The Psychological Functions of Music Listening: Thomas Schäfer, Peter Sedlmeier, Christine Städtler and David Huron

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE
published: 13 August 2013

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00511
The psychological functions of music listening

Thomas Schäfer 1*, Peter Sedlmeier 1 , Christine Städtler 1 and David Huron 2
1
Department of Psychology, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
2
School of Music, Cognitive and Systematic Musicology Laboratory, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Edited by: Why do people listen to music? Over the past several decades, scholars have proposed
Andriy Myachykov, Northumbria numerous functions that listening to music might fulfill. However, different theoretical
University, UK
approaches, different methods, and different samples have left a heterogeneous picture
Reviewed by:
regarding the number and nature of musical functions. Moreover, there remains no
Darya Zabelina, Northwestern
University, USA agreement about the underlying dimensions of these functions. Part one of the paper
Clemens Wöllner, Uni Bremen, reviews the research contributions that have explicitly referred to musical functions. It is
Germany concluded that a comprehensive investigation addressing the basic dimensions underlying
*Correspondence: the plethora of functions of music listening is warranted. Part two of the paper presents
Thomas Schäfer, Department of
an empirical investigation of hundreds of functions that could be extracted from the
Psychology, Chemnitz University of
Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, reviewed contributions. These functions were distilled to 129 non-redundant functions
Germany that were then rated by 834 respondents. Principal component analysis suggested three
e-mail: thomas.schaefer@ distinct underlying dimensions: People listen to music to regulate arousal and mood,
psychologie.tu-chemnitz.de
to achieve self-awareness, and as an expression of social relatedness. The first and
second dimensions were judged to be much more important than the third—a result that
contrasts with the idea that music has evolved primarily as a means for social cohesion
and communication. The implications of these results are discussed in light of theories on
the origin and the functionality of music listening and also for the application of musical
stimuli in all areas of psychology and for research in music cognition.
Keywords: music, functions of music, self-awareness, social relatedness, arousal regulation, mood regulation
INTRODUCTION and interesting conjectures that offer useful starting-points for

Music listening is one of the most enigmatic of human behav- investigating the functions of music.
iors. Most common behaviors have a recognizable utility that A promising approach to the question of music’s origins
can be plausibly traced to the practical motives of survival and focuses on how music is used—that is, it’s various functions. In
procreation. Moreover, in the array of seemingly odd behaviors, fact, many scholars have endeavored to enumerate various musi-
few behaviors match music for commandeering so much time, cal functions (see below). The assumption is that the function(s)
energy, and money. Music listening is one of the most popular that music is presumed to have served in the past would be echoed
leisure activities. Music is a ubiquitous companion to people’s in at least one of the functions that music serves today. Of course,
everyday lives. how music is used today need have no relationship with music’s
The enthusiasm for music is not a recent development. function(s) in the remote past. Nevertheless, evidence from mod-
Recognizably musical activities appear to have been present in ern listeners might provide useful clues pertinent to theorizing
every known culture on earth, with ancient roots extending back about origins.
250,000 years or more (see Zatorre and Peretz, 2001). The ubiq- In proposing various musical functions, not all scholars
uity and antiquity of music has inspired considerable speculation have related these functions to music’s presumed evolution-
regarding its origin and function. ary roots. For many scholars, the motivation has been sim-
Throughout history, scholars of various stripes have pondered ply to identify the multiple ways in which music is used
the nature of music. Philosophers, psychologists, anthropologists, in everyday lives (e.g., Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham,
musicologists, and neuroscientists have proposed a number of 2007; Boer, 2009; Lonsdale and North, 2011; Packer and
theories concerning the origin and purpose of music and some Ballantyne, 2011). Empirical studies of musical functions have
have pursued scientific approaches to investigating them (e.g., been very heterogeneous. Some studies were motivated by ques-
Fitch, 2006; Peretz, 2006; Levitin, 2007; Schäfer and Sedlmeier, tions related to development. Many related to social identity.
2010). Others were motivated by cognitive psychology, aesthetics,
The origin of music is shrouded in prehistory. There cultural psychology, or personality psychology. In addition,
is little physical evidence—like stone carvings or fossilized studies differed according to the target population. While
footprints—that might provide clues to music’s past. Necessarily, some studies attempted to assemble representative samples of
hypotheses concerning the original functions of music will listeners, others explicitly focused on specific populations such
remain speculative. Nevertheless, there are a number of plausible as adolescents. Most studies rely on convenient samples of
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Schäfer et al. The psychological functions of music listening
students. Consequently, the existing literature is something of a must be strong and healthy. Thus, music would offer an honest
hodgepodge. social signal of physiological fitness.
The aim of the present study is to use the extant literature as Another line of theorizing refers to music as a means of
a point of departure for a fresh re-appraisal of possible musical social and emotional communication. For example, Panksepp
functions. In Part 1 of our study, we summarize the results of an and Bernatzky (2002, p. 139) argued that
extensive literature survey concerning the possible functions of
music. Specifically, we identified and skimmed hundreds of pub- in social creatures like ourselves, whose ancestors lived in arbo-
lications that explicitly suggest various functions, uses, or benefits real environments where sound was one of the most effective ways
for music. We provide separate overviews for the empirical liter- to coordinate cohesive group activities, reinforce social bonds,
atures and the theoretical literatures. This survey resulted in just resolve animosities, and to establish stable hierarchies of submis-
over 500 proposed musical functions. We do not refer to each of sion and dominance, there could have been a premium on being
the identified publications but concentrate on the ones that have able to communicate shades of emotional meaning by the melodic
identified either more than one single function of music listen- character (prosody) of emitted sounds.
ing or a single unique function that is not captured in any other
publication. In Part 2, we present the results of an empirical study A similar idea is that music contributes to social cohesion and
whose purpose was to distill—using principal components anal- thereby increases the effectiveness of group action. Work and war
ysis (PCA)—the many proposed functions of music listening. To songs, lullabies, and national anthems have bound together fam-
anticipate our results, we will see that PCA suggests three main ilies, groups, or whole nations. Relatedly, music may provide a
dimensions that can account for much of the shared variance in means to reduce social stress and temper aggression in others.
the proposed musical functions. The idea that music may function as a social cement has many
proponents (see Huron, 2001; Mithen, 2006; Bicknell, 2007).
REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH ON THE FUNCTIONS OF MUSIC A novel evolutionary theory is offered by Falk (2004a,b)
Discussions and speculations regarding the functions of music who has proposed that music arose from humming or singing
listening can be found in both theoretical literature concerning intended to maintain infant-mother attachment. Falk’s “putting-
music as well as in empirical studies of music. Below, we offer a down-the-baby hypothesis” suggests that mothers would have
review of both literatures. The contents of the reviews are sum- profited from putting down their infants in order to make their
marized in Tables A1, A2. Table A1 provides an overview of the- hands free for other activities. Humming or singing consequently
oretical proposals regarding musical function, whereas Table A2 arose as a consoling signal indicating caretaker proximity in the
provides an overview of empirical studies regarding musical absence of physical touch.
function. Together, the two tables provide a broad inventory of Another interesting conjecture relates music to human anx-
potential functions for music. iety related to death, and the consequent quest for meaning.
Dissanayake (2009), for example, has argued that humans have
THEORETICAL APPROACHES used music to help cope with awareness of life’s transitoriness.
Many scholars have discussed potential functions of music exclu- In a manner similar to religious beliefs about the hereafter or a
sively from a theoretical point of view. The most prominent of higher transcendental purpose, music can help assuage human
these approaches or theories are the ones that make explicit evo- anxiety concerning mortality (see, e.g., Newberg et al., 2001).
lutionary claims. However, there are also other, non-evolutionary Neurophysiological studies regarding music-induced chills can
approaches such as experimental aesthetics or the uses-and- be interpreted as congruent with this conjecture. For example,
gratifications approach. Functions of music were derived deduc- music-induced chills produce reduced activity in brain structures
tively from these approaches and theories. In addition, in the associated with anxiety (Blood and Zatorre, 2001).
literature, one commonly finds lists or collections of functions Related ideas stress the role music plays in feelings of transcen-
that music can have. Most of these lists are the result of litera- dence. For example, (Frith, 1996, p. 275) has noted that: “We all
ture searches; in other cases authors provide no clear explanation hear the music we like as something special, as something that
for how they came up with the functions they list. Given the aim defies the mundane, takes us “out of ourselves,” puts us some-
of assembling a comprehensive list, all works are included in our where else.” Thus, music may provide a means of escape. The
summary. experience of flow states (Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2009),
peaks (Maslow, 1968), and chills (Panksepp, 1995), which are
Functions of music as they derive from specific approaches or often evoked by music listening, might similarly be interpreted
theories as forms of transcendence or escapism (see also Fachner, 2008).
Evolutionary approaches. Evolutionary discussions of music can More generally, Schubert (2009) has argued that the fun-
already be found in the writings of Darwin. Darwin discussed damental function of music is its potential to produce plea-
some possibilities but felt there was no satisfactory solution to sure in the listener (and in the performer, as well). All other
music’s origins (Darwin, 1871, 1872). His intellectual heirs have functions may be considered subordinate to music’s pleasure-
been less cautious. Miller (2000), for instance, has argued that producing capacity. Relatedly, music might have emerged as a
music making is a reasonable index of biological fitness, and so safe form of time-passing—analogous to the sleeping behaviors
a manifestation of sexual selection—analogous to the peacock’s found among many predators. As humans became more effec-
tail. Anyone who can afford the biological luxury of making music tive hunters, music might have emerged merely as an entertaining
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and innocuous way to pass time during waking hours (see Huron, remained unclear how the author(s) came up with the functions
2001). contained. Some of these works refer to only one single func-
The above theories each stress a single account of music’s tion of music—most often because this functional aspect was
origins. In addition, there are mixed theories that posit a constel- investigated not with the focus on music but with a focus on
lation of several concurrent functions. Anthropological accounts other psychological phenomena. Yet other works list extensive
of music often refer to multiple social and cultural benefits aris- collections of purported musical functions.
ing from music. Merriam (1964) provides a seminal example. In Works that refer to only one single functional aspect of
his book, The anthropology of music, Merriam proposed 10 social music include possible therapeutic functions for music in clini-
functions music can serve (e.g., emotional expression, communi- cal settings (Cook, 1986; Frohne-Hagemann and Pleß-Adamczyk,
cation, and symbolic representation). Merriam’s work has had a 2005), the use of music for symbolic exclusion in political terms
lasting influence among music scholars, but also led many schol- (Bryson, 1996), the syntactic, semantic, and mediatizing use
ars to focus exclusively on the social functions of music. Following of film music (Maas, 1993), and the use of music to manage
in the tradition of Merriam, Dissanayake (2006) proposed six physiological arousal (Bartlett, 1996).
social functions of ritual music (such as display of resources, con- The vast majority of publications identify several possible
trol, and channeling of individual aggression, and the facilitation musical functions, most of which—as stated above—are clearly
of courtship). focused on social aspects. Several comprehensive collections have
been assembled, such as those by Baacke (1984), Gregory (1997),
Non-evolutionary approaches. Many scholars have steered clear Ruud (1997), Roberts and Christenson (2001), Engh (2006), and
of evolutionary speculation about music, and have instead Laiho (2004). Most of these studies identified a very large number
focused on the ways in which people use music in their everyday of potential functions of music.
lives today. A prominent approach is the “uses-and-gratifications” By way of summary, there exists a long tradition of theorizing
approach (e.g., Arnett, 1995). This approach focuses on the needs about the potential functions of music. Although some of these
and concerns of the listeners and tries to explain how people theories have been deduced from a prior theoretical framework,
actively select and use media such as music to serve these needs none was the result of empirical testing or exploratory data-
and concerns. Arnett (1995) provides a list of potential uses gathering. In the ensuing section, we turn to consider empirically-
of music such as entertainment, identity formation, sensation oriented research regarding the number and nature of potential
seeking, or culture identification. musical functions.
Another line of research is “experimental aesthetics” whose
proponents investigate the subjective experience of beauty (both EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATIONS
artificial or natural), and the ensuing experience of pleasure. For A number of studies have approached the functions of music from
example, in discussing the “recent work in experimental aesthet- an empirical perspective. Two main approaches might be dis-
ics,” Bullough (1921) distinguished several types of listeners and tinguished. In the first approach, the research aim is to uncover
pointed to the fact that music can be used to activate associations, or document actual musical functioning. That is, the research
memories, experiences, moods, and emotions. aims to observe or identify one or more ways in which music is
By way of summary, many musical functions have been pro- used in daily life. In the second approach, the research goal is to
posed in the research literature. Evolutionary speculations have infer the structure or pattern underlying the use of music. That
tended to focus on single-source causes such as music as an is, the research aims to uncover potential basic or fundamental
indicator of biological fitness, music as a means for social and dimensions implied by the multiple functions of music. This is
emotional communication, music as social glue, music as a way mostly done using PCA or factor analyses or cluster analyses that
of facilitating caretaker mobility, music as a means of temper- reduce a large number of functions to only a few basic dimen-
ing anxiety about mortality, music as escapism or transcenden- sions. In some cases, the analyses are run exploratively whereas in
tal meaning, music as a source of pleasure, and music as a other cases, they are run in a confirmatory way, that is—with a
means for passing time. Other accounts have posited multiple predefined number of dimensions. The empirical studies can be
concurrent functions such as the plethora of social and cultural categorized according to several criteria (see Table A2). However,
functions of music found in anthropological writings about when discussing some of the most important works here, we will
music. Non-evolutionary approaches are evident in the uses- separate studies where respondents were asked for the functions
and-gratifications approach—which revealed a large number of of music in open surveys from studies where the authors pro-
functions that can be summarized as cognitive, emotional, social, vided their own collections of functions, based on either literature
and physiological functions—and the experimental aesthetics research or face validity.
approach, whose proposed functions can similarly be summa-
rized as cognitive and emotional functions. Surveys about the functions music can have
A number of studies have attempted to chronicle the broad range
Functions of music as they derive from literature research of musical functions. Most of these studies employed surveys in
As noted, many publications posit musical functions without pro- which people were asked to identify the ways in which they make
viding a clear connection to any theory. Most of these works use of music in their lives. In some studies, expert interviews
are just collections of functions of music from the literature. were conducted in order to identify possible functions. Table A2
Not least, there are also accounts of such collections where it provides a summary of all the pertinent studies including their

