GEOPHYSICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS

Introduction to GIS - Basic spatial concepts - Coordinate Systems - GIS and Information
Systems – Definitions – History of GIS - Components of a GIS – Hardware, Software, Data,
People, Methods – Proprietary and open source Software - Types of data – Spatial, Attribute
data- types of attributes – scales/ levels of measurements.

INTODUCTION OF GIS:

Geographic information (i.e.., land information, spatial information) is information that can be
associated with a place name, a street address, section/township, a zip code, or coordinates of
latitude and longitude.

A multitude of government functions require geographic information; at least 70 percent of all

information used by local governments is geographically referenced.

For example: property records and assessment, planning and zoning, permit tracking, natural
resource management, infrastructure and transportation management, economic development
planning, and health and public safety.

All of these applications consider the location of certain features on the landscape in relation to
other features. For instance, in assessment, the location of soil types relative to property parcels is
considered, whereas in planning and zoning, the location of animal confinement facilities relative
to residential areas might be relevant. A geographic information system (GIS) allows the user to
examine and visualize these relationships.

Defining GIS:

A “geographic information system” (GIS) is a computer-based tool that allows you to create,
manipulate, analyze, store and display information based on its location. GIS makes it possible to
integrate different kinds of geographic information, such as digital maps, aerial photographs,
satellite images and global positioning system data (GPS), along with associated tabular database
information

(e.g., ‘attributes' or characteristics about geographic features)

Using GIS, you can incorporate all of this information into a single system and execute common
database operations. For example, GIS allows you to perform statistical analysis or spatial
queries, to explore ‘what-if' scenarios, and to create predictive models. For example, GIS can help
answer questions such as:

What exists at a given location?

Where does something occur?
What has changed since a specific point in time?
What spatial patterns exist?
What happens if…?

GIS allows you to examine and analyze geographic information at different levels of detail or
from different perspectives. Then, it enables you to customize the display of your maps and
analyses for presentation to particular audiences.

GIS and Coastal Management

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GIS can be used for any number of coastal management applications, like improving the
administration and enforcement of zoning ordinances. It can measure straight-line distances and
areas, and thus determine a minimum lot width of 100 ft. and minimum lot size of 20,000 sq. ft. as
often mandated in subdivision regulations. Or, GIS can also be used to generate buffers around
lines or designated areas.

The benefits of taking a GIS approach to coastal management, might include: (1) the ability to
model, test, and compare alternative scenarios - before the proposed strategy is imposed on the
real world; (2) the ability to handle much larger data bases and to integrate and synthesize data --
leading to a more holistic and coordinated management strategies; and (3) enhanced capacity for
data exchange. [3]

GIS and Decision-Making

Local government units make countless land-related decisions. As a whole, these decisions shape
the way in which land is used and the built environment is managed. GIS has tremendous
potential for facilitating this decision-making process and for revealing the combined effect of
incremental decisions. Indeed, many have praised GIS for its ability to provide “better
information” – information that is faster, cheaper, more reliable, more readily available, and more
understandable – which, in turn, might lead to “better decision-making”.

More or “better” information, however, will not necessarily reduce conflict in policy debates. As
O'Looney (1997) cautions, “a GIS can often reveal but do nothing about underlying conflicts of
interest (p. 7).” Furthermore, information technologies like GIS can affect an organization's
planning and problem-solving processes in contradictory ways. Elwood (2000) notes that use of
these technologies can “provide new opportunities for some community members to participate,
make valued and influential contributions to [an] organization's planning efforts, and enhance
their capacity to take effective action on their own behalf and that of their neighbourhood (p.
167).”

At the same time, however, use of information technologies also can “reinforce education and
expertise barriers to participation by some residents, and diminish the authority and influence of
knowledge claims based on local experience in favour of professional expertise (p. 168).” Thus, it
is important not to adopt an “appliance mentality” when using GIS.

Remember that successful use of GIS does not depend on technical choices alone. Organizational
and institutional factors frequently are a greater barrier to successful GIS use. To make this
innovation a useful component of a decision-making process, a community should carefully
consider all facets of GIS implementation – technical, organizational, legal, and administrative.

