla* MICROBIAL CONTROL - Defined as control of pests by use of microorganisms like viruses, bact protozoa, fungi, rickettsia and nematodes. I. VIRUSES * Viruses coming under family Baculoviridae cause disease in lepidopteran lai Two types of viruses are common. NPV (Nuclear polyhedral virus) e.g. Ha NPV, SI NPV GV (Granulvirus ) e.g. Ci GV + Symptoms Lepidopteran larva become sluggish, pinkish in colour, lose appetite, | becomes fragile and rupture to release polyhedra (virus occlusion bodies). 1 larva hang from top of plant with prolegs attached (Tree top dise:II. BACTERIA 1. Spore forming (Facultative - Crystalliferous) 2 types of bacteria Spore forming (Obligate) 2.Non spore forming i. Spore forming (Facultative, Crystelliferous) The produce spores and also to (endotoxin). The endotoxin paralyses gut when ingested e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis effect against lepidopteran. Commercial products - Delfin, Dipel, Thuricide ii. Spore-forming (Obligate) e.g. Bacillus popillae attacking beetles, prod ‘milky disease’ Commercial product - ‘Doom’ against ‘white grubs’ iii. Non-spore forming e.g. Serratia entomophila on grubsMilky disease by B. poppilae 7aTI. FUNGI * They penetrate the body directly the outer surface with the help of hyphae produced from spores. + Hyphae enter through wounds, joints b/w the segments.Green muscardine fungus - Metarhizium anisopliae attack coconut rhinoceros beetleWhite muscardine fungus - Beaveria bassiana eWhite halo fungus = -_-Verticillium lecaniiChemical Control: * Management of insect pests using chemical pesticides is termed as chemical control. Importance of insecticides * Most powerful tools available for use in IPM * Highly effective, rapid in curative action, adoptable to most situations, flexible in meeting changing agronomic and ecological condition. * They are the only tools for the pest management for emergency actions when insect population approaches or exceed ETL.Ideal qualities of insecticides *Kill the target insect effectively and quickly *Be less toxic to natural enemies *Be less toxic to honey bees and soil micro organisms *Be less toxic to fishes and mammals *Less hazardous and less toxic during handling or accidental consumption by human beings* Quickly degradable in the environment and should be less persistant. * Should not cause resurgence of the target pest eg. Chlorpyriphos -BPH * Should have a complex mode of action against which resistance development will take more time. Eg. Azardirachtin * Should have longer storage life or shelf life * It is advantageous to select an insecticide which can kill a relatively broad spectrum of target pests * It should be cost effective and safe to useLimitations of chemical control 1. Development of resistance in insects against insecticides e.g. OP and synthetic pyrethroid resistance in Helicoverpa armigera. 2. Out break of secondary pests e.g. Whiteflies emerged as major pest when spraying insecticide against H. armigera. 3. Resurgence of target pests e.g. BPH of rice increased when some OP chemicals are applied.4. When number of application increases, profit decreases. 5. Environmental contamination and reduction in its quality. 6. Killing of non-target animals and natural enemies. 7. Human and animal health hazards.History of chemical control: * 1874 - DDT synthezized by Zeidler * 1925 - Dinitro compounds (First synthetic organic insecticide) * 1939 - DDT insecticidal property discovered by Paul Muller of Switzerland. Paul Muller awarded Nobel Prize in 1948 for discovering insecticidal propert: of DDT * 1944 - Parathion (Organo phosphate) discovered by Gerhard Schrader it Germany * 1947 - Carbamate insecticides in Switzerland * 1962 - Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring appears (US) (This is not a chemical. The book ‘ Silent Spring’ created awareness about ill effects of pesticides)TOXICITY PARAMETERS Toxicity of a given chemical to an organism can be measured u various parameters as listed below. *1) LDSO or Median lethal dose LDS0 is defined as the amoun insecticide per unit weight which will kill 50% of the particular orgar or insect. LD50 usually expressed as mg/kg body weight or pg/larv adult insect. °2) LCS50 or Median lethal concentration Defined as the concentra of insecticide required to kill 50% of the given organism or insect. ' is used when the exact dose per insect is not known, but concentration is known. LC50 is expressed in PPM (1/1,000,000 — ke pe3) LT50 (Median lethal time) LTS50 is defined as the time requirec kill 50% of the population at a certain dose or concentration. L1 expressed in hours or minutes. LT50 is used in field studies and a for testing insect viruses (NPV). 4. KDS50: Median knockdown dose Dose of insecticide or ti required to knockdown 50% of the insects. 