Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

A GUIDE TO COUNSELLING THERAPIES (DVD)

Published by: J & S Garrett Pty Ltd

ACN 068 751 440

All Case Histories in this text are presented as examples only

and any comparison which might be made with persons either
living or dead is purely coincidental
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
A GUIDE TO COUNSELLING THERAPIES (DVD)

CONTENTS

HISTORY ........................................................................................................... 3
ELLIS’S RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY (REBT)........................... 4
BECK’S COGNITIVE THERAPY .......................................................................... 6
APPLICATIONS................................................................................................ 10
CHALLENGES OF CBT .................................................................................... 11
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES .................................................................... 11
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 12
REFERENCES.................................................................................................... 12

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HISTORY

Cognitive-behaviour therapy involves a specific focus on cognitive strategies such as

identification and modification of maladaptive cognitive errors and restructuring of core
beliefs and/or representations of the self. Further focus is on behavioural strategies that are
designed to activate clients in the environment with a view to effect desired behaviour change.

Distinctive features of CBT:

- Use of homework and outside-of-session activities

- Direction of session activities
- Teaching of skills used by clients to cope with problems
- Emphasis on clients’ future experiences
- Providing clients with information about the course of treatment
- An intrapersonal/cognitive focus

Albert Ellis

Ellis was born in Pittsburg (1913). He spent most of his life in New York. A natural counsellor,
Ellis studied psychoanalysis and was supervised by a training analyst. Ellis, however grew
increasingly frustrated by psychoanalysis which he concluded was unscientific and superficial
(Corey, 2005).

In the early 1950s, Ellis experimented with other treatment frameworks, from humanism to
behaviour therapy. From such experimentation, Ellis founded what is now referred to as
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (or REBT).

Aaron Beck
Beck, born in 1921, Providence, Rohde Island, was initially attracted to the study of neurology.
It wasn’t long, however, before he discovered psychiatry was a more fitting interest for him.
Beck struggled with numerous fears throughout his life, including a fear of public speaking
and anxiety about his health. Beck used these fears to help him understand himself and others
which ultimately provided the basis on which he developed his cognitive theory (Corey, 2005).

Through his research, Beck discovered that people who are suffering from depression often
reported thinking that was characterised by errors in logic. These errors, Beck called,
‘cognitive distortions’.

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 ELLIS’S RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY (REBT)

Essential to Ellis’s theory is the A-B-C sequence. This sequence describes the relationship
between experience, beliefs and reactions.

Consider the model below:

A B C
Activating Belief Consequence
Event

Figure 1 - The A-B-C Sequence

According to Ellis, we experience Activating Events (A) everyday that prompts us to look at,
interpret, or otherwise think about what is occurring. Our interpretation of these events
results in specific Beliefs (B) about the event, the world and our role in the event. Once we
develop this belief, we experience Consequences (C) based solely on our belief.

Example 1 – Mel & Toni

Mel and Toni are work colleagues. Over coffee they begin discussing the project they are
working on together. On completion of the project they are required to present their proposal
to the board of directors. Mel hates doing presentations so Toni decides to volunteer to do the
presentation on her own. But when Toni announces that she is going to do the presentation
alone - Mel becomes upset.

Here’s why:

A B C
The activating event was Mel has a belief that she is The consequence is that
Toni announcing to Mel that unworthy. She feels as Mel becomes upset because
she will do the presentation though she always looks Toni (unknowingly)
for the board of directors. scruffy, stumbles on her reinforced Mel’s belief that
words and is therefore not she is unworthy. Although
fit to associate with figures Mel would prefer not to do
of authority. the presentation – she is
upset because she believes
Toni thinks she is not
worthy to do such a
presentation.

Figure 2 – Mel and Toni

The role of the counsellor is to dispute the irrational belief (B). Disputing has three parts:
detecting, discriminating and debating irrational beliefs.

Disputing irrational beliefs

Detecting irrational beliefs

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The counsellor’s foremost role in the process of disputing irrational beliefs is firstly to assist
clients in detecting them. Irrational beliefs can be detected through the examination of
activating events (A) and consequences (C).