BASIC CONCEPT OF GIS:

Geographic information system (GIS) is software that converts data into productive
information by getting data from GPS and RS, and then analyzes the data and displays it as
productive information. It gives an inexpensive way of map production, displaying the
information on the map and makes the analysis easier.
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COORDINATE SYSTEM:

A coordinate system defines the location of a point on a planner or spherical surface.

Without a precise definition of coordination system to be used to represent a point, it is difficult
to change into a new coordinate system. It is necessary to change the coordination system when
integrating data from different sources into a normal coordination system. There are many
Coordinate system used in GIS to represent the Earth Surface.

A geographic coordinate system is a three-dimensional reference system that detects points on

the surface of the Earth. The unit of measurement is usually a decimal degree. There are two
coordinate values in one point: latitude and longitude. Angle of latitude and longitude
measurements

Latitude is defined as an angle formed by an intersection on the vertical line of the surface of the
earth on a plane and on the plane of the equator. There are positive latitude values in the north of
the equator, whereas in the south, the numbers are negative values. Latitude values are from -90
to +90 degrees. The lines of latitude are called parallel because a special value of latitude forms
a parallel circle to the equator.

A meridian, or line of the longitude, is formed by a plane which passes through the point and
north and south poles. The longitude value is defined by an angle between the plane and the
reference plane. This is known as the prime meridian. The most used prime meridian passes
through Greenwich, United Kingdom. Other alternative prime meridians in use pass through
Paris and Bogota. The longitude value is range from -180 to +180 degrees.
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Illustration: Coordinate System

Types of coordinate system

The following are two common types of Coordinate system used in GIS (Geographic
Information Systems):

Latitude-longitude such as global or spherical coordinate systems. These are often known as
geographical coordinate systems.

An projected coordinate system such as universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), Albers Equal Area,
or Robinson, all of which provide various mechanisms on two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate to
project maps of the Earth’s spherical surface (with several other map projection models). Projected
coordinate system is known as map projections.

Coordinating systems (both geographical and projected) provide a framework to define real world
locations.

What is a spatial reference?

A spatial reference is georeferencing and coordinate system that is assigned to any

geographic data, including raster datasets and raster catalogs. The spatial reference defines how the
geographic data changes mathematically to a flat map with minimal deformation. There will always
be some type of distortion in the geographic data because you are trying to project three-
dimensional data on a three-dimensional plane. When you choose a spatial reference, you have to
choose which type of distortion you want to reduce.

Many predetermined spatial references are already defined and available for use. If any of these
spatial references do not represent the desired projection, then you are able to modify the current
estimates or create your own. If you want to use the same local reference as an existing feature
class, feature dataset or dataset, you can also import that exact spatial reference.

Converting one projection to another can change the size and area of a cell on the surface of the
earth. Each projection treats the relationships between a three-dimensional world and a two-
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dimensional one. You must be aware of properties and perceptions for each projection before you
choose.

What are the projected coordinate systems?

An approximate coordinate system is defined on a flat, 2-dimensional surface. Contrary to a

geographical coordinate system, in projected coordinate system, two dimensions consist of
continuous length, angle and area. A projected coordinate system is always based on the
geographic coordinate system, which is based on circular or spherical.

In an projected coordinate system, places are identified by the coordinates x and y on the grid, with
the origin in the centre of the grid. In each case there are two values that refer to it at that central
location. One specifies its horizontal position and the second its vertical position. Two values are
called X-coordinate and Y-coordinate. Using this notation, the coordinate on the original are x = 0
and y = 0.

What are geographical coordinate systems?

A geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define

locations on Earth. A GCS is often incorrectly called datum, but a datum is only part of GCS. A
GCS includes an angular unit of measurement, a major meridian, and a datum (based on spherical).

A point is referred to by its longitude and latitude values. Longitude and latitude are the measured
angles up to a point on the surface of the Earth from the centre of the Earth. Angle is often
measured in degrees (or in grads).