5. KT50: Median knockdown time knockdown 50% of the insects KDS0 and KTS0 are used for evaluating synthetic pyrethroids agai insects.Toxicity terms used to express the effect on mammals *1. Acute toxicity : Toxic effect produced by a single dose of a toxica * 2. Chronic toxicity : Toxic effects produced by the accumulation small amounts of the toxicant over a long period of time * 3. Oral toxicity : Toxic effect produced by consumption of pestic orally °4. Dermal toxicity : Toxic effect produced when insecticide ent through skin °5. Inhalation toxicity : Toxic effect produced when poisonous fumes insecticide are inhaled (fumigants) *Other terms : Acute oral, Acute dermal, Acute inhalation toxicity, etGeneration Year Compounds 1.First generation insecticide 1939-1942 BHC and DDT 2. Second generation insecticide 1944-1947 Organophosphates and Carbamate 3s Third generation insecticide 1967 Hormonal insecticides, . mimic insect growth regulators 4. Fourth generation insecticide 1970s Synthetic pyrethroidsPESTICIDES GROUPS * Groups of pesticides : The pesticides are generally classified in various groups based on pest organism against which t compounds are used, their chemical nature, mode of entry and mo of action. 1. Based on organisms a) Insecticides : Chemicals used to kill or control insects (e; endosulfan, malathion b) Rodenticides : Chemicals exclusively used to control rats (e; Zine phosphide c) Acaricides : Chemicals used to control mites on crops / animé (eg.) Dicofold) Avicides : Chemicals used to repel the birds (eg.) Anthraquionon e) Molluscicides : Chemicals used to kill the snails and slugs ( Metaldehyde f) Nematicides : Chemicals used to control nematodes (eg.) Ethy dibromide g) Fungicides : Chemicals used to control plant diseases causec fungi (eg.) Copper oxychloride h) Bactericide : Chemicals used to control the plant diseases caused bacteria (eg.) Streptomycin sulphate i) Herbicide : Chemicals used to control weeds (eg.) 2,4, - D2. Based on mode of entry a) Stomach poison : The insecticide applied in the leaves and ot parts of the plant when ingested, act in the digestive system of insect and bring about kill (eg.) Malathion. b) Contact Poison : The toxicant which brings about death of the f species by means of contact (eg.) Fenvalerate. c) Fumigant : Toxicant enter in vapour form into the tracheal syst (respiratory poison) through spiracles (eg.) Aluminium phosphide d) Systemic poison : Chemicals when applied to plant or soil absorbed by foliage (or) roots and translocated through vasct system and cause death of insect feeding on plant. (eg.) Dimethoate.3. Based on mode of action a) Physical poison : Toxicant which brings about kill of one insect exerting a physical effect (eg.) Activated clay. b) Protoplasmic poison : Toxicant responsible for precipitation protein (eg.) Arsenicals. c) Respiratory poison : Chemicals which inactivate respirat enzymes (eg.) hydrogen cyanide. d) Nerve poison : Chemicals inhibit impulse conduction (« Malathion. e) Chitin inhibition : Chemicals inhibit chitin synthesis (« Diflubenzuron.* 4. Based on chemical nature Classification based on chemical nature insecticides I Inorganic pesticides : Inorganic chemicals are from mineral origin Eg. Arse Fluorine, Sulphur, lime sulphur (Insecticides) zinc phosphide (Rodenticide) ILOrganic pesticides Organic compounds (constituted by C, H, O and N mair a. Hydrocarbon oil (or) Petroleum oil — eg. Coal tar oil, kerosine etc., b. Animal origin insecticides — eg. Nereistoxin extracted from marine annelic commercially available as cartap, padan. c. Plant origin insecticides : Nicotine from tobacco plants, pyrethrum fi Chrysanthemum flowers, Rotenoids from roots of Derris and Lonchocar Neem — azadirachtin, Pongamia glabra, Garlic etc.,d. Synthetic organic compounds : These organic chemicals are syntheticall: produced in laboratory. i.Chlorinated hydrocarbon a.Organochlorines Eg. DDT, Dicofol, b.BHC Eg. Lindane, c.Cyclodiene compounds eg. Endosulfan, Aldrin, Dieldrin, iii Organophosphates : (Esters of phosphoric acid) Eg. Dichlorvos, Monocrotophos, Phospamidon, Methyl parathion, Fenthion, Dimethoate, Malathion, Acephate, Chlorpyriphos iv. Carbamates: (Derivatives of carbamic acid) Eg. Carbaryl, Carbofuran Carbosulfan, Aldicarb, etc...V. Miscellaneous compounds a.Synthetic pyrethroids ; (Synthetic analogues pyrethrum) Eg. Allethrin, Cypermethrin, Fenvalerate b.Neonicotinoids (Analogues of nicotine) i.Chloronicotinyl compounds: sucking pests eé Imidacloprid and Acetamiprid ii. Thionicotinyl group: stem borers and sucking pests ¢ Thiomethoxam c.Phenyl pyrozoles: borers and defoliators eg. Fipronil d.Pyridine azomethines: sucking pests eg. Pymetrozolirmono a9 Oxadiazine group : defoliators eg. Indoxacarb Halogenated pyroles :DBM eg. Chlorfenapyr Thiourea derivatives : sucking pests eg. Diafenthiuron Sulfite ester group : mites eg. Propargite Diamide group : lepidopteran pests eg. Flubendiamide, Chlorantraniliprole Quinazoline group : mites eg. Fenazaquin Tetraonic acid derivatives : mites and whiteflies eg. Spiromesifen Pyridalyl : lepidopterans and thrips eg. PyridalylNew insecticides from microorganisms a. Spinosyns (Isolated from bacteria): eg. Spinosad from Saccharopolyspora spinosa. b. Avermectins (Isolated from mycelia) from Streptomyces avermitilis eg. Avermectin, Vertimec c. Milbemycins : Streptomyces hygroscopius on aphids and mitesInsect attractants * They are the chemical substances, which cause orientation of insects towards the source of attractant. Orientation of insects towards food, egg laying and mating sites has been included as one of the important measures for the management of insect pests. examples; Naturally occuring — sinigrin in cabbage to cabbage butterfly * Trimid lure -> mediterranean fruitfly — Ceratitis capitata * Cue lure -> melon fly — Dacus cucurbitae * Methyl eugenol -> oriental fruit fly — Dacus dorsalis * Geraniol and Eugenol -> Japanese beetle. Popillia iaponicaInsect repellents * The substances, which may not be active poisons and mild poisons, but prevent plants or animals by making the food or living conditions of insects unattractive or offensive of them. * Naturally occuring — 6 — methoxy benzoxalinone (6- MBOA) in corn against European corn borer. * Eg. Deet ( Dimethyl-m-toulamide) -> mosquitos, blackflies, mites and ticks * Citronella oil -> mosquito * Napthalene balls -> cloth mothsInsect anti feedants * The substances, which make the plant distasteful to the insects feeding on it. The insect after feeding only finds the food material distasteful to it . The insect may die because of the presence of the antifeedant compounds. * Azadirachtin -> desert locust * Bordeaux mixture -> flea beetles and leaf hoppers * Triphenyl tins -> potato cut worms * Cucurbitacins -> leaf beetles and spider mitesChemosterilants * They are the chemicals that are known to cause reproductive sterility in insects. Some of these compounds inhibit ovarian growth and development. * HEMPA and HEMEL -> house fly * Thio-tepa -> mosquito, culex fatigansInsect growth regulators Insect growth and development are controlled by three principal hormones viz., brain hormone, moulting hormone and juvenile hormone * Brain hormone -> by neurosecretory cells — activates prothoracic glands to secrete ecdysone. * Moulting hormone -> by prothoacic glands -> insect moulting * Juvenile hormone -> by carpora allata at higher JH — larva moults in to larva at lower JH —larva moults in to pupa in the absence of JH — pupa become adultHormonal control Ecdysone as insecticides (Ecdysoids) -> abnormal moultings eg. Tebufenozide, Halofenozide and Methoxy fenozide Juvenile hormone ( juvenoids) -> immature insects fail to moult, die soon after the ecdysis or fail to reproduce and develop intermediatetes b/w larvae and pupa, pupa and adult or larvae and adult. Eg. Methoprene, fenoxycarb, pyriproxyfen, etc...,Antijuvnile hormones: act on carpora allata and JH biosynthesis. Precocenes (I and II) — bedding plant —- Ageratum houstanianum. Juvenile stages treated with these substances skip one or two of their larval instars to change in to tiny precocious adults which ultimately dies. Chitin synthesis inhibitors as insecticides : by blocking the enzyme chitin synthetase. Eg. Diflubenzuron (dimilin), Teflubenzuron, Buprofezin etc.Semiochemicals * Chemicals, which modify behaviour in perceiving organism at sub micro/nano gram levels. * Pheromones — substance that is secreted by one organism to the outside environment and cause a specific reaction in a receiving organism of the same species. Two types * i. Primer effect * ii. Releaser effecti. Primer effect: triggers a chain of physiological changes in the body of the insect and operates through gustatory sensillae. These regulates caste determination and reproduction social insects. ii.Releaser effect: produce an immediate and reversible behavioural change in the receiving insects. Operates through the olfactory sensilla. a.Sex pheromones : a substance generally produced by the female to attract male for the purpose of mating. Eg. Grandlure — cotton boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis Gossyplure — PBW (natural), Hexa lure ( parapheromone) Heli lure — Helicoverpa sp.