7 August 2017
Introduction to Power System Protection
By Md Mojahidul Islam
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Introduction to Protection
q Power system review
q Protection system purpose
q Protection system components
q Protection system measures
q Types of protective relays
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Objectives
• Understand what protective relays are and how the basic types work
• Know the “terms” used in power system protection
• Relate SIEMENS products to their typical applications
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What is System Protection?
System protection is the art and science of detecting problems with power
system components and isolating these components.
Problems on the power system include:
1. Short circuits
2. Abnormal conditions
3. Equipment failures
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Purpose of System Protection
• Protect the public
• Improve system stability
• Minimize damage to equipment
• Protect against overloads
• Employ relay techs and engineers
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What Components (Equipment) Do We Protect?
• Generators
• Transformers, Reactor
• Power Lines
• Buses
• Capacitor Banks
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What Components (Equipment) Do We Protect?
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Some Basics
Protective relays monitor the current and/or voltage of the power system to detect
problems with the power system. Currents and voltages to relays are supplied via
CT’s and PT’s.
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Some Basics
Current Transformer (CT):
A device which transforms the current on the power system from large primary
values to safe secondary values. The secondary current will be proportional (as
per the ratio) to the primary current.
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CT of Class
Class 5P20: The letter 'P' indicates it is a protection CT. The number 5
indicates the accuracy of the CT. Most common accuracy numbers are 5
and 10.
The number 20 (called accuracy limit factor) indicates that
the CT will sense the current with the specified accuracy
even with 20 times of its secondary current flows in the
secondary.
Class PS: PS is for 'Protection Special'.
Class 1M: The letter 'M' indicates it is a measuring CT.
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Some Basics
Potential Transformer (PT):
A device which transforms the voltage
on the power system from primary
values to safe secondary values, in a
ratio proportional to the primary value.
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Single Line Diagram
•Non-dimensioned diagram showing how pieces of electrical equipment are
connected
•Simplification of actual system
•Equipment is shown as boxes, circles and other simple graphic symbols
•Symbols should follow ANSI or IEC conventions
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Line Symbols
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Line Symbols
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Line Symbols
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Line Symbols
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Single Line Diagram
Page 17 Adobe Acrobat
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Document
Power System Elements
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Primary Equipment & Components
• Transformers - to step up or step down voltage level
• Breakers - to energize equipment and interrupt fault current to isolate faulted
equipment
• Insulators - to insulate equipment from ground and other phases
• Isolators (switches) - to create a visible and permanent isolation of primary
equipment for maintenance purposes and route power flow over certain buses.
• Bus - to allow multiple connections (feeders) to the same source of power
(transformer).
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Primary Equipment & Components
• Grounding - to operate and maintain equipment safely
• Arrester - to protect primary equipment of sudden overvoltage (lightning strike).
• Switchgear – integrated components to switch, protect, meter and control power
flow
• Reactors - to limit fault current (series) or compensate for charge current (shunt)
• VT and CT - to measure primary current and voltage and supply scaled down
values to P&C, metering, SCADA, etc.
• Regulators - voltage, current, VAR, phase angle, etc.
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Protection Zones
1. Generator or Generator-Transformer Units
2. Transformers
3. Buses
4. Lines (transmission and distribution)
5. Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, etc.)
6. Capacitor or reactor (when separately protected)
Bus zone Bus zone Bus zone
Unit Generator-Tx zone Line zone
Transformer zone Motor zone
Transformer zone
~
Generator XFMR Bus Line Bus XFMR Bus Motor
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Single bus - single breaker
ZONE 1
1 2 3 ---- n-1 n
• Distribution and lower transmission voltage levels
• No operating flexibility
• Fault on the bus trips all circuit breakers
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Multiple bus sections - single breaker with bus tie
ZONE 2
ZONE 1
• Distribution and lower transmission voltage levels
• Limited operating flexibility
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Double bus - single breaker with bus tie
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
• Transmission and distribution voltage levels
• Breaker maintenance without circuit removal
• Fault on a bus disconnects only the circuits being
connected to that bus
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Main and transfer buses
MAIN BUS
ZONE 1
TRANFER BUS
• Increased operating flexibility
• A bus fault requires tripping all breakers
• Transfer bus for breaker maintenance
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Breaker-and-a-half bus
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
• Used on higher voltage levels
• More operating flexibility
• Requires more breakers
• Middle bus sections covered by line or other equipment protection
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Zone Overlap
1. Overlap is accomplished by the locations of CTs, the key source for protective relays.
2. In some cases a fault might involve a CT or a circuit breaker itself, which means it can not be
cleared until adjacent breakers (local or remote) are opened.
Relay Zone A Relay Zone A
Zone A Relay Zone B Zone B
Zone A Relay Zone B Zone B
CTs are located at one side of CB-fault
between CTs is sensed by both relays, remote right side
CTs are located at both sides of CB-fault between CTs
operate only.
is cleared from both remote sides
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Protective Relay Functions
• Detect Faults
• Short circuits
• Detect abnormal operating conditions
• Overloads, unbalances, low voltage or frequency
• Control and supervision
• Automatic reclosing, bus transfer, synch-check
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Protective Relaying System
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Protection System Elements
• Protective Relays
• Circuit Breakers
• Current and Voltage Transformers
• Communication Channels
• DC Supply System
• Control Cables
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Instrument Transformers
• CT – Current Transformer
• Current scaling
• Isolation from primary voltage
• VT – Voltage Transformer
• Voltage scaling
• Isolation from primary voltage
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Measures Applied to Relays
How do relay engineers evaluate and classify relays;
and decide which ones to use?
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Protection Operation Classification
• Correct Operation
• Incorrect Operation
• Failure to trip
• False tripping
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Power System Protection Requirements
• Measures of Reliability
• Dependability – ability of relay to always trip for a fault in its protected
zone
• Security – ability of relay to never trip for a fault outside its protected
zone
• Measures of Performance
• Sensitivity – ability of relay to determine a faulted power system from a
normal power system
• Selectivity – ability of a relay to determine what part of the power system
is faulted
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Power System Protection Requirements
• Measures of Performance (cont.)
• Dependability – ability of relay to always trip for a fault in its protected
zone
• Security – ability of relay to never trip for a fault outside its protected
zone
• Speed – how fast can the relay determine that there is a fault in its zone
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Power System Protection Requirements
• Simplicity
• Economics
• Protection costs
• Equipment costs
• Outage costs
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General Relationships
• Higher selectivity allows higher speed
• Dependability is generally proportional to sensitivity and speed
• Security is generally proportional to selectivity
• Higher speed and selectivity generally means higher cost and complexity
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Classification of Relays
Classification can be done by different ways, such as by function, input,
performance characteristics an operating be divided into five types:
I. Protective Relays:
Protective relays and fuses operate on the intolerable power system conditions. They are applied to all parts
of the power system; generators, buses, TFs, TLs, distribution lines and feeders, motors, loads, capacitors
banks and reactors. Fuses are usually used for low voltage level (480 V).
II. Regulating Relays:
Regulating relays are