In the spherical system, horizontal lines, or east-west lines, are similar latitude or parallel lines.
Vertical lines, or north-south lines, are lines of equal longitude or meridian. These lines incorporate
the world and make a grid network called a graticule.

Between the poles, the line of the latitude midway is called the equator. It defines the line of zero
latitudes. The line of zero line is called the main meridian. For most geographic coordinate
systems, Prime Meridian is the longitude that goes through Greenwich, England. Other countries
use longitude lines passing through Bern, Bogota and Paris. The origin of the Graticule (0, 0) is
defined where the equator and main meridian differ. Then the world is divided into four geographic
quadrilaterals which are based on the compass bearings originally. North and South Equatorial are
above and below, and west and east prime meridians are left and right.

Latitude and longitude values are traditionally measured in decimal degrees or degrees, minutes,
and seconds (DMS). The latitude value is measured between the equators at range from -90 at the
South Pole to +90 at the North Pole on the equatorial pole from the equator. The longitude value is
measured relative to the prime meridian. While travelling in the east, they are up to -180 ° while
travelling 180°. If prime meridian is in Greenwich, then Australia, which is east of the equator and
east of Greenwich, has positive longitude value and negative latitude value.

As you know, Both Geographical and Projected Coordinate system used in GIS to represent the
Earth Surface to an flat surface or on Paper.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM: (GIS)

 GEOPHYSICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
Geographic Information Systems is a computer-based tool that analyzes, stores, manipulates
and visualizes geographic information, usually in a map.

Never in the history of mankind have we had more pressing issues in need of a geospatial
perspective. These global issues require pervasive, complex, location-based knowledge that can
only come from a GIS.

Geographic Information Systems really comes down to just 4 simple ideas:

 Create geographic data

 Manage it.
 Analyze it and…
 Display it on a map.

These are the primordial functions of a GIS.

HISTORY OF GIS:

In the early 20th century, a printing technique called photozincography was introduced, which
allowed users to separate layers from a map. This technology meant different themes could be printed, but
it did not represent a full GIS since there was no opportunity to analyze mapped data.

The concept of GIS was first introduced in the early 1960s, and it was subsequently researched and
developed as a new discipline. The GIS history views Roger Tomlinson as a pioneer of the concept, where
the first iteration was designed to store, collate, and analyze data about land usage in Canada.

The second phase of development in GIS history occurred throughout the 1970s, and by the 1980s the
concept progressed as national agencies adopted it, and invested parties began determining best practice.
By the late 1980s, there was a focus on improving the usability of technology and making facilitates more
user-centric.

There is little widespread information available on how the technology has been adopted and deployed.
Those pursuing development in the field of GIS had different goals, meaning there was no set direction for
research to follow. A single path finally surfaced when GIS became the focus of commercial activity with
satellite imaging technology. Mass applications were thus initiated for business and private use.

As the system continuously advanced in Canada throughout the 1970s and 1980s, by the 1990s it was
driven by mainframe hardware, with data sets from the entire Canadian landmass.

COMPONENTS OF GIS:

Geographic Information System Five Components

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. People
5. Methods
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Figure: How GIS Components integrate with each other

Hardware: Hardware is Computer on which GIS software runs. Nowadays there

are a different range of computer, it might be Desktop or server based. ArcGIS Server is
server based computer where GIS software runs on network computer or cloud based.
For computer to perform well all hardware component must have high capacity. Some of the
hardware components are: Motherboard, Hard driver, processor, graphics card, printer and so on.
These all component function together to run a GIS software smoothly.

Main Hardware Components:

1. Motherboard: It is board where major hardware parts are installed or It is a place where all
components gets hooked up.

2. Hard Drive: It is also called hard disk, place to store data.

3. Processor: Processor is the major component in computer, it performs calculation. It is called

as Central processing Unit (CPU).

4. RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) where all running programs load temporarily.

5. Printer: It is output device and used to print image, map or document. There are various type
of printer available in market.

6. External Disk: These are portable storage space such as USB drive, DVD, CD or external
disk.
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7.Monitor: It is a screen for displaying output information. Nowadays there are various type of
monitor: CRT (cathode ray tube), LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), LED (Light Emitting Diodes)
and more.

Software: Next component is GIS software which provide tools to run and edit
spatial information. It helps to query, edit, run and display GIS data. It uses RDBMS
(Relational Database Management System) to store the data. Few GIS software list: ArcGis,
ArcView 3.2, QGIS, SAGA GIS.

Software Components:

1. GIS Tools: Key tools to support the browsing of the GIS data

2. RDBMS: Relational Database Management System to store GIS data. GIS Software retrieve
from RDBMS or insert data into RDBMS.

3. Query Tools: Tools that work with database management system for querying, insertion,
deletion and other SQL (Standard Query Language).

4. GUI: Graphical User Interface that helps user and Software to interact well.

5. Layout: Good layout window to design map.

Data: The most important and expensive component of the Geographic Information
System is Data which is generally known as fuel for GIS. GIS data is combination of
graphic and tabular data. Graphic can be vector or raster. Both type of data can be created
in house using GIS software or can be purchased. The process of creating the GIS data from the
analog data or paper format is called digitization. Digitization process involves registering of
raster image using few GCP (ground control point) or known coordinates. This process is widely
known as rubber sheeting or georefrencing. Polygon, lines and points are created by digitizing
raster image. Raster image itself can be registered with coordinates which is widely known as
rectifying the image. Registered image are mostly exported in TIFF format. As mentioned above,
GIS data can be Raster or Vector.

GIS Data Types:

1. Raster: Raster image store information in a cell based manner. It can be aerial photo, satellite
image, Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Raster images normally store continuous data.

2. Vector: Vector data are discrete. It store information in x, y coordinate format. There are
three types of Vector data: Lines, Points and Area.

People: People are user of Geographic Information System. They run the GIS software.
Hardware and software have seen tremendous development which made people easy to run the
GIS software. Also computer are affordable so people are using for GIS task. These task may be
creating simple map or performing advance GIS analysis. The people are main component for the
successful GIS.
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Methods: For successful GIS operation a well-designed plan and business operation
rules are important. Methods can vary with different organizations. Any organization has
documented their process plan for GIS operation. These document address number
question about the GIS methods: number of GIS expert required, GIS software and hardware,
Process to store the data, what type of DBMS (database management system) and more. Well
designed plan will address all these question.

PROPRIETARY AND OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE:

GRASS GIS:

Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (commonly termed GRASS GIS) is a geographic
information system (GIS) software suite used for geospatial data management and analysis, image
processing, producing graphics and maps, spatial and temporal modeling, and visualizing. It can handle
raster, topological vector, image processing, and graphic data.

GRASS GIS contains over 350 modules to render maps and images on monitor and paper; manipulate raster
and vector data including vector networks; process multispectral image data; and create, manage, and store
spatial data.

It is licensed and released as free and open-source software under the GNU General Public License (GPL). It
runs on multiple operating systems, including OS X, Windows and Linux. Users can interface with the
software features through a graphical user interface (GUI) or by plugging into GRASS via other software
such as QGIS. They can also interface with the modules directly through a bespoke shell that the application
launches or by calling individual modules directly from a standard shell. The latest stable release version
(LTS) is GRASS GIS 7, which is available since 2015

The GRASS Development Team is a multinational group consisting of developers at many locations.
GRASS is one of the eight initial Software Projects of the Open Source Geospatial Foundation.

GVGIS:

gvSIG is a geographic information system (GIS), that is, a desktop application designed for
capturing, storing, handling, analyzing and deploying any kind of referenced geographic
information in order to solve complex management and planning problems. gvSIG is known for
having a user-friendly interface, being able to access the most common formats, both vector and
raster ones. It features a wide range of tools for working with geographic-like information (query
tools, layout creation, geoprocessing, networks, etc.).

gvSIG is known for:

1. Integrating in the same view both local (files, databases) and remote data through OGC
standards.
2. Including a plugin system which allows to easily extend the application or to develop tailor-
made solutions.
3. Being open source software, under the GNU General Public License (GPL), which allows its
free use, distribution, study and improvement.
4. Being available in several languages: Spanish, English UK, English USA, German, French,
Italian, Portuguese, Portuguese-Brazilian, Russian, Chinese, Serbian, Swahili, Turkish, Czech,
Polish, Romanian, Greek, Basque, Valencian, Galician.
5. Being developed using Java, and being available for Linux, Windows and Mac OS X platform.
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ILWIS:

Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS) is a geographic information system (GIS)
and remote sensing software for both vector and raster processing. Its features include digitizing, editing,
analysis and display of data, and production of quality maps. ILWIS was initially developed and distributed
by ITC Enschede (International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation) in the
Netherlands for use by its researchers and students. Since 1 July 2007, it has been released as free
software under the terms of the GNU General Public License. Having been used by many students,
teachers and researchers for more than two decades, ILWIS is one of the most user-friendly integrated
vector and raster software programmes currently available. ILWIS has some very powerful raster analysis
modules, a high-precision and flexible vector and point digitizing module, a variety of very practical tools,
as well as a great variety of user guides and training modules all available for downloading. The current
version is ILWIS 3.8.1. Similar to the GRASS GIS in many respects, ILWIS is currently available natively only
on Microsoft Windows. However, a Linux Wine manual has been released.

JUMP:

JUMP is a Java based vector and raster GIS and programming framework.[1] Current development
continues under the OpenJUMP name.

FEATURES:

 platform independent (Windows, Linux, Unix, Apple macOS), Java Runtime needs to
be installed
 reads and writes the file formats ESRI Shapefile, GeoJSON, GML, JML, CSV, OSM,
DXF and more
 reads database datastores PostGIS, SpatiaLite, Oracle Spatial and MariaDB, MySQL
 writes PostGIS datastore
 reads raster files (world file supported) eg. GeoTIFF, TIFF, JPEG, BMP, PNG, FLT,
ASC, JPEG 2000 and ECW*
 writes raster eg. GeoTIFF, TIFF, PNG, FLT, and ASC
 save view to georeferenced rasters like JPEG and PNG
 full geometry and attribute editing
 OpenGIS SFS compliant
 Geometry algorithms based on Java Topology Suite
 a lot of third party plugins exists (e.g. connecting to Postgis, Oracle database or
ArcSDE, print, reproject vectos, etc.)
 supports standards like WMS, WFS and SLD
 easy extensible GIS programming environment for own GIS-applications
 supports multiple languages:

 Czech
 German
 English
 Italian
 Spanish
 Finnish

MAPWINDOW GIS:

MapWindow GIS is an open-source GIS (mapping) application and set of programmable mapping
components. It has been adopted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as the primary
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GIS platform for its BASINS (Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources) watershed
analysis and modeling software.

MapWindow GIS is distributed as an open source application under the Mozilla Public License distribution
license, MapWindow GIS can be reprogrammed to perform different or more specialized tasks. There are
also plug-ins available to expand compatibility and functionality.

The application is built upon Microsoft .NET technology.

Updates for MapWindow GIS are regularly released by a group of student and volunteer developers.

QGIS:

QGIS (previously known as Quantum GIS) is a free and open-source cross-platform desktop
geographic information system (GIS) application that supports viewing, editing, and analysis of geospatial
data.

QGIS functions as geographic information system (GIS) software, allowing users to analyze and edit spatial
information, in addition to composing and exporting graphical maps.[2] QGIS supports both raster and
vector layers; vector data is stored as either point, line, or polygon features. Multiple formats of raster
images are supported, and the software can georeference images.

QGIS supports shapefiles, coverages, personal geodatabases, dxf, MapInfo, PostGIS, and other formats.[3]
Web services, including Web Map Service and Web Feature Service, are also supported to allow use of data
from external sources.[4]

QGIS integrates with other open-source GIS packages, including PostGIS, GRASS GIS, and MapServer.[4]
Plugins written in Python or C++ extend QGIS's capabilities. Plugins can geocode using the Google
Geocoding API, perform geoprocessing functions similar to those of the standard tools found in ArcGIS, and
interface with PostgreSQL/PostGIS, SpatiaLite and MySQL databases.

SAGA GIS:

System for Automated Geoscientific Analyses (SAGA GIS) is a geographic information

system (GIS) computer program, used to edit spatial data. It is free and open-source software,
developed originally by a small team at the Department of Physical Geography, University of
Göttingen, Germany, and is now being maintained and extended by an international developer
community.

SAGA GIS is intended to give scientists an effective but easily learnable platform for
implementing geoscientific methods. This is achieved by the application programming interface
(API). SAGA has a fast-growing set of geoscientific methods, bundled in exchangeable module
libraries.

The standard modules are:

 File access: interfaces to various table, vector, image and grid file formats, including
shapefiles, Esri grids (ASCII and binary), and many grid file formats supported by the
Geospatial Data Abstraction Library (GDAL), along with the native SGRD format of
SAGA GIS.
 Filter for grids: Gaussian, Laplacian, multi-directional Lee filter.
 Gridding: interpolation from vector data using triangulation, nearest neighbour,
inverse distance.
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 Geostatistics: residual analysis, ordinary and universal kriging, single and multiple
regression analysis, variance analysis.
 Grid calculator: combine grids through user defined functions.
 Grid discretisation: skeletonisation, segmentation.
 Grid tools: merging, resampling, gap filling.
 Image classification: cluster analysis, box classification, maximum likelihood, pattern
recognition, region growing.
 Projections: various coordinate transformations for vector and grid data (using Proj4
and GeoTrans libraries), georeferencing of grids.
 Simulation of dynamic processes: TOPMODEL, nitrogen distributions, erosion,
landscape development.
 Terrain analysis: geomorphometric calculations such as slope, aspect, curvatures,
curvature classification, analytical hillshading, sink elimination, flow path analysis,
catchment delineation, solar radiation, channel lines, relative altitudes.
 Vector tools: polygon intersection, contour lines from grid.

SAGA GIS is an effective tool with user friendly graphical user interface (GUI) that requires only
about 10 MB disk space. No installation is needed, since SAGA GIS can be run directly from a
USB thumb drive if desired.

SAGA GIS is available for Windows, Linux, and FreeBSD.

SAGA GIS can be used together with other GIS software like Kosmo and QGIS in order to obtain
enhanced detail in vector datasets as well as higher-resolution map-production capabilities. SAGA
GIS modules can be executed from within the statistical data analysis software R, in order to
integrate statistical and GIS analyses.

UDIG:

uDig is a GIS software program produced by a community led by Canadian-based consulting company
Refractions Research. It is based on the Eclipse platform and features full layered Open Source GIS. It is
written in Java and released under EPL and BSD licences (formerly under GNU LGPL).

uDig has a walkthrough in Flash and also quick start directions for those who wish to complete a full
version build to write plug-ins or contribute to the main build.

uDig can use GRASS for complex vector operations and also embeds JGRASS and specialized hydrology
tools from the Horton Machine. It supports shapefiles, PostGIS, WMS, and many other data sources
natively.

uDig is commonly used as a framework for building other GIS platforms and applications. Such applications
include DIVA-GIS and DEWS – Distant Early Warning System for tsunamis.

GEODA:

GeoDa is a free GIS software program primarily used to introduce new users into spatial data
analysis. It’s main functionality is data exploration in statistics.

One of the nicest things about it is how it comes with sample data for you to give a test-drive. From simple
box-plots all the way to regression statistics, GeoDa has complete arsenal of statistics to do nearly anything
spatially.
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It’s user base is strong. For example, Harvard, MIT and Cornell universities have embraced this free GIS
software to serve as a gentle introduction to spatial analysis for non-GIS users. From economic
development to health and real estate, it’s been used as an exciting analytical in labs as well.

DIVAGIS:

Biologists using GIS unite! This one specializes in mapping biological richness and diversity distribution
including DNA data.

Diva GIS is another free GIS software package for mapping and analyzing data. Diva GIS also delivers useful,
every day free GIS data for your mapping needs.

It’s possible to extract climate data for all locations on the land. From here, there are statistical analysis
and modelling techniques to work with.

For the biologist in you, it’s worth a long look for biologists around the world. Otherwise, you should be
looking at one of the top options above.

TYPES OF DATA:

The basic data type in a GIS reflects traditional data found on a map. Accordingly, GIS technology
utilizes two basic types of data. These are:

describes the absolute and relative location of

1 Spatial data geographic features.

describes characteristics of the spatial features. These

characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in
2. Attribute data nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data.

The coordinate location of a forestry stand would be spatial data, while the characteristics of that forestry
stand,

e.g. cover group, dominant species, crown closure, height, etc., would be attribute data.

Other data types, in particular image and multimedia data, are becoming more prevalent with changing
technology. Depending on the specific content of the data, image data may be considered either spatial

e.g. photographs, animation, movies, etc., or attribute, e.g. sound, descriptions, narration's, etc.

TYPES OF ATTRIBUTES:

Stevens' Scales of Measurement or level of measurement is a system for classifying attribute

data into four categories, developed by psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens and first published in
1946.Stevens called his four scales nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio, so the system is often called
"NOIR." Each category is distinguished by the range of possible values, and the types of comparisons that
can be made between values. In GIS and spatial analysis, the scale of a variable determines the types of
analytical methods that may properly be employed; in cartography, different types of symbology and
different types of Thematic map are used for each scale.

Nominal Level:
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Nominal data distinguishes between types or class of data, but they do not have numbers
associated with them unless the numbers are used as a numerical identification. Nominal data are
observations that have been placed in sets of mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories.
Some examples would be tree types or hair color. For tree types, you could have aspen, oak, and pine. For
hair color, you could have red, blonde, and brunette. These data sets contain names or color but have no
particular order or hierarchy. An example of using numerical identification for nominal data would be zip
codes or phone numbers, because they lack a set order or hierarchy. The only comparison that can be
made between nominal data is whether they are the same or different.

Ordinal Scale:

Ordinal data are categorical data that have a natural ranking or order. For example, temperature
can be classified as "hot", "warm", "lukewarm", "chilly", or "cold," with an inherent order. Another
example is the ordinal numbers: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc. Thus, comparisons of "more" or "less" can be made
between ordinal data, in addition to the "same" or "different" of nominal data. However, comparisons of
the degree of difference cannot be made.

Interval Scale:

Interval data is quantitative or numerical data that is measured on a physical scale without a true
origin; that is, the value 0 does not represent the absence of the property. One example is temperature
measured in degrees Fahrenheit, because 0 degrees does not mean the absence of any temperature. The
degree of difference between two values can be measured through subtraction, thus measuring the
interval between the values. For example, if the temperature one day is 20°F and the next day is 40°F, it is
meaningful to say that it is 20°F warmer. A ratio between these two numbers is not meaningful; that is, it
would not be appropriate to say that the second day is twice as warm as the first day.Other examples of
interval measurements are dates and times.

Ratio Scale:

Ratio data is quantitative data in which ratios between two values have definite meaning (eg, 2 is half
of 4 and twice as many as 1), and unlike Interval data will have a meaningful zero. The normal numbers (0,
1, 2, 3, etc) is a common ratio data set.A common geographic example of ratio data is density (i.e.
population, ethnicity, etc.). Any percent value from 0 to 100 will have a meaningful zero. Another example
is temperature measured in degrees Kelvin. Unlike Fahrenheit, 0 degrees on the Kelvin scale actually
means the complete absence of thermal (kinetic) energy, and 100 degrees Kelvin has twice as much
thermal (kinetic) energy as 50 degrees Kelvin. Meaning that unlike in Fahrenheit, 100 degrees Kelvin is
twice as hot as 50 degrees Kelvin.

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GEOPHYSICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM