Developing Base Ten Understanding
Developing Base Ten Understanding
Developing Base Ten Understanding
Developing Base Ten Understanding:
Working with Tens, The Difference Between Numbers, Doubling,
Tripling…, Splitting, Sharing & Scaling Up
James Brickwedde
Project for Elementary Mathematics
[email protected] © 2012, 2008
A child’s understanding of place value and the base ten wards. The number sense nurtured here reflects the core
system is built upon a broad conceptual framework of num‐ skills to add, subtract, multiply, or divide and form key alge‐
ber size, number relations, flexibly decomposing and recon‐ braic ideas around how numbers can be operated upon. Flu‐
figuring numbers, and thinking multiplicatively. Combine this ency in these areas allows progressively more efficient use of
view of place value and base ten understanding with the no‐ strategies such as Tens & Ones, Incremental, Compensation,
tion of mathematical proficiency (National Research Council and Difference Between in addition and subtraction as well
(NRC), 2001). Mathematical proficiency is defined as being the Distributive and Associative strategies in multiplication
based upon five interwoven components: and division.
Conceptual understanding – comprehension of mathe‐
matical concepts, operations, and relations Goals & Objectives
Procedural fluency – skill in carrying out procedures flexi‐ The developmental foundation of these activities is to moni‐
bly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately tor the progress of a child to:
Strategic competence – ability to formulate, represent, • Fluidly know the combinations of ten including in re‐
and solve mathematical problems verse from ten and any decade of ten
Adaptive reasoning – capacity for logical thought, reflec‐ • Fluidly increment by ten from any number
tion, explanation, and justification • Span differences between numbers in as few incre‐
Productive disposition – habitual inclination to see math‐ ments as possible
ematics as sensible, useful, and worthwhile, coupled with • Move either forward or backwards through the num‐
a belief in diligence and one’s own efficacy (NRC, 2001, p. ber system fluidly in the fewest increments
116). • Decompose and reconfigure numbers fluidly in multi‐
This article looks explicitly at how to help students develop plying and partitioning numbers
mathematical proficiency by moving agilely up and down the • See place value as a multiplicative relationship
number system around landmarks of ten and to begin to • Transition from additive to multiplicative thinking
think in scale. Place value and the base ten system is an early • Think in scale
and easy entry point for students to begin to explore this agil‐
ity. Without this level of flexibility and fluency, students are As Assessment Tools
limited to inefficient strategies or are overly dependent upon These activities can be used over a range of a student's school
tactical procedures they know only through rote application. years from first through fifth grade. The number range and
How to Use These Activities the questions posed are what expand over time and increase
the complexity of the relations being explored. As an assess‐
The activities presented in this article are not isolated per‐ ment, they are analyzing a combination of a student's:
formance activities or assessments. They represent a series of • Conceptual understanding
activities the maturing responses to which form an assess‐ • Strategic competence
ment analysis. In turn, the activities become targeted ap‐ • Procedural fluency (accuracy, fluency)
proaches to develop math‐ • Adaptive reasoning (efficiency1 and logical
ematical proficiency in [These activities] repre‐ thought, reflection, explanation, and justification)
number. These can be sent a series of activities • Place value knowledge & thinking in scale
done singly with a child, in the maturing responses
small groups, or as warm‐ to which form an assess‐ Conceptual Understanding: Specific to the topic of base ten
up with the entire class. The ment analysis and target‐ understanding, students need to know that numbers can be
fluid response to such activ‐ ed instructional ap‐
ities forms the basis for proaches to develop 1
Differing from the National Research Council’s definition, where
successful navigation of the mathematical proficiency efficiency is placed within the category of Procedural Fluency, effi‐
base ten system moving in number. ciency is being defined in this article as a matter of making judg‐
either forwards or back‐ ments and therefore more a reflection of adaptive reasoning than
procedural thought.
decomposed and reconfigured to make equivalent combina‐ dents need to be reminded that this is a normal occurrence
tions. This ability is foundational to the exploration of the and another reason to disassociate efficiency from fluency.