collections of functions and—where applicable—their derived proposed that music preferences emerge from the successful use
underlying dimensions. We will restrict our ensuing remarks to of music to serve specific functions for the listener, depending
the largest and most comprehensive studies. on the current situation. Lehmann identified 68 ways in which
Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham (2007) identified 15 func- people use music, from which he was able to reduce them to
tions of music among students and subsequently ran focus groups 15 music reception strategies (Rezeptionsweisen) such as com-
from which they distilled three distinct dimensions: emotional pensation/escapism, relaxation, and identification. Misenhelter
use, rational use, and background use. Some of the largest surveys and Kaiser (2008) adopted Merriam’s (1964) anthropological
have been carried out by Boer (2009). She interviewed more than approach and attempted to identify the functions of music in the
a thousand young people in different countries and assembled context of music education. They surveyed teachers and students
a comprehensive collection of musical functions. Using factor and found six basic functions that were quite similar to the ones
analysis, she found 10 underlying dimensions: emotion, friends, proposed by Merriam (1964). Wells and Hakanen (1997) adopted
family, venting, background, dancing, focus, values, politic, and Zillmann’s (1988a,b) mood management theory and identified
culture. (Lonsdale and North, 2011, Study 1) pursued a uses- four types of users regarding the emotional functions of music:
and-gratifications approach. They identified 30 musical uses that mainstream, music lover, indifferent, and heavy rockers.
could be reduced to six distinct dimensions. In a related study
employing a larger sample, the same authors came up with eight Empirical studies on functions of music emerging from literature
distinct dimensions: identity, positive and negative mood man- research. A number of studies have made use of predefined musi-
agement, reminiscing, diversion, arousal, surveillance, and social cal functions borrowed from the existing research literature. The
interaction (Lonsdale and North, 2011, Study 4). When inter- significance of these functions and/or their potential underlying
viewing older participants, Hays and Minichiello (2005) qual- structure has then been empirically investigated using different
itatively identified six dimensions: linking, life events, sharing samples. As mentioned, not all of those studies tried to assemble
and connecting, wellbeing, therapeutic benefits, escapism, and an exhaustive collection of musical functions in order to pro-
spirituality. duce a comprehensive picture of the functions of music; but many
The various surveys and interview studies clearly diverge with studies were focused on specific aspects such as the emotional,
regard to the number of different musical functions. Similarly, the cognitive, or social functions of music.
various cluster and factor analyses often end up producing differ- Schäfer and Sedlmeier (2009) collected 17 functions of music
ent numbers of distinct dimensions. Nevertheless, the results are from the literature and found functions related to the manage-
often quite similar. On a very broad level, there are four categories ment of mood and arousal as well as self-related functions to be
that appear consistently: social functions, emotional functions, the ones that people highly ascribe to their favorite music. Tarrant
cognitive or self-related functions, and physiological or arousal- et al. (2000) used a collection of 10 functions of music from
related functions (see also Hargreaves and North, 1999; Schäfer the literature and factor analyzed them resulting in three distinct
and Sedlmeier, 2009, 2010). dimensions of music use: self-related, emotional, and social.
Sun and Lull (1986) collected 18 functions of music videos
Empirical studies using predefined collections of functions of music and were able to reduce them to four dimensions: social learning,
Apart from the open-ended surveys and interview meth- passing time, escapism/mood, and social interaction. Melton and
ods, a number of studies investigating musical functions Galician (1987) identified 15 functions of radio music and music
begin with researcher-defined collections or even cate- videos; and Greasley and Lamont (2011) collected 15 functions
gories/dimensions. Some of these predefined collections or of music, as well. Ter Bogt et al. (2011) collected 19 functions of
categories/dimensions were simply borrowed from the existing music from the literature and used confirmatory factor analysis to
published research, whereas others were derived from specific group them into five dimensions. In a clinical study with adoles-
theoretical perspectives. cents, Walker Kennedy (2010) found 47 functions of music that
could be reduced to five dimensions.
Empirical studies on functions of music emerging from specific By way of summary, extant empirical studies have used either
theoretical approaches. Some of the above mentioned theoretical an open approach—trying to capture the variety of musical
approaches to the functionality of music have been investigated in functions in the course of surveys or questionnaire studies—or
empirical studies. Boehnke and Münch (2003) developed a model predefined collections of functions as they resulted from specific
of the relationship of adolescents’ development, music, and media theoretical approaches or from literature research. These different
use. They proposed seven functions of music that relate to the approaches have led to quite heterogeneous collections of possible
developmental issues of young people (such as peer group inte- musical functions—from only few functions posited by a spe-
gration, physical maturation, or identity development). In two cific hypothesis, to long lists arising from open surveys. Moreover,
studies with a large number of participants, Lonsdale and North although the many attempts to distill the functions of music to
(2011) applied the model of media gratification (from McQuail fewer dimensions have produced some points of agreement, the
et al., 1972) and used a collection of 30 functions of music they overall picture remains unclear.
assembled from literature research and interviews. In both stud-
ies, they ran factor analyses—reducing the number of functions THE STRUCTURE AMONG THE FUNCTIONS OF MUSIC
to six dimensions and eight dimensions, respectively. Lehmann With each successive study of musical functions, the aggregate
(1994) developed a situations-functions-preference model and list of potential uses has grown longer. Questionnaire studies, in