Discriminating between rational and irrational beliefs

The second step in disputing irrational beliefs is deciding whether the belief is irrational or
not. A clue to the rationality of a belief is the use of terms such as should, must and ought.
Use of such terms often indicates that a belief is irrational.

Debating irrational beliefs

Debating irrational beliefs is a large part of REBT. There are many techniques that can be used
to debate irrational beliefs. Some of these include:

ƒ Socratic debate
The counsellor draws attention to the incongruence or inconsistency in the client’s beliefs.
The goal is to enable clients to critically examine their beliefs and not simply accept the
counsellor’s perception.

ƒ Humour and creativity

Stories and metaphors can help clients gain new insight or a fresh perspective on their
beliefs.

Developing new rational beliefs

There are numerous methods for assisting clients in developing new rational beliefs. Some of
these include:

ƒ Coping self-statement
Coping statements can strengthen newly formed rational beliefs. “For example, an
individual who is afraid of public speaking may write down and repeat to himself several
times a day statements such as “I want to speak flawlessly, but it’s alright if I don’t,” “No
one is killed for giving a poor speech,” and “I’m an articulate person.” (Sharf, 2004, 336).

ƒ Cost-benefit analysis
This is the process of comparing the costs and the benefits of holding a particular belief or
set of beliefs. Clients are encouraged to think about the advantages and disadvantages on
a regular basis.

ƒ Psycho educational methods

Self-help books, audio CDs and other learning tools may supplement counselling sessions
and serve as a reminder of strategies learnt in counselling.

ƒ Teaching others
Clients are encouraged to teach others to dispute their irrational beliefs. This serves as a
learning tool and a reinforcer of strategies learnt in counselling.

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BECK’S COGNITIVE THERAPY

Beck’s Cognitive therapy teaches clients to identify faulty patterns of thinking. Clients are
introduced to intervention strategies that assist in changing thought patterns and
consequently changing behaviour. Cognitive therapy is founded on the notion that our core-
beliefs, thoughts, emotions and behaviours are all inter-connected (see diagram below).

Core beliefs

Automatic Thoughts

Behaviours Emotions

Figure 3 – The connection between core beliefs, thoughts,

behaviours and emotions.

Example – David & James

Imagine two men – David and James. Both of these men have bought a new self-assemble
bookshelf and are trying to build it from the brief instructions enclosed. Read through the
table below as it outlines the different thought processes David and James may go through as
they complete this building project.

David James
David has a core belief that he is James has a core belief that says with
Core Belief unlikely to succeed at anything. effort he can accomplish anything.

As David reads through the As James reads through the

Automatic instructions, he thinks, “I don’t get it! instructions, he thinks “I don’t get this!
Thought I never understand this stuff.” Where am I going wrong?”

David begins to feel frustration and James begins to feel determined to

Emotion anger. find answers.

As a result of his thinking David As a result of his thinking James

Behaviour decides to walk away from the half- revises the instructions and finally
assembled bookshelf and never completes the assembly of the
completes it. bookshelf.

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Both men in the above scenario are doing the same thing (assembling a bookshelf from brief
instructions) yet they behave very differently. The Cognitive Behaviour approach suggests that
these men were motivated by their thoughts which were triggered by the core beliefs they hold
about themselves.

From the example outlined above, the impact people’s belief system and thought processes
could have on their actions was obvious. It is the role of the Cognitive Behavioural therapist to
assist clients in identifying core beliefs or thoughts that are interfering with their life and then
teach them strategies to change the pattern.

Cognitive Distortions

Beck labelled information processing errors, cognitive distortions. They are often logical, but
they are not rational. They can create real difficulty with one’s thinking.
Below is a list of some of the most common cognitive distortions.

1. All-or-nothing thinking: You see things in black and white categories. If your
performance falls short of perfect, you see yourself as a total failure.

2. Overgeneralization: You see a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat.

3. Mental filter: You pick out a single negative detail and dwell on it exclusively so that
your vision of all reality becomes darkened, like the drop of ink that discolours the
entire beaker of water.

4. Disqualifying the positive: You reject positive experiences by insisting they "don't count"
for some reason or other. You maintain a negative belief that is contradicted by your
everyday experiences.