* Alarm pheromone : a substance produced by an insect to repel and disperse other insects in an area. Found in termites, aphids, ants and honey bees. * Aggregation pheromones: a substance produced by one or both sexes that brings both sexes together for feeding and reproduction. Found in Ambrosia beetle * Trail marking pheromones : a substances of low persistence that are released and perceived by individuals in a trail. Found in ants in search of food.Allelochemicals * Chemicals involved in inter specific communication or * Non nutrient substances originating from an organism, which affect the behaviour, physiological condition or ecological welfare of organisms of other species. * Allomones : favourable to emmitter * Kairomone : favorable to receiver * Synomone: both emmitter and receiver * Apneumone : emmitted by non-living material — detrimental to organism near it and favourable to receiver.Rodenticides : kills or control rodents * Single dose poison or acute poison: zinc phosphide (1: 49) * Anticoagulants (multi dose or chronic poison): Warfarin (1:19), bromodiolone Acaricides : kills controls mites Eg. Dicofol, ethion, abamectin, etc..... Molluscides: kills or cotrols slugs and snails. Eg. Metaldehyde Nematicides: eg. Phorate, carbofuran, aldicarb.Formulations of insecticides * Process of transforming a pesticidal chemical in to a product, which can be applied by practical methods to permit its effective, safe, and environmental use. * It is a physical mixture of one or more biologically active chemicals with its inert ingredient provides effective and economical control of pests.Types of formulations *Solid -> dusts, granules, WP, WDP, WDG and baits. *Liquid -> EC, SC, SL and ULV *Gaseous -> Aerosols, fumigants and smoke generators.Solid formulations * Dusts: these are very finely powdered dry pesicides and consists of active ingredient and carrier. Dia. less than 10 microns. Lesser the size more is the efficacy as they penetrate in to the body segments of the insects and cause abrasion and desiccation. Active ingredients — 0.1 — 25%. * Granules : small pellets of highly adsorptive inert material. The size of the granules varies from 4 to 80 mesh. The active ingredients may vary from 1 to 42 %. Granules are used without mixing with water and are applied to soils.* Water dispersible powder and Wettable powder: the fine dusts with wetting and dispersing agents. The active ingredients may vary from 25 — 80%. These are to be mixed with water at the time of application. These form a suspension when mixed with water, they break apart and, with agitation, the active ingredients becomes distributed throughout the spray mixture. * Water dispersible granules: this formulation appears as small pellets or granules. It is easier and safer to handle and mix than wettable powders. When the granules are mixed with spray water, they break apart and, with agitation, the active ingredients becomes distributed throughout the spray mixtures. * Baits: mixed with the edible substances — rats, crabs, slugs, etc..,Liquid formulations * Emulsifiable concentrates : the formulation contains the toxicant, solvent for the toxicant and an emulsifying agent. It is a clear solution and yields an emulsion of oil in water type when diluted with water to spray strength. These are to be mixed with water at the time of application. The spray mixer has to be constantly agitated or the pesticide will separate from the water. * Soluble liquids: it is a suspension of micro fine solid particles in an aqueous carrier. These are to be mixed with water at the time of application.* Suspension concetrate or flowable: powder in suspension of a liquid carrier. When an active ingredient is neither soluble in water nor in organic solvents, a flowable formulation is developed. The active ingredient is milled with a solid carrier and subsequently mixed dispersed in a small quantities of water. It has to be diluted with water prior to application. * ULV concentrates: these are special formulations almost technical product as such is dissolved in high grade solvent for a micronized droplet applications without dilution. These are applied with the help of special equipment for controlled droplet applicators. Total volume dispersed does not exceed 1 or 2 litre/ha, by aerial or ground spray equipments.Gaseous formulations * Aerosols : commonly for garden and house hold pests (flying) pests. The toxicant is suspended as minute particles (0.1 — 50 microns) in air as a fog or mist. * Fumigants : toxicants which are used in gaseous form for killing the insects. Gases entre through spiracles during respiration. * Smoke generators : they are used in the form of coil like strips containing pyrethrum oxidant and wood dust.Pesticide calculations For formulations like EC, SL, SC or WP => N1V1 = N2V2 * N1 = Concentration of commercial formulation in percent or grams * V1 = volume or amount of commercial formulation required in mili liter or grams * N2 = Desired concentration of spray fluid in percent * V2 = Volume or amount of spray fluid required (in mililiter)* How much quantity of Chlorpyriphos 20EC required spray to spray @ 0.05% for control of yellow stem borer in paddy and the spray fluid recommended for spraying is 150 litres/ha. N1- 20 EC, V1- ? N2 - 0.05 and V2 — 150 litres/ha formula -> N1V1 = N2V2 = 0.05X150000 20 = 375 ml* How much quantities of Indoxacarb 14.5SC for one acre required spray @ 0.02% for control of Helicoverpa sp in cotton and the spray fluid recommended for spraying is 200 I/ha?