particular, have led to the proliferation of possible ways in which et al., 2000; Laiho, 2004; Schubert, 2009; Lonsdale and North,
music may be relevant in people’s lives. Even if one sidesteps the 2011), there has been no large-scale empirical study that ana-
question of possible evolutionary origins, the multitude of hun- lyzed the number and nature of distinct dimensions using the
dreds of proposed functions raises the question of whether these broad range of all potential musical functions—known so far—all
might not be distilled to a smaller set of basic dimensions. at once.
As noted earlier, previous research appears to converge on four We sought to remedy this deficiency by assembling an exhaus-
dimensions: social functions (such as the expression of one’s iden- tive list of the functions of music that have been identified in past
tity or personality), emotional functions (such as the induction research and putting them together in one questionnaire study.
of positive feelings), cognitive or self-related functions (such as Based on the research reviewed in the first part of this study, we
escapism), and arousal-related functions (such as calming down identified more than 500 items concerned with musical use or
or passing time). These four dimensions might well account for function. Specifically, we assembled an aggregate list of all the
the basic ways in which people use music in their daily lives. questions and statements encountered in the reviewed research
Notice that cluster analysis and PCA/factor analysis presume that were either theoretically derived or used in empirical studies.
that the research begins with a range of variables that ultimately Of course, many of the items are similar, analogous, or true dupli-
capture all of the factors or dimensions pertaining to the phe- cates. After eliminating or combining redundant items, we settled
nomenon under consideration. The omission of even a single on a list of 129 distinct items. All of the items were phrased as
variable can theoretically lead to incomplete results if that variable statements in the form “I listen to music because . . . ” The com-
proves to share little variance in common with the other variables. plete list of items is given in Table A3, together with their German
For example, in studying the factors that contribute to a person’s versions as used in our study.
height, the failure to include a variable related to developmental
nutrition will led to deceptive results; one might wrongly con- METHOD
clude that only genetic factors are important. The validity of these Participants were asked to rate how strongly they agreed with each
analyses depends, in part, on including a sufficient range of vari- item-statement on a scale from 0 (not at all) to 6 (fully agree).
ables so that all of the pertinent factors or dimensions are likely to When responding to items, participants were instructed to think
emerge. of any style of music and of any situation in which they would lis-
Accordingly, we propose to address the question of musical ten to music. In order to obtain a sample that was heterogeneous
functions anew, starting with the most comprehensive list yet with regard to age and socioeconomic background, we distributed
of potential music-related functions. In addition, we will aim to flyers promoting the Internet link to our study in a local electron-
recruit a sample of participants covering all age groups, a wide ics superstore. Recruitment of participants was further pursued
range of socio-economic backgrounds, and pursue our analysis via some mailing lists of German universities, students from com-
without biasing the materials to any specific theory. prehensive schools, and members of a local choir. As an incentive,
respondents got the chance to win a tablet computer. A total of
FUNDAMENTAL FUNCTIONS OF MUSIC—A 834 people completed the survey. Respondents ranged from 8 to
COMPREHENSIVE EMPIRICAL STUDY 85 years of age (M = 26, SD = 10.4, 57% female).
The large number of functions of music that research has identi- Notice that in carrying out such a survey, we are assuming
fied during the last decades has raised the question of a potential that participants have relatively accurate introspective access to
underlying structure: Are there functions that are more funda- their own motivations in pursuing particular musical behaviors,
mental and are there others that can be subsumed under the and that they are able to accurately recall the appropriate expe-
fundamental ones? And if so, how many fundamental functions riences. Of course, there exists considerable empirical research
are there? As we have outlined above, many scientists have been in casting doubt on the accuracy of motivational introspection in
search of basic distinct dimensions among the functions of music. self-report tasks (e.g., Wilson, 2002; Hirstein, 2005; Fine, 2006).
They have used statistical methods that help uncover such dimen- These caveats notwithstanding, in light of the limited options
sions among a large number of variables: factor analyses or cluster for gathering pertinent empirical data, we nevertheless chose to
analyses. pursue a survey-based approach.
However, as we have also seen, the approaches and meth-
ods have been as different as the various functions suggested. RESULTS
For instance, some scholars have focused exclusively on the Principal component analysis revealed three distinct dimensions
social functions of music while others have been interested in behind the 129 items (accounting for about 40% of the vari-
only the emotional ones; some used only adolescent participants ance), based on the scree plot. This solution was consistent over
while others consulted only older people. Thus, these researchers age groups and genders. The first dimension (eigenvalue: 15.2%)
arrived at different categorizations according to their particular includes statements about self-related thoughts (e.g., music helps
approach. To date, there is still no conclusive categorization of the me think about myself), emotions and sentiments (e.g., music
functions of music into distinct dimensions, which makes psy- conveys feelings), absorption (e.g., music distracts my mind from
chological studies that rely on the use of music and its effects on the outside world), escapism (e.g., music makes me forget about
cognition, emotion, and behavior still difficult (see also Stefanija, reality), coping (e.g., music makes me believe I’m better able
2007). Although there exist some theoretically driven claims to cope with my worries), solace (e.g., music gives comfort to
about what fundamental dimensions there might be (Tarrant me when I’m sad), and meaning (e.g., music adds meaning to

my life). It appears that this dimension expresses a very pri-

vate relationship with music listening. Music helps people think
about who they are, who they would like to be, and how to
cut their own path. We suggest labeling this dimension self-
awareness. The second dimension (eigenvalue: 13.7%) includes
statements about social bonding and affiliation (e.g., music helps
me show that I belong to a given social group; music makes me
feel connected to my friends; music tells me how other peo-
ple think). People can use music to feel close to their friends,
to express their identity and values to others, and to gather
information about their social environment. We suggest labeling
this dimension social relatedness. The third dimension (eigen-
value: 10.2%) includes statements about the use of music as
background entertainment and diversion (e.g., music is a great
pastime; music can take my mind off things) and as a means
to get into a positive mood and regulate one’s physiological
arousal (e.g., music can make me cheerful; music helps me relax;
music makes me more alert). We suggest labeling this dimension
arousal and mood regulation. All factor loadings are reported in
Table A3.
In order to analyze the relative significance of the three derived
dimensions for the listeners, we averaged the ratings for all items FIGURE 1 | The three distinct dimensions emerging from 129 reasons
for listening to music. Error bars are 95% confidence intervals.
contained in each dimension (see Figure 1). Arousal and mood
Self-awareness: M = 3.59 (SE = 0.037); social relatedness: M = 2.01
regulation proved to be the most important dimension of music (SE = 0.035); arousal and mood regulation: M = 3.78 (SE = 0.032).
listening closely followed by self-awareness. These two dimen-
sions appear to represent the two most potent reasons offered by
people to explain why they listen to music, whereas social relat- interpretation that allows the four-dimensional perspective to
edness seems to be a relatively less important reason (ranging be understood within our three-dimensional result. Cognitive
below the scale mean). This pattern was consistent across gen- functions are captured by the first dimension (self-awareness);
ders, socioeconomic backgrounds, and age groups. All differences social/cultural functions are captured by the second dimensions
between the three dimensions are significant (all ps < 0.001). (social relatedness); physiological/arousal-related functions are
The reliability indices (Cronbach’s α) for the three dimensions are captured by the third dimension (arousal and mood regula-
α = 0.97 for the first, α = 0.96 for the second, and α = 0.92 for tion); and emotional functions are captured by the first and
the third dimension. third dimensions (self-awareness + arousal and mood regula-
tion). Notably—as can be seen with the items in Table A3—there
GENERAL DISCUSSION is a dissociation of emotion-related and mood-related func-
Since the earliest writing on the psychology of music, researchers tions. Emotions clearly appear in the first dimension (e.g., music
have been concerned with the many ways in which people conveys feelings; music can lighten my mood; music helps me
use music in their lives. In the first part of this paper, we better understand my thoughts and emotions), indicating that
reviewed literature spanning psychological, musicological, bio- they might play an important role in achieving self-awareness,
logical, and anthropological perspectives on musical function. probably in terms of identity formation and self-perception,
The picture that emerged from our review was somewhat confus- respectively. However, the regulation of moods clearly appears in
ing. Surveying the literature from the past 50 years, we identified the third dimension (e.g., music makes me cheerful; music can
more than 500 purported functions for music. From this list, we enhance my mood; I’m less bored when I listen to music), sug-
assembled a somewhat catholic list of 129 non-redundant musical gesting that moods are not central issues pertaining to identity.
functions. We then tested the verisimilitude of these posited func- Along with the maintenance of a pleasant level of physiologi-
tions by collecting survey responses from a comparatively large cal arousal, the maintenance of pleasant moods is an effect of
sample. PCA revealed just three distinct dimensions: People listen music that might rather be utilized as a “background” strategy,
to music to achieve self-awareness, social relatedness, and arousal that is, not requiring a deep or aware involvement in the music.
and mood regulation. We propose calling these the Big Three of The regulation of emotions, on the other side, could be a much
music listening. more conscious strategy requiring deliberate attention and devo-
In part one of our study we noted that several empir- tion to the music. Music psychology so far has not made a clear
ical studies suggest grouping musical functions according distinction between music-related moods and emotions; and the
to four dimensions: cognitive, emotional, social/cultural, and several conceptions of music-related affect remain contentious
physiological/arousal-related functions. This raises the question (see Hunter and Schellenberg, 2010). Our results appear to call
of how our three-dimensional result might be reconciled with the for a clearer distinction between moods and emotions in music
earlier work. We propose that there is a rather straightforward psychology research.