5. Jumping to conclusions: You make a negative interpretation even though there are no
definite facts that convincingly support your conclusion.
ƒ Mind reading: You arbitrarily conclude that someone is reacting negatively to
you and don't bother to check it out.
ƒ The Fortune Teller Error: You anticipate that things will turn out badly and feel
convinced that your prediction is an already-established fact.

6. Magnification (catastrophizing) or minimization: You exaggerate the importance of

things (such as your goof-up or someone else's achievement), or you inappropriately
shrink things until they appear tiny (your own desirable qualities or the other fellow's
imperfections). This is also called the "binocular trick."

7. Emotional reasoning: You assume that your negative emotions necessarily reflect the
way things really are: "I feel it, therefore it must be true."

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8. Should statements: You try to motivate yourself with shoulds and shouldn'ts, as if you
had to be whipped and punished before you could be expected to do anything. "Musts"
and "oughts" are also offenders. The emotional consequence is guilt. When you direct
should statements toward others, you feel anger, frustration, and resentment.

9. Labelling and mislabelling: This is an extreme form of overgeneralization. Instead of

describing your error, you attach a negative label to yourself: "I'm a loser." When
someone else's behaviour rubs you the wrong way, you attach a negative label to him,
"He's a damn louse." Mislabelling involves describing an event with language that is
highly coloured and emotionally loaded.

10. Personalization: You see yourself as the cause of some negative external event for
which, in fact, you were not primarily responsible.

Source: Burns, D.D. (1989). The Feeling Good Handbook. New York: William Morrow.

Regularly occurring cognitive distortions can create psychological distress and may lead to
depression, anxiety or other difficulties. An examination of cognitive distortions is used in
cognitive counselling to assist client in identifying and modifying their maladaptive thought
patterns.

The process of cognitive therapy is briefly outlined in the figure below.

Step 1: Identify a client’s automatic thinking

Step 2: Evaluate the automatic thought in terms of:

ƒ The feeling/emotion it generates
ƒ Its validity (Is it true?)

Step 3: Apply strategies to modify the thinking

pattern

Figure 4 – Overview of Cognitive Behaviour therapy process

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A counsellor may ask a number of questions in order to evaluate a client’s automatic thoughts
(step 2). Some questions a counsellor may ask are listed below.

Table 1 – Questioning automatic thoughts

1. What is the evidence?

What is the evidence that supports this idea?
What is the evidence against this idea?

2. Is there an alternative explanation?

3. What’s the worst that could happen? Could I live through it?
What is the best that could happen?
What is the most realistic outcome?

4. What is the effect of my believing the automatic thought?

What could be the effect of changing my thinking?

5. What should I do about it?

6. What would I tell________(a friend) if he or she were in the same situation?

Source: Beck, J. (1995). Cognitive therapy: Basics and beyond. New York, NY: Guilford
Publications.

In addition to the questioning techniques listed above, there are a number of additional
strategies to assist clients in challenging their thought patterns. Some of these include:

ƒ Challenging absolutes
When clients use language such as, everyone, always, never, no one, always, counsellors
challenge these absolute statements. For example:

Client: Everyone is getting better grades than me.

Counsellor: Everyone?
Client: Well, maybe not. There are some people, I suppose, whose grades I
don’t know.
Counsellor: Whose grades do you know?
Client: Jillian’s and Petra’s.
Counsellor: Notice how we went from everyone having better grades to only two
people with better grades.
Client: I guess, it’s just those girls. They are always doing so well.

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ƒ Reattribution
This is a techniques counsellors use to more fairly distribute the responsibility of an event
as clients often heavily blame themselves. For example:

Client: I stuffed up! I let my daughter down. I said I would be there to watch
her swimming race and I missed it.
Counsellor: Weren’t you running late because of a meeting that ran well past
schedule?
Client: Yes.
Counsellor: Were you in control of the time the meeting would end?
Client: No. But I told my daughter I would be there.
Counsellor: So there were other factors involved in your schedule?
Client: Yes, I guess so.

ƒ Listing the advantages and disadvantages

By considering the advantages and disadvantages of a particular thought, clients can be
encouraged to assess the thought in terms of its usefulness. For example:

A client might think, “I must earn a promotion.” Some advantages and disadvantages of
this thought may include:
Advantages
May generate motivation to achieve
Inspires optimism
Disadvantages
May create undue pressure
May impact negatively on performance in current role

Listing the advantages and disadvantages may help clients to moderate their thinking from
an all-or-nothing approach to a more balanced perspective on the matter at hand.

APPLICATIONS

Cognitive approaches have been applied as means of treatment across a variety of presenting
concerns and psychological conditions. Cognitive approaches emphasise the role of thought in
the development and maintenance of unhelpful or distressing patterns of emotion or
behaviour.

Beck originally applied his cognitive approach to the treatment of depression. Cognitive
therapy has also been successfully used to treat such conditions as anxiety disorders,
obsessive disorders, substance abuse, post-traumatic stress, eating disorders, dissociative
identity disorder, chronic pain and many other clinical conditions. In addition, it has been
widely utilised to assist clients in enhancing their coping skills and moderating extremes in
unhelpful thinking.

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CHALLENGES OF CBT

(1) When the client has difficulty identifying emotions and thoughts
It is common for clients to experience emotion prior to any conscious recognition of their
preceding thought(s). This can make it difficult to ascertain the actual thought(s) that activated
the emotional response.

To assist clients in identifying their thoughts, counsellors may need to use specific
questioning techniques to isolate thoughts. Such as, “What were you telling yourself at the
time?” or “What was going through your mind?” In addition, role playing the situation and
stopping the scene at crucial (emotional) times in the sequence may help clients recall their
thinking.

(2) When clients agree with the principles but can’t seem to alter their thinking
Frequently, clients report an understanding of the principles of cognitive therapy on an
intellectual level, but cannot seem to apply that understanding in a way that promotes real
change (Sanders & Wills, 2005). Reinforcing that change takes time and even pre-empting the
difficulty of shifting from “the head level to the gut feelings” can be helpful ways of preparing
clients to stick with the strategies (p. 167). It may simply be a matter of repetition and practice
for clients working through change from the ‘head’ through to the ‘heart’.

(3) Clients have limited motivation for change

For clients that are not attending counselling of their own free will, it is essential that
counsellors establish motivating factors for the client in the initial stages of therapy. Client
may, for example, be attending counselling to keep harmony in a significant relationship or to
elicit help to get someone ‘off their back’. Whatever the reason for attendance, counsellors
should focus on the possible benefits an individual may receive by being involved in the
counselling process.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

Table 2 – Strengths and Weaknesses

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
ƒ Well supported by scientific research ƒ Requires clients to be attuned to nuances
in mood or attentive to previously
unconscious thoughts

ƒ Wide application ƒ Can be overly prescriptive and ignore

individual factors

ƒ Has been used successfully with ƒ Requires the ability to think abstractly (ie.
personality and mood disorders to think about thinking).

ƒ Provides a structured plan and sequence ƒ May not be as depth orientated as some
for therapy clients may prefer or see as necessary for
change

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CONCLUSION
All counselling approaches have both their merits and their limitations. Cognitive behaviour
therapies are popular for their broad application, scientific validation and the structure they
can create for counselling. Cognitive behavioural approaches teach clients the skills of
evaluating their own thought patterns, and as such, this approach can be successfully
transferred to situations outside of the counselling room.

Effective application of cognitive behavioural counselling requires not only a comprehensive

understanding of cognitive concepts but also an appreciation for the time it can take to alter
thought patterns and an awareness of the fact that clients may need much practice before
realising the benefits of cognitive strategies.

REFERENCES
Beck, J. (1995). Cognitive therapy: Basics and beyond. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.

Burns, D. D. (1989). The feeling good handbook. New York: William Morrow.

Corey, G. (2005). Theory and practice of counselling and psychotherapy. (7th ed.). Belmont,
CA: Brooks/Cole.

Sanders, D., & Wills, F. (2005). Cognitive therapy: An introduction. (2nd ed.). London: Sage.

Sharf, R. (2004). Theories of psychotherapy and counseling: Concepts and cases. (3rd ed.).
Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

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