various algebraic properties and how the various operations
are unique and intertwined. This includes understanding Student Reflection: The teacher has opportunities to ask
properties of zero, and the identity, associative, and distribu‐ students to reflect upon their thinking processes at various
tive properties. Conceptual understanding also includes the points in the learning cycle. The questions or prompts used
development of relational thinking. as a student is first considering a task are potentially differ‐
ent than those asked during the process of solving the task
Strategic Competency: Student strategies range from direct as well as in reflecting back upon the task once solved.
modeling, various counting strategies, flexible and derived Questions and prompts can range from being able to visual‐
strategies, and abstract number strategies. It is the progres‐ ize the task, asking questions about the forms of represen‐
sive maturation of these strategies that is being monitored tation being used, comparing and contrasting with other
and described. solutions, and reflecting on where efficiencies can be found
Since many of the activities in this article focus on develop‐ (Jacobs & Ambrose, 2008). The following are questions and
ing a sense of the difference between numbers, a careful un‐ prompts to consider while using the activities that follow:
derstanding of the possible solution strategies is required. In • To scaffold a more advanced strategy, e.g., I know you
many texts, the 'difference between' is often solely repre‐ can count on [by ones; skip count one ten at a time]
sented using a subtraction 'take‐away' strategy: 23 – 10 = x. but can you save yourself time and get yourself to [the
However, research has shown students have three strategies next ten; next hundred] in as few steps as possible?
that are equally legitimate. Those strategies include not only • The actions used while solving the problem, e.g., Can
23 – 10 = x but also 10 + x = 23, and 23 – x = 10. Students you use what you know about getting to then next ten
should be allowed to use the strategy that works efficiently to help you with getting to the next one hundred? Is
for them given the number combinations present, and not be there a way to break the numbers apart to make them
narrowly guided to choose one over the other. easier to work with?
• If further efficiencies are possible, e.g. “Now that you
Procedural Fluency: know the answer, looking back could you have solved
Accuracy: Accuracy is a constant goal. Accuracy is possible that problem using fewer steps?”
with the full range of strategies from direct modeling all the • The algebraic implications that come from generaliz‐
way through to the abstract number solutions. ing the action of this problem to others, e.g., Can you
Fluency: A child's fluency is described by determining if: do that all the time with all numbers?
• The response is automatic or calculated Place Value Knowledge & Capacity to Think in Scale:
• The length of the span used in the solution Number relations: The numbers selected for a task can help
• The presence of relational thinking in the strategy used a student explore the relationships in how a number is
to determine the solution composed and can be decomposed in terms of its place
Fluency matures over time. It is the ease at which any of value. Example: You have 20 cookies, I give you 3 more.
the levels of strategy is utilized. It is a reflection of the How many do you have now? There were 17 cookies on a
number of steps a child needs to take to find the solution. plate. Seven get eaten. How many are left? You have 12
While fluency may be reflected in the speed at which a stu‐ cookies and I only have 10. How many more do you have
dent works, fluency is not synonymous with efficiency. One than me? With each of these number combinations (20, 3)
can be very fast with counting on by ones but it is not con‐ (17, 7), (12, 10), placed within specific problem types (Join,
sidered an efficient strategy among older elementary stu‐ result unknown; Separate, result unknown; Compare, dif‐
dents. ference unknown) causes the student to consider place
Adaptive Reasoning: value ideas.
Efficiency: Efficiency emerges from being able to make Thinking in Scale: Place value is a multiplicative relation.
judgments about which strategy to use given the numbers One can think of 42 as 40 + 2, but also as 4 x 10 + 2. To mul‐
and the context of the problem as well as how fluidly one tiply 40 x 30 without merely relying on the surface pattern
moves through that selection and solution process. To of “counting the zeros,” one can decompose each number
make these judgments, a student needs to be familiar with by factoring the power of 10. Thus:
and fluid in using more than one strategy. To find how 40 x 30 = 4 x 10 x 3 x 10
much it takes to get from 2 to 20, while an addition context, = 4 x 3 x 10 x 10
may be most efficiently solved as 20 – 2. However, how = 12 x 100
much to get from 12 to 20 may be best left as 12 + x = 20 or = 1200
20 – x = 12. While learning a new, more efficient strategy a Place value is based upon maintaining a 1:10 ratio, other‐
student often has to slow down to work more methodically wise known as the “Rate of Ten.” This means that for every
with the new, more sophisticated concepts involved. Stu‐ one composite ten that is made, a simultaneous accumula‐
tion of 10 ones is also acquired. If I want 4 times as many
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tens (4 x 10) I simultaneously need to coordinate getting 40
times as many ones (40 x 1). To have a robust understand‐
ing of place value requires the capacity to think in scale.
you have, break them apart or change them to make
Summary them easier to work with.