As noted earlier, a presumed evolutionary origin for music The results of the present study may be of interest to psycholo-
need not be reflected in modern responses to music. Nevertheless, gists who make use of music as a tool or stimulus in their research.
it is plausible that continuities exist between modern responses The way people usually listen to music outside the laboratory
and possible archaic functions. Hence, the functions apparent will surely influence how they respond to musical stimuli in psy-
in our study may echo possible evolutionary functions. The chological experiments. For those researchers who make use of
three functional dimensions found in our study are compati- music in psychological studies, some attention should be paid to
ble with nearly all of the ideas about the potential evolution- how music is used in everyday life. The three dimensions uncov-
ary origin of music mentioned in the introduction. The idea ered in this study can provide a parsimonious means to identify
that music had evolved as a means for establishing and reg- the value a person sets on each of three different types of music
ulating social cohesion and communication is consistent with use. It is also conceivable that individual patterns of music use
the second dimension. The idea of music satisfying the basic are related to personality traits, a conjecture which may warrant
human concerns of anxiety avoidance and quest for meaning future research.
is consistent with the first dimension. And the notion that the With regard to music cognition, the present results are espe-
basic function of music could have been to produce dissoci- cially relevant to studies about aesthetic preferences, style or genre
ation and pleasure in the listener is consistent with the third preferences, and musical choice. Recent research suggests that
dimension. musical functions play an important role in the formation and
In light of claims that music evolved primarily as a means development of music preferences (e.g., Schäfer and Sedlmeier,
for promoting social cohesion and communication—a position 2009; Rentfrow et al., 2011). It will be one of the future tasks of
favored by many scholars—the results appear noteworthy. music cognition research to investigate the dependence of music
Seemingly, people today hardly listen to music for social rea- preference and music choice on the functional use of music in
sons, but instead use it principally to relieve boredom, maintain people’s lives.
a pleasant mood, and create a comfortable private space. Such a By way of summary, in a self-report study, we found that peo-
private mode of music listening might simply reflect a Western ple appear to listen to music for three major reasons, two of which
emphasis on individuality: self-acknowledgement and well-being are substantially more important than the third: music offers a
appear to be more highly valued than social relationships and valued companion, helps provide a comfortable level of activa-
relatedness (see also Roberts and Foehr, 2008; Heye and Lamont, tion and a positive mood, whereas its social importance may have
2010). been overvalued.
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Walker Kennedy, S. (2010). An Zatorre, R. J., and Peretz, I. (2001). Conflict of Interest Statement: The This article was submitted to Frontiers
Exploration of Differences in The Biological Foundations of Music. authors declare that the research in Cognition, a specialty of Frontiers in
Response to Music Related to Levels of New York, NY: New York Academy was conducted in the absence of any Psychology.
Psychological Health in Adolescents. of Sciences. commercial or financial relationships Copyright © 2013 Schäfer, Sedlmeier,
Toronto, ON: University of Toronto. Zillmann, D. (1988a). Mood manage- that could be construed as a potential Städtler and Huron. This is an open-
Wells, A., and Hakanen, E. A. (1997). ment through communication conflict of interest. access article distributed under the terms
“The emotional use of popular choices. Am. Behav. Sci. 31, of the Creative Commons Attribution
music by adolescents,” in Mass 327–341. Received: 29 April 2013; paper pending License (CC BY). The use, distribution or
Media and Society, eds A. Wells Zillmann, D. (1988b). “Mood man- published: 24 May 2013; accepted: 18 reproduction in other forums is permit-
and E. A. Hakanen (Greenwich: agement: using entertainment to July 2013; published online: 13 August ted, provided the original author(s) or
Ablex Publishing Corporation), full advantage,” in Communication, 2013. licensor are credited and that the origi-
217–228. Social Cognition, and Affect, eds Citation: Schäfer T, Sedlmeier P, Städtler nal publication in this journal is cited, in
Wilson, T. D. (2002). Strangers to L. Donohew, H. E. Sypher, and C and Huron D (2013) The psy- accordance with accepted academic prac-
Ourselves: Discovering the Adaptive E. T. Higgins (Hillsdale, NJ: chological functions of music listening. tice. No use, distribution or reproduction
Unconscious. Cambridge, MA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates), Front. Psychol. 4:511. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg. is permitted which does not comply with
Harvard University Press. 147–171. 2013.00511 these terms.

APPENDIX
Table A1 | Overview of theoretical contributions that have derived, proposed, or addressed more than one function or functional aspect of
music listening.
dimensions? (0: no, 1: yes)
If yes, the categories were

Source (1: journal article,
3: specific theory, 4: n/a)
categorized into factors/

2: book or book section)
2: literature research,
Number of proposed
Source of functions
Proposed functions
(1: face validity,
Were functions
Arnett (1995) 1 1 functions
5 Uses of media: 0
Entertainment
Identity formation
High sensation
Youth culture identification
Coping
Baacke (1984) 2 4 10 Social badge 0

Source of information
Dissociation of adults
Evocation of dreams/desires
Movement and dance
Acting and protest
Escapism
Identification
Opposition to daily routines
Mood management
Brown (2006) 2 2 6 Conformity 1 Social enhancement

Compliance
Persuasion and manipulation
Social identity
Cooperation and coordination
Social emotions
Bryson (1996) 1 1/2 2 Social tolerance 0

Political tolerance
Bullough (1921) 1 2 3 Types of music reception: 0

Moods
Associations and memories
Emotions and temperament
Coleman (1961) 2 4 2 Escapism 0

Social bonding
Cook (1986) 1 1 3 Therapeutic functions: 0

Emotional functions
Social functions
Physiological functions
Dissanayake (2006) 2 2 6 Display of resources 0

Control and channeling of individual aggression
Facilitation of courtship
Establishment and maintenance of social identity
Relief from anxiety and psychological pain
Promotion of group cooperation and prosperity
(Continued)

Table A1 | Continued


Number of proposed
Source of functions
Proposed functions
(1: face validity,
Were functions
functions
Engh (2006) 2 4 3 Rational/cognitive benefits 1 Personal functions
Emotional benefits Social functions
Social benefits
Frohne-Hagemann 2 4 11 Therapeutic functions: music as 1 Music-specific functions

and Pleß-Adamczyk Container Relationship establishment
(2005) Basic stimulus Integration
Integrator Social relationships
Vehicle Socio-cultural expression
Catalyst Projection surface
Witness
Transition object
Intermediate object
Projection surface
Resource
Socio-cultural expression
Gregory (1997) 2 4 14 Social uses of music for: 0

Lullabies
Games
Work music
Dancing
Storytelling
Ceremonies and festivals
Battle
Communication
Personal symbolization
Ethnic or group identity
Salesmanship
Healing
Trance
Personal enjoyment
Hargreaves and 1 2/3 3 Review on social functions of music 1 Self-identity

North (1999) Interpersonal relationships
Mood management
Heister (1993) 2 1/2 5 Self-determination 0

Enjoyment
Diversion
Social cement
Social differentiation
Kapteina (2010) 3 3 3 Psychodynamic functions: 0

Emotional functions
Physiological functions
Energetic functions
Laiho (2004) 1 2 41 Entertainment 1 Emotional functions

Coping Interpersonal relationships
High sensation Agency
Self-regulation Identity
(Continued)



Number of proposed
Source of functions
Proposed functions
(1: face validity,
Were functions
functions
Emotional work
Diversion
Joy
Self-regulation
Emotional resource
Dealing with stress
Coping
Pumping up
Hedonic motive
Mood management
Affective awareness
Youth culture identification
Social utility
Withdrawal
Interpersonal relationships
Unity and isolation
Renegotiating relationship with parents
Background for courting
Autonomy
Importance of peers
Discussion topic
Develop relationships
Social motive
Belonging
Feeling of mastery
Self-determination
Resist authority
Achievement motives
Agency
Identity formation
Construction of self-identity
Personal identity
Self-identity
Conception of self
Cultivate private self
Assert personality
Identity formation
Larson (1995) 1 2 2 Cultivate a newly discovered private self 0

Dealing with stress and negative emotions
Levitin (2007) 3 2 5 Mood enhancement 0

Mood management
Inter- and intragroup self-definition
Concentration and cognitive functions
Affection of retail sales
Maas (1993) 2 1 4 Functions of film music: 0

Tectonic functions (orientation)
Syntactic functions
Semantic functions
Mediatizing functions
(Continued)



Number of proposed
Source of functions
Proposed functions
(1: face validity,
Were functions
functions
Merriam (1964) 2 1 10 Socio-cultural functions: 0
Emotional expression
Aesthetic enjoyment
Entertainment
Communication
Symbolic representation
Physical response
Enforcing conformity to social norms
Validating social institutions and religious rituals
Enforcing continuity and stability of culture
Integration of society
Roberts and 2 2 3 Affective uses 0

Christenson (2001) Socializing uses
Uses of lyrics
Rösing (1993) 2 1 4 Atmosphere 0

Drowning noise
Activation/calming
Well-being
Ruud (1997) 1 1/2 4 Awareness of feelings 0

Agency
Belonging
Meaning and coherence

Table A2 | Overview about empirical studies that have identified and/or investigated more than one function or functional aspect of music listening.
Schäfer et al.
Source
(1: journal article,
Total N
M
SD
Kind of study
(1: in lab or university,
2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Selection of functions
(1: by face validity,
2: by literature research,
3: by survey, 4: n/a)
Number of functions
identified
Functions identified
Were functions reduced
to factors or dimensions?
(0: no, 1: based on theory,
2: based on factor/cluster
analysis)
Dimensions
Frontiers in Psychology | Cognition

(Boer, 2009, 2 222 22.6 9.05 2/5 3 74 Ten exemplary items: 1 Background
Study 5a) It’s important to me that music transports feelings Diversion
I meet with friends and listen to good music Emotions
Music allows me to have a common interest with my family Memories
Music is what alleviates my frustration Self-regulation
I need music in the background while doing something else Reflection of self
I like dancing to certain music Social bonding
Music helps me to focus
Music is very important in the process of developing my
values
Music plays an important role in my life as a means of
political engagement
Music is a reflection of a country’s culture and history
(Boer, 2009, 2 1085 – – 2 3 74 See above 2 Emotion
Study 6) Friends
Family
Venting
Background
Dancing
Focus
Values
Politic
Culture
Brown et al. 1 1209 12–14 4 – 19 Reasons for watching music videos: 2 Diversion
(1986) Music videos are exciting Trend surveillance
Good thing to do when I’m alone Format preference
They get me in a mood I like to be in Social stimulus
Music videos help me relax School of life
They help me get away from worries “They make me
I can learn how to dance feel sexy”
I can see the latest fashion
Music videos are better than listening to songs on radio
Music videos are better than other TV shows
It’s something I can do with friends
(Continued)
August 2013 | Volume 4 | Article 511 | 14

Schäfer et al.
www.frontiersin.org
Source
Total N
M
SD
Kind of study
2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions
Music videos fill the silence when I’m with other people
and no one is talking
To have something to talk about with m friends
Remind me of things happening in my own life
They show how other people deal with the same
problems I have
They help me to learn things about myself
I like to think about the meaning of the words in the song
They allow me to daydream
They make me wish I were some of the characters
They make me feel sexy
Campbell et al. 1 1155 13–18 – 5 3 – – Qualitatively
(2007) derived
dimensions:
Music-specific
benefits
Emotional benefits
Life benefits
Social benefits
Chamorro- 1 341 19.9 2.90 1 3 15 Listening to music really affects my mood 1 Emotional use
Premuzic and I am not very nostalgic when I listen to old songs I used Rational/cognitive
Furnham (2007) to listen to use
Whenever I want to feel happy I listen to a happy song Background use
When I listen to sad songs I feel very emotional
Almost every memory I have is associated with a
particular song
I often enjoy analysing complex musical compositions
I seldom like a song unless I admire the technique of the
musicians
I don’t enjoy listening to pop music because it’s very
primitive
Rather than relaxing, when I listen to music I like to
concentrate on it
(Continued)

Schäfer et al.
Source
Total N
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SD
Kind of study
2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions

Listening to music is an intellectual experience for me
I enjoy listening to music while I work
Music is very distracting so whenever I study I need to
have silence
If I don’t listen to music while I’m doing something, I often
get bored
I enjoy listening to music in social events
I often feel very lonely if I don’t listen to music
DeNora (1999) 1 52 18–78 – 5 3 – – Qualitatively
derived
dimensions:
Self-programming
and musical
material
Aesthetic
reflexivity
Self-regulation,
self-modulation
Mental
concentration
Affect
Self-identity
Musical memories
of self/others
Musical memories
and the
choreography of
feeling
Musically
composed
identities
(Continued)

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Source
(1: journal article.
Total N
M
SD
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3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions
Gantz et al. 1 468 – – 4 1 6 It relieves my tension or takes my mind off things that are 0
(1978) bothering me
It gets me in or keeps me in a mood I want to be in
It helps me pass time or relieve boredom when I’m doing
other things
It makes me feel less alone when I’m with myself
I think about the meaning of the lyrics
It fills the silence when I’m with other people and no one is
talking
Greasley and 1 25 20.2 2.96 1 2 15 I chose the music 0
Lamont (2011) To help me concentrate/think
To distract me
To help me relax
To help me carry out activity
To help me create right atmosphere
To bring back certain memories
To create an emotion/mood
To accentuate an emotion/mood
To change an existing emotion/mood
Because i really like listening to it
Thought person(s) i was with would like
To help me pass the time
To help me feel less alone
To listen to the lyrics
Out of habit
Hays and 1 38 71.5 7.1 5 3 – – Qualitatively
Minichiello derived
(2005) dimensions:
Linking life events
Sharing and
connecting
Music and
wellbeing
The therapeutic
benefits of music
Time, reality and
escape
Spirituality

(Continued)
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Total N
M
SD
Kind of study
2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions

Herbert (2011) 2 7 16–85 – 4 – – 1 Dimensions
derived from
interviews and
qualitative
analysis:
Absorption
Dissociation
Juslin et al. 1 32 24 – 1 1 12 Why did you listen to music? 0

(2008) To relax
To pass the time
To get energized
To get some company
To influence my feelings
I was curious
I wanted to listen to the lyrics
To evoke personal memories
To create a certain image
It’s good for my health
Others chose to play music
The music could not be avoided
Laukka (2007) 1 280 69.2 2.80 4 1 28 For entertainment 2 Identity and

It evokes memories agency
It gives me pleasure Mood regulation
To get company/background music Relaxation and
Interest in music itself company
To create atmosphere in social situations Enjoyment
It is hard to avoid hearing music Others
Enjoy to listen to lyrics
Music induces emotions
To forget about the present
To enhance positive moods
To weaken negative moods
(Continued)

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Total N
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SD
Kind of study
2: internet,
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4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions
To stir up energy
To relax and calm down
It helps me to concentrate
It is beautiful
To vent emotions
To reflect on my life
It strengthens my self image
To express my personality
To feel akin to others
To reduce feelings of loneliness
To express my feelings
To shield out the world around me
To strengthen self esteem
It makes me feel competent
To gain control of sounds in my surroundings
To master new skills
Lehmann (1994) 2 505 27.5 19.5 4 2 68 Ten exemplary items: 2 Types of music
Music can calm me down reception:
I feel secure Expression
Music makes me think about myself Compensation/
I want to dance escapism
Music puts me in another mood Motoric
Music can make me aggressive reproduction
I start dreaming Structure
I don’t feel alone Identification
Music makes time go faster Relaxation
I would line to change the world Sentimentality
Emotions/moods
Sensualism
Regression
Aspects of
performance
Background
Experience of
time
Activation
Coping
(Continued)

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2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
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identified
analysis)
Dimensions

(Lonsdale and 1 300 21.31 2.75 1 3 30 To help get through difficult times 2 Negative mood
North, 2011, To relieve anxiety management
Study 1) To relieve tension/stress Personal identity
To express my feelings and emotions Surveillance
To make me feel better Positive mood
To alleviate feelings of loneliness management
To escape the reality of everyday life Interpersonal
To construct a sense of identity for myself relationships
To explore possible identities Diversion
To portray a particular image to others
To express my identity
To create an image of myself
To display my membership of social groups or subcultures
To learn how to do things
To learn how to behave in future
To obtain useful information for daily life
To discover who I really am
To learn how other people think
To be entertained
To relax
To set the right mood
To take my mind of things
To keep up with current events
To stay in-touch with current fashions and trends
To spend time with family
To have something to talk about with others
To spend time with friends
To fill uncomfortable silences
To pass the time
To relieve boredom
(Continued)

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Total N
M
SD
Kind of study
2: internet,
3: secondary,
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5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions
(Lonsdale and 1 700 ≥16 – 1 2/3 48 Eighteen additional functions: 2 Personal identity
North, 2011, To reflect how I feel Negative mood
Study 4) To cheer me up management
To enjoy the music Positive mood
To brighten up my day management
To create an atmosphere Reminiscing
To reminisce about the past Diversion
To bring back certain memories Arousal
To remind me of happy times Surveillance
To remind me of someone Social interaction
To distract me
To help me concentrate on work
To help me get to sleep at night
To help me exercise
To dance to
To give me energy
To sing along to
To wake me up in the mornings
To socialize with friends
Melton and 1 414 >16 – 1 2 15 Ways of music use: 0
Galician (1987) I turn to popular music to feel less alone
I turn to popular music to change my mood
I turn to pop music to find out latest trends
I turn to pop music to relax
I turn to pop music to pass the time
I turn to pop music to sing along with artists
I turn to pop music for background noise
I turn to pop music to relieve boredom
I turn to pop music to forget my problems
I turn to pop music to get energized
I turn to pop music to hear my favorite artists
Radio stimulates my imagination
Radio portrays women favorably
Radio gives me violent feelings
Radio makes drug use attractive
(Continued)

Schäfer et al.
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Total N
M
SD
Kind of study
2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions

Misenhelter and 2 99 + 375 – – 1 2 6 Expression of ideas and emotions 0
Kaiser (2008) Aesthetic contemplation
Enjoyable engagement and diversion
Group experience
Encourage conformity to social norms
Musical expression
Münch et al. 2 200 15.45 – 4 3 59 2 Inclusion (in

(2005) society)
Autonomy
Management of
affect
Body experience
Musical skills
North et al. 1 2465 13–14 – 4 1 12 To enjoy the music 2 Fulfilling emotional

(2000) To be creative/use imagination needs
To relieve boredom Creating external
To help get through difficult times impression
To be trendy/cool Pleasing people
To relieve tension/stress
To create an image for oneself
To express feelings/emotions
To please parents
To please teachers
To please friends
To reduce loneliness
Packer and 1 100 <30 – 4 3 14 The music experience: 0

Ballantyne (2011) Seeing some new bands or performers
Being inspired by live music
Feeling a personal connection with the music
The festival experience:
Experiencing the festival atmosphere
Being in a stimulating/exciting environment
(Continued)

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M
SD
Kind of study
2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions
Being in a different environment from normal

The social experience:
Being with friends or family
Getting to know my friends on a deeper level
Meeting new people
Being around people with similar interests
The separation experience:
Doing something adventurous
Doing things I wouldn’t normally do
Trying new foods
Staying overnight
Roe (1985) 1 439 11–15 – – 1 12 Motivations for music listening: 1 Atmosphere

It helps me to relax and stop thinking about things creation and mood
It helps me to get into the right mood control
It helps me pass the time Silence filling and
It is less boring when I’m doing something else (e.g., passing time
homework) Attention to lyrics
It is good to dance to
I feel less lonely when I’m by my self
I want to listen to the words
It fills the silence when no one is talking
It creates a good atmosphere when I am with others
Music fits in well in my life
The words express how I am feeling
It makes the time go faster when there is nothing to do
Schäfer and 1 507 24.8 5.10 2 2 17 My favorite music 0

Sedlmeier (2009) Is what I like to listen to when I’m dancing
Expresses my values
Supplies me with important or interesting information
Enables me to better understand my thoughts and feelings
Helps me feel close to others
Helps me express my identity
Is able to put me in a good mood
Can make me feel ecstatic
(Continued)

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2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions

Can help me meet people
Can help me chill and tune out
Enables me to identify with the artists
Is what I like to listen to as background music
Helps me forget my problems and worries
Energizes me
Enables me to reminisce
Is music I can appreciate as art
Enables me to experiment with different sides of my
personality
Steele and 1 5 3 5 Enhance a mood or cope with feelings – Identity formation

Brown (1995) Sort through cultural values and norms
Make a statement about identity
Emulate admired behavior
Fanzacize about possible selves or situations
Sun and Lull 1 587 – – – 2 22 Motivations for viewing music videos: 2 Information/social
(1986) Information/social learning learning
Learn about self/others Passing time
Learn about future Escape/mood
Understand the world Social interaction
Supports my ideas
Learn how to do things
Factual information
Show me how to act
Passing time
Passes time when I am bored
Nothing better to do
Escape/mood
Relieves tension
Take my mind off things
Gets me in/keeps me in a mood
Get away from family
(Continued)

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Total N
M
SD
Kind of study
2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions
Make me feel less alone

Forget about school/homework
Social interaction
Be with friends
Conversation topic
Do with friends
Tarrant et al. 1 245 15.27 0.47 1 2 10 Enjoy the music 2 Self actualizing
(2000) Be creative/use imagination Fulfilling emotional
Relieve boredom needs
Help get trough difficult times Fulfilling social
Be popular with others needs
Relieve tension/stress
Create an image for self
Express feelings/emotions
Please friends
Reduce loneliness
Ter Bogt et al. 1 997 20.74 3.94 2 2 19 I am always looking for new music 1 Music importance
(2011) I know more than peers about music Mood
I influence my friends with my music taste enhancement
Can’t live without music Coping
Music makes other things less boring Identity
Music helps against boredom Social identity
Music creates a good atmosphere when with others
Music helps me to relax and stop thinking about things
Music helps me get through my life
With music I feel less lonely when alone
I always play music when I feel sad
With music I can vent aggression
I recognize myself in the lyrics of my favorite artists
Lyrics of my music often express how I feel
My favorite artists have ideas that appeal to me
(Continued)

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Total N
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2: internet,
3: secondary,
4: field,
5: qualitative)
Number of functions
identified
analysis)
Dimensions

Artists are an example to me
I find it important that my friends listen to the same music
I can’t be friends with someone who dislikes my music
My friends have the same music taste as I do
Troldahl and 1 148 – – 4 3 27 Twenty-seven statements about radio 2 Companionship

Skolnik (1967) Programming
evaluation
Worldly
awareness
Portability
Pleasant
environment
Abrasiveness
Walker Kennedy 2 126 12–20 – 1 2 47 Forty-seven heterogeneous questions about music listening 2 Introspection
(2010) Identity-music
Discerning music
identity
Fantasy-rebellion
Identity-self
In some places, we could only provide exemplary functions because either the total number of functions was too large to be displayed here or not all functions were given in the original publications.

Table A3 | The 129 statements referring to the functions of music exhaustively derived from past research, together with their means,
standard deviations, and factor loadings (varimax rotated).
I listen to music . . . Statistics Factor loadings

[Ich höre Musik . . . ]
M SD 1 2 3
Because it helps me think about myself.

[weil ich dann gut über mich nachdenken kann.] 3.53 1.82 0.715
Because it can lead my thoughts to somewhere else.

[weil ich dann in Gedanken ganz weit weg sein kann.] 4.21 1.70 0.671
Because it makes me believe I am better able to cope with my worries.

[weil ich dann das Gefühl habe, mit meinen Sorgen besser fertig zu werden.] 3.37 1.87 0.668
Because it helps me better understand my thoughts and emotions.

[weil sie hilft, meine Gedanken und Gefühle besser zu verstehen.] 3.02 1.85 0.667
Because it helps me think about my identity.

[weil sie mir hilft, über meine Identität nachzudenken.] 2.87 1.94 0.665
Because it is therapy for my soul.

[weil sie eine Therapie für meine Seele ist.] 3.82 1.84 0.656
Because it gives comfort to me when I’m sad.

[weil sie mir Trost spendet, wenn ich traurig bin.] 4.10 1.73 0.645
Because it makes me feel secure.

[weil ich mich dann geborgen fühle.] 3.00 1.79 0.637
Because it is a means to express myself.

[weil sie mir eine Möglichkeit bietet, mich selbst auszudrücken] 3.39 1.89 0.632
Because it helps me find my own way.

[weil sie mir hilft, meinen Weg zu finden.] 3.07 1.85 0.625
Because it mirrors my feelings and moods.

[weil ich darin meine Gefühle und Stimmungen wiederfinde.] 4.92 1.31 0.610
Because it conveys feelings.

[weil sie Gefühle transportiert.] 4.80 1.38 0.608
Because it expresses something that cannot be expressed in words.

[weil sie etwas vermittelt, was sich in Worten nicht ausdrücken lässt.] 3.82 1.91 0.602
Because it helps me learn about myself.

[weil ich dadurch etwas über mich lernen kann.] 2.30 1.82 0.589
Because it helps me be contemplative.

[weil sie mir beim Nachdenken hilft.] 3.65 1.82 0.572
Because it helps me escape from my daily routines.

[weil ich dann aus dem grauen Alltag fliehen kann.] 3.62 1.85 0.567
Because it often induces visual imagery.

[weil ich dabei oft bildhafte Vorstellungen habe.] 3.88 1.72 0.564
Because it can make me dream.

[weil ich dabei träumen kann.] 4.49 1.50 0.562
Because it distracts my mind from the outside world.

[weil sie mich von der “Außenwelt” ablenkt.] 3.74 1.78 0.552
Because it lets me forget the world around me.

[weil ich dann die Welt um mich herum vergessen kann.] 4.48 1.57 0.551
(Continued)


M SD 1 2 3
Because it makes me forget about reality.

[weil sie mich die Realität vergessen lässt.] 3.30 1.91 0.544
Because it puts fantastic images or stories in my head.

[weil mir dann tolle Bilder oder Geschichten in den Kopf kommen.] 3.88 1.76 0.543
Because it alleviates my inner tension.

[weil das die Anspannung in mir verringert.] 3.85 1.55 0.542
Because it helps me reminisce.

[weil ich dabei in Erinnerungen schwelgen kann.] 4.24 1.64 0.532
Because it gives me the energy I need for the day.

[weil sie mir Energie für den Tag gibt.] 4.44 1.47 0.531
Because I can recognize myself in the lyrics.

[weil ich mich in den Texten wiederfinden kann.] 3.72 1.70 0.524
Because it makes me feel somebody else feels the same as I do.

[weil sie mir das Gefühl gibt, dass jemand anderes dasselbe fühlt wie ich.] 3.13 1.94 0.521
Because it supports my ideas.

[weil sie meine Ideen unterstützt.] 2.86 1.82 0.512
Because it lets me be the way I am.

[weil ich dadurch so sein kann, wie ich bin.] 3.66 1.89 0.508
Because it enables me to experiment with different facets of my personality.

[weil sie mir ermöglicht, mit verschiedenen Seiten meiner Persönlichkeit zu experimentieren.] 2.52 1.94 0.508
Because it calms me.

[weil sie mich beruhigt.] 4.32 1.37 0.501
Because it adds meaning to my life.

[weil sie mir Sinn im Leben gibt.] 2.24 2.03 0.496
Because it can reduce my anxiety.

[weil sie meine Angst reduzieren kann.] 2.51 1.93 0.493
Because it makes me feel that I want to change the world.

[weil ich dann das Gefühl bekomme, dass ich die Welt verändern möchte.] 2.34 1.96 0.489
Because it is a means of venting my frustration.

[weil sie eine Möglichkeit bietet, meine Frustration abzuladen.] 3.82 1.82 0.488
Because it can reduce my stress.

[weil sie meinen Stress reduziert.] 4.42 1.39 0.487
Because it can make me feel less lonely.

[weil ich mich dann weniger einsam fühle.] 2.93 1.92 0.486
Because I like the bodily changes it evokes (changes of heartbeat, prickling, etc.)
[weil ich die körperlichen Wirkungen mag (Veränderung des Herzschlags, 3.33 2.02 0.483
Kribbeln auf der Haut usw.), die sie auslöst.]
Because it gives me a way to let off steam.

[weil ich dadurch Dampf ablassen kann.] 3.82 1.83 0.479
Because it can lighten my mood.

[weil sie meine Gefühle positiv beeinflussen kann.] 4.86 1.22 0.473


M SD 1 2 3
Because it gives me pleasure.

[weil sie Wohlgefallen auslöst.] 4.54 1.49 0.473
Because it reminds me of certain periods of my life or past experiences.

[weil sie mich an bestimmte Phasen meines Lebens bzw. an vergangene Ereignisse erinnert.] 4.62 1.51 0.471
Because I just enjoy listening to music.

[weil ich es einfach genieße, Musik zu hören.] 5.33 1.06 0.460
Because it gives me intellectual stimulation.

[weil es eine intellektuelle Stimulation für mich ist.] 2.94 1.90 0.434
Because it gives me something that is mine alone.

[weil ich dann etwas für mich alleine habe.] 2.58 2.00 0.418
Because it gives me goose bumps.

[weil ich dann Gänsehaut bekomme.] 3.16 1.91 0.416
Because it addresses my sense of aesthetics.

[weil sie meinen Sinn für Ästhetik anspricht.] 2.94 2.04 0.386
Because it reminds me of a particular person.

[weil sie mich an eine bestimmte Person erinnert.] 3.39 1.88 0.379
Because it makes me feel my body.

[weil ich dabei meinen Körper spüre.] 2.43 1.89 0.376
Because I can enjoy it as art.

[weil ich sie als Kunst genießen kann.] 3.63 1.93 0.358
Because I want to play or sing it myself.

[weil ich sie nachspielen oder nachsingen möchte.] 3.13 1.98 0.316
Because it helps me show that I belong to a given social group. 1.30 1.62 0.726
[weil ich damit zeigen kann, dass ich einer bestimmten sozialen Gruppe angehöre.]
Because it makes me feel connected to all people who like the same kind of music.
[weil ich mich dann allen Leuten zugehörig fühle, die solche Musik hören.] 1.68 1.71 0.686
Because it makes me feel connected to my friends.

[weil sie dazu führt, dass ich mich mit meinen Freunden verbunden fühle.] 2.02 1.73 0.671
Because it provides me useful information for my everyday life.

[weil ich dadurch nützliche Informationen für das alltägliche Leben sammeln kann.] 1.67 1.65 0.665
Because it is a reason to meet my friends.

[weil sie einen Grund dafür bietet, mit meinen Freunden zusammen zu sein.] 1.86 1.73 0.662
Because it makes me feel connected to others.

[weil ich mich durch sie mit anderen verbunden fühle.] 2.28 1.75 0.661
Because it can help me meet other people.

[weil ich dadurch neue Leute kennenlernen kann.] 2.15 1.78 0.661
Because it helps me form friendships with people who have similar musical taste.
[weil sie mir hilft, Freundschaften mit Personen zu schließen, die einen 2.17 1.82 0.660
ähnlichen Musikgeschmack haben wie ich.]
Because it tells me how other people think.

[weil ich dann weiß, wie andere Leute denken.] 1.89 1.72 0.636
(Continued)


M SD 1 2 3
Because I can learn something about other people.

[weil ich dadurch etwas über andere lernen kann.] 2.49 1.76 0.629
Because music is a social experience.

[weil Musik eine Gruppenerfahrung ist.] 2.00 1.77 0.628
Because it helps me develop social values.

[weil Musik hilft, soziale Werte zu entwickeln.] 2.44 1.80 0.622
Because I would like to identify with a particular music scene.

[weil ich mich mit einer bestimmten Musikszene identifizieren möchte.] 1.75 1.83 0.608
Because it helps me understand the world better.

[weil ich dadurch die Welt besser verstehen kann.] 2.26 1.75 0.600
Because it mirrors the history and culture of my country.

[weil sie die Kultur und die Geschichte meines Landes widerspiegelt.] 1.15 1.58 0.588
Because it can be a means to show political engagement.

[weil sie ein wichtiges Mittel für mich ist, um politisches Engagement zu zeigen.] 1.00 1.50 0.582
Because it helps me develop my personal values.

[weil sie mir hilft, meine persönlichen Werte zu entwickeln.] 2.34 1.79 0.581
Because it is a good way to express the uniqueness of our culture.

[weil das ein gutes Mittel ist, um die Einzigartigkeit unserer Kultur auszudrücken.] 1.95 1.84 0.581
Because I would like to take the artists/musicians as role models.

[weil ich mir die Künstler/Musiker als Vorbild nehmen möchte.] 1.83 1.83 0.575
Because it is something my friends like to do, as well.

[weil das etwas ist, was meine Freundinnen und Freunde auch gerne tun.] 1.71 1.69 0.575
Because it makes me feel connected to the world.

[weil ich mich dann mit der Welt verbunden fühle.] 2.03 1.76 0.571
Because it is something I can talk about with my friends.

[weil ich dann etwas habe, worüber ich mich mit meinen Freundinnen und Freunden unterhalten kann.] 2.04 1.65 0.567
Because I can be together with my family.

[weil ich dabei mit meiner Familie zusammen sein kann.] 1.38 1.53 0.565
Because it makes me belong.

[weil ich somit “dazu gehöre.”] .88 1.32 0.560
Because my best friend and I can enthuse about it together.

[weil meine beste Freundin/mein bester Freund und ich dann gemeinsam für etwas schwärmen können.] 1.62 1.69 0.543
Because it can express my political attitudes.

[weil sie meine politischen Überzeugungen ausdrücken kann.] 1.48 1.77 0.531
Because my friends like the same music as I do.

[weil sie auch meinen Freundinnen und Freunden gefällt.] 1.76 1.65 0.523
Because when listening, I can imagine how the music would sound in a concert.
[weil ich mir dabei vorstellen kann, wie die Musik wohl im Konzert wäre.] 2.54 1.97 0.496
Because it is related to spirituality.

[weil sie für mich eng mit Spiritualität verbunden ist.] 1.17 1.71 0.483
(Continued)


M SD 1 2 3
Because I learn a lot about the world.

[weil ich dadurch viel von der Welt erfahre.] 2.30 1.64 0.472
Because I can identify with the musicians or bands.

[weil ich mich dadurch mit einigen MusikerInnen oder Gruppen so gut identifizieren kann.] 2.58 1.79 0.465
Because it supports my religious faith.

[weil sie meinen Glauben unterstützt.] 1.22 1.83 0.448
Because it has a supernatural meaning to me.

[weil sie für mich eine übersinnliche Bedeutung hat.] 1.18 1.75 0.446
Because I want to know what’s going on in the music scene.

[weil ich darüber Bescheid wissen will, was in der Musikszene gerade aktuell ist.] 1.97 1.82 0.429
Because I want to find out something about the music.

[weil ich etwas über die Musik herausfinden möchte.] 2.60 1.81 0.428
Because it makes me let go of myself when I’m in company.

[weil sie mir hilft, aus mir herauszugehen, wenn ich in Gesellschaft bin.] 2.81 1.84 0.422
Because it contributes to my health.

[weil sie zu meiner Gesundheit beiträgt.] 2.51 1.88 0.415
Because it can soothe my physical pain.

[weil sie meine körperlichen Beschwerden lindern kann.] 1.95 1.82 0.412
Because you can learn something from the music.

[weil man etwas dabei lernen kann.] 2.75 1.76 0.404
Because I want to be informed about hits and trends.

[weil ich mich über Hits und Trends informieren will.] 1.86 1.71 0.402
Because it structures my everyday life.

[weil sie meinem Alltag Struktur gibt.] 2.24 1.85 0.397
Because I can get away from my family.

[weil ich damit meiner Familie entkommen kann.] 1.31 1.73 0.378
Because it is a means to share my memories with my friends.

[weil sie eine Möglichkeit bietet, Erinnerungen mit Freunden zu teilen.] 3.40 1.81 0.375
Because it makes me feel sexy.

[weil ich mich dann sexy fühle.] 1.68 1.87 0.372
Because I can learn about new pieces.

[weil ich dabei neue Stücke kennenlernen kann.] 3.50 1.86 0.369
Because I’m interested in the musicians and bands.

[weil ich die MusikerInnen und Gruppen interessant finde.] 3.86 1.66 0.312
Because it is a great pastime. 3.97 1.68 0.640

[weil sie ein prima Zeitvertreib ist.]
Because it can take my mind off things.

[weil sie mich ablenken kann.] 4.52 1.45 0.627
Because it prevents me from being bored while I do other things.

[weil ich dann weniger gelangweilt bin, während ich etwas anderes tue.] 3.39 1.94 0.621
(Continued)


M SD 1 2 3
Because it makes time pass markedly faster.

[weil dann die Zeit deutlich schneller vergeht.] 3.57 1.85 0.609
Because it enables me to kill time.

[weil ich damit die Zeit totschlagen kann.] 2.64 1.99 0.598
Because I’m less bored then.

[weil es dann nicht so langweilig ist.] 3.99 1.75 0.584
Because I need it in the background while I do other things.

[weil ich sie im Hintergrund brauche, während ich etwas anderes tue.] 3.76 1.79 0.564
Because it makes me cheerful.

[weil ich dann gute Laune bekomme.] 4.76 1.28 0.555
Because it can enhance my mood.

[weil sie meine Stimmung verbessern kann.] 5.04 1.15 0.539
Because it fills the unpleasant silence when no one speaks.

[weil Musik die unangenehme Stille füllt, wenn gerade niemand spricht.] 3.15 2.00 0.537
Because it helps me get up in the morning.

[weil sie mir morgens hilft, wach zu werden.] 3.75 1.94 0.532
Because it helps me relax.

[weil ich mich dann besser entspannen kann.] 4.84 1.18 0.520
Because it provides diversion.

[weil sie für mich eine gute Abwechslung bietet.] 4.24 1.44 0.511
Because it puts me in the right mood for going out.

[weil ich mich damit einstimmen kann, bevor ich ausgehe.] 3.69 2.05 0.508
Because it enhances my drive or my motivation for certain actions.

[weil sie meinen Antrieb bzw. meine Motivation für bestimmte Tätigkeiten steigert.] 4.41 1.55 0.505
Because it is a good way to entertain myself.

[weil das eine gute Art ist, mich selbst zu unterhalten.] 4.15 1.56 0.492
Because I take delight in doing so.

[weil ich dabei Spaßhabe.] 5.10 1.15 0.491
Because it makes me more alert.

[weil ich dann wacher bin.] 3.32 1.72 0.477
Because it makes doing things seem effortless.

[weil mir dann vieles lockerer von der Hand geht.] 4.40 1.40 0.464
Because it stimulates me.

[weil sie mich animiert.] 3.96 1.63 0.441
Because I can dance to it.

[weil ich dazu tanzen kann.] 3.53 2.04 0.436
Because it makes me feel fitter.

[weil ich mich dann fitter fühle.] 3.37 1.81 0.432
Because it enables me to work off my aggression.

[weil ich dabei meine Aggressionen abreagieren kann.] 3.48 2.02 0.427
(Continued)


M SD 1 2 3
Because it takes my mind off things.

[weil sie mich auf andere Gedanken bringt.] 4.82 1.27 0.421
Because it provides a pleasant ambience for conversations.

[weil sie eine angenehme Atmosphäre beim Gespräch schafft.] 3.17 1.72 0.416
Because music just fits into my life.

[weil Musik einfach gut in mein Leben passt.] 4.90 1.37 0.403
Because it fits my sports.

[weil es zu meinem Sport passt.] 2.62 2.16 0.400
Because working is easier with music.

[weil ich dann besser arbeiten kann.] 3.43 1.83 0.389
Because it helps me fall asleep.

[weil sie mir beim Einschlafen hilft.] 2.68 2.03 0.357
Because I can cuddle with my partner.

[weil ich mit meinem Partner bzw. meiner Partnerin dabei gut kuscheln kann.] 2.50 1.85 0.354
Because I can sing or hum along.

[weil ich dabei mitsingen oder mitsummen kann.] 3.91 1.80 0.346
Because I can try out new movements.

[weil ich dann neue Bewegungen ausprobieren kann.] 1.83 1.83 0.337
Dimension 1, self-awareness; Dimension 2, social relatedness; Dimension 3, arousal and mood regulation.

The Psychological Functions of Music Listening: Thomas Schäfer, Peter Sedlmeier, Christine Städtler and David Huron

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

published: 13 August 2013

The psychological functions of music listening

INTRODUCTION and interesting conjectures that offer useful starting-points for

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my life). It appears that this dimension expresses a very pri-

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dimensions? (0: no, 1: yes)

If yes, the categories were

3: specific theory, 4: n/a)

categorized into factors/

Baacke (1984) 2 4 10 Social badge 0

Brown (2006) 2 2 6 Conformity 1 Social enhancement

Bryson (1996) 1 1/2 2 Social tolerance 0

Bullough (1921) 1 2 3 Types of music reception: 0

Coleman (1961) 2 4 2 Escapism 0

Cook (1986) 1 1 3 Therapeutic functions: 0

Dissanayake (2006) 2 2 6 Display of resources 0

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dimensions? (0: no, 1: yes)

If yes, the categories were

3: specific theory, 4: n/a)

categorized into factors/

Frohne-Hagemann 2 4 11 Therapeutic functions: music as 1 Music-specific functions

Gregory (1997) 2 4 14 Social uses of music for: 0

Hargreaves and 1 2/3 3 Review on social functions of music 1 Self-identity

Heister (1993) 2 1/2 5 Self-determination 0

Kapteina (2010) 3 3 3 Psychodynamic functions: 0

Laiho (2004) 1 2 41 Entertainment 1 Emotional functions

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dimensions? (0: no, 1: yes)

If yes, the categories were

3: specific theory, 4: n/a)

categorized into factors/

Larson (1995) 1 2 2 Cultivate a newly discovered private self 0

Levitin (2007) 3 2 5 Mood enhancement 0

Maas (1993) 2 1 4 Functions of film music: 0

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dimensions? (0: no, 1: yes)

If yes, the categories were

3: specific theory, 4: n/a)

categorized into factors/

Roberts and 2 2 3 Affective uses 0

Rösing (1993) 2 1 4 Atmosphere 0

Ruud (1997) 1 1/2 4 Awareness of feelings 0

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Frontiers in Psychology | Cognition

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Frontiers in Psychology | Cognition

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August 2013 | Volume 4 | Article 511 | 17