The following pages outline individual tasks and how the • Think Relationally – Use what you know to figure out
same task can be used at different grade levels. Moving for‐ what you don’t know.
ward, however, requires following these important ideas: • Keep it Equal – If you do break numbers apart, just
• Language Matters – Speak in value, not in digits; the make sure the values are equal to the original quantities.
underlying algebraic ideas can be traced better when • Make the Math Visible – Find ways to represent the
values are spoken rather than through digit manipula‐ mathematics in formats where all can see and under‐
tion. So watch your language! stand why the strategies work the way they do.
• Decomposition of Number – Numbers are made up of
various subunits. So, if you don’t like the numbers that
Descriptions and Objectives of Tasks: Addition & Subtraction
Materials needed: A deck of playing cards with the picture cards removed; The 0 ‐ 100 cards from a hundreds pocket charts or
from a cut up hundreds chart; paper and pencils as needed to make student thinking visible.
Notation: Initially when playing Getting From Any Number to the Next Ten, or other similar activities, making a visual recording
often helps a child organize his or her thinking. Notations also allow the child to compare one strategy to another thereby reflecting
upon similarities, differences, and efficiencies. A recommended form of notation would be to use an “empty number line” format or
the following arrow notation system:
Example: How much to get from 34 to 100?
+6 +10 +50
34 40 50 100 The answer is 66
or
+6 +60
34 40 100 The answer is still 66
Spending time recording visually how the distance is spanned provides a mental map for students. Eventually, with a number to get
to 100, 1,000 or 10,000 the increments become more mentally tracked.
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Get to 1,000/10,000 ‐ Play as above except just write a num‐
ber of your own choosing on a piece of paper. Extending to Decimals: Get from One Number to Another
Number – Write to mixed numbers on the paper or white
Get from One Number to Another Number (Under 100) – board. Ask, How much to get from x to y? Example: 3.46, how
Use the cards from the 100‐card deck or just write two num‐ much to get to 5.32?
bers of your choosing down on a piece of paper. Draw two +.04 +.50 +1.32
cards and show them to the child and ask, “How much to get 3.46 3.50 4.00 5.32
to from x to y?” Example: “How much to get from 23 to 54?” The answer is one and eighty‐six hundredths, (1.86).
Objective: To span the difference between two numbers us‐
ing key landmarks of ten. Strengthens the number sense of Subtraction:
the child as he or she considers just how far apart the two
numbers are. Variation: Present the cards as drawn. If 54 Go Back from Ten – Draw a card from the deck of playing
were drawn first, then the previous example would be pre‐ cards. (Take out the picture cards. Aces are worth one.) Say,
sented as, “How much to get from 54 to 23?” It is up to the You are at 10, go back x. Objective: The ten facts in reverse.
child to decide whether or not to add (23 + x = 54; a flexible
strategy) or to subtract (54 – x = 23 or 54 – 23 = x; also flexi‐ Go Back from a Decade – Pull out the decade cards from the
ble strategies) 100‐card deck (10, 20, 30…) and place them in a deck of its
own. Draw a card from the deck of regular playing cards. Say,
Get from One Number to Another Number (Above 100) – Go back #. Example: Draw 70; draw 4; Say, Go back 4. Objec‐
Play as above except just write two numbers of your own tive: Extending the ten facts in reverse but from any decade
choosing on a piece of paper. As capacity is built, the num‐ marker.
bers selected can become quite sophisticated. Example:
2,674, how much to get to 4,128. Fluidly done, it takes 326 to Go back a Number – Draw a card from the 100‐card deck.
get to 3000, and 1,128 to get to 4,128. The answer is 326 + Draw a number from the regular card deck. Say, Go back #.
1,128, which is 1,454. This is, in fact, the ‘difference between’ Example: Draw 82. Draw 6. Say, Go back 6. Quickly break 6
(Add up to Subtract) strategy for in subtraction and how all apart into 2 + 4, "Go back 2, back 4." 82 – 2 80 – 4 76.
change is calculated in stores. Objective: To decompose a number in a form that allows one
to get back to a ten, then use knowledge of ten facts to move
Extending to Decimals: Get to One – Write a decimal on a into the decade below.
sheet of paper or on the white board and ask, How much to
get to 1? Objective: Using the same strategies for get to 10 Go Back from 100 – Draw a card from the 100‐card deck and
or getting to the next 10 works directly with working with say, Go back ##. Example: Draw 47. Say, Go back 47. 100 – 40
decimals. However, it is absolutely imperative to use the lan‐ 60 – 7 53. It is acceptable for the student to change this
guage of values to strengthen place value understanding. into an addition problem. However, it is worthwhile to devel‐
“Point 12” has no mathematical meaning; “twelve hun‐ op the skill of working backwards in chunks. Objective: Use
dredths” does (.12). 100 facts and ten facts in reverse.
+.08 +.80
.12 .20 1.00 The answer is .88 Go Back to a Number (100) – Draw a card from the 100‐card
Read as “eighty‐eight hundredths” deck and say, How much to get from 100 to ##. Example:
Draw 67. Say, How much to get from 100 to 67? Example: 100
Extending to Decimals: Get to the Next One – Write a mixed – 30 70 – 3 67. The answer is 33. This is different than
number with a decimal and ask, How much to get to the next the activity above. Go Back From 100 follows a “take‐away”
one? Example: 3.46 (Read as, three and forty‐six hundredths), model of subtraction [100 – 47]. Go back to a number follows
how much to get to 4? Objective: Connecting the strategies the “difference between” structure [100 – x = 67]. Objective:
of how much to get to the next ten to how much to get to the To span the difference between the two numbers.
next one. This is the strategy used to calculate change in
stores. Reminder: talking in value is an absolute imperative.
Descriptions and Objectives of Tasks: Multiplication & Division
Materials needed: A deck of playing cards with the picture cards removed; the 0 – 100 cards from a hundreds pocket chart or from
a cut up hundreds chart; paper and marker as needed to transcribe student thinking and make it visible to all in the group.
Moving from additive to multiplicative thinking: As students initially engage with these strategies, they typically begin by adding
combinations. As they become more adept, their language shifts from more additive descriptions to multiplicative arrangements.
For example "Triple 36" might initially be described by early learners as 30 + 30 + 30 is 90, 6 + 6 + 6 is 18, 90 + 18 is 108. A more
multiplicative description may sound like: Three 30s are 90, three sixes are 18, 90 + 18 is 108. Transcribing this last statement would
be 3 x 30 = 90, 3 x 6 = 18, 90 + 18 = 108. The language the student uses should drive the transcription.
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Language: It is very important that students describe the values of the numbers with which they are working. These activities are
to enhance and deepen place value understanding and sharpen the abstract number strategies. A child who needs to quadruple 80,
can use the fact of 4 eights are 32 to figure out 4 x 80. However, the scaling up from the smaller fact to the larger is because 32 is
then multiplied by 10 and not the result of "adding a zero to the 32." This is the mathematical transcription of what really is hap‐
pening: 4 x 80 = 4 x (8 x 10) = (4 x 8) x 10 = 32 x 10 = 320. This assists the child to comprehend the factoring of 80 into 8 x 10 and
develop the concept of the rate of ten. These two ideas are essential for the mathematics they need in the upper elementary and
middle school mathematics programs.
Strategies: In multiplication there are only two strategies a student can use. They either decompose the number into addends to
multiply the combinations in order to then add the partial products (the distributive property), or they can break the numbers into
factors to then commute and associate its various terms (the commutative and associative properties). Example: 24 x 6 could be
solved as (20 + 4) x 6 = (20 x 6) + (4 x 6) = 120 + 24 = 148 (the distributive property), or, 24 x 6 = (2 x 12) x 6 = 2 x (12 x 6) = 2 x 72 =
144 (factoring to use the associative property). en into either addends or factors there are the only two multiplicative strategies
that students can use.
Multiplication allow students to reflect on how the numbers were decom‐
posed and recombined. Example:
6 x 8 = (3 x 8) + (3 x 8) = 48
Doubling, Tripling, Quadrupling… – If just beginning, start
This would match a student's description: I did 3 x 8 and then
with doubling a single digit numbers in a deck of playing cards.
added another 3 x 8 and got 48.
Build capacity by using the lower multidigit numbers from the
100‐card deck and then gradually move to higher multidigit It could also be solved as:
Representing students thinking using informal notation Representing students thinking using formal notation
Triple 47: By place value Triple 47
47 3 x 47 = 3 x (40 + 7)
= 3 x 40 + 3 x 7
120 + 21 = 120 + 21
141 = 141
Triple 47: Compensation Strategy
47 +3 6 x 8 = 2 x (3 x 8) = 2 x 24
This would match the description: I just double the 3 x 8.
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The sequence of problems can continue and can include the
150 – 9 extension of patterns you want students to think about (ex‐
141 ample: 12 x 8). Scaling based on tripling and quadrupling se‐
quence. Example: Tripling sequence –
values. Extend this to include three and four digit numbers as 3 x 4
student skill expands. Draw a card and say, Double ## or Tri‐ 9 x 4
ple… Quadruple… Example: Double 46, Triple 23, Quadruple 27 x 4
17. Notice as the student gets good at doubling the numbers Objective: Develop relational thinking around scale factor.
get higher. But when tripling, you return to smaller numbers
and slowly expand the range. Initially transcribe the strategies
as the child talks to allow them to visually reflect upon his or
her thinking. Objective: To use the distributive property and
think in increasingly larger multiples of number combinations:
Scaling Up ‐ For this you need paper or a whiteboard. Plan a
sequence of related math facts to present to the student(s)
one at a time. Example: Write on the paper or board 3 x 8. Say,
What are three groups of 8? After the students give an answer
and how they know, possibly give them 6 x 8 saying, If you
know 3 x 8, can you use that to figure out 6 x 8 [A doubling
scale]? It becomes important to transcribe the student think‐
ing in algebraic terms to make the mathematics visible and to
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Division
Splitting & Sharing: Use numbers drawn from either the play‐
ing card deck or the 100‐card deck. Draw a card and say, Split
## in two or Share ## with two. Example: Draw 32. Split 32 in
two or Share 32 with four. Remainders can be included which
will result in fractional sharing. Sharing remainders may be
best discussed initially with single digit numbers. Example:
Share 7 with three. Initially the sharing of the remainder may
need to include drawing of pictures and conversations about
how to name the fractional amount along with how to write
the fractional amount. This is the "Equal Sharing" model of
division. Objective: Using the distributive property and
known fact combinations to solve efficiently [32 = 20 + 12; 4 x
5 + 4 x 3].
A Transcription of "Share 7 with 3"
7
2 2 2 6
1/3 1/3 1/3 1
2 1/3 2 1/3 2 1/3
Answer: They each get 2 1/3
Scaling Up: Present one number combination at a time as
above but in this instance the question would change to, How
many 4s are in 32? Use a "T‐Chart" to help students organize
their thinking and to reflect upon the relationships among the
sequence of problems. Example: If you know how many 4s are
in 32, how many 4s are in 64? If you know how many 4s are in
each of those, how many 4s are in 96? Objective: recognize
relationships among combinations to use scale factor.
T‐Chart for Division Scaling Up
(8) 4s 32
(16) (2 x 8) 4s 64 (2 x 32)
(24) 8 + 16 4s 96 (32 + 64)
References
Jacobs, V.R. & Ambrose, R.C. (2008). Making the most of story problems.
Teaching Children Mathematics, 15(5), 260‐266.
National Research Council. (2001). Adding It Up: Helping Children Learn
Mathematics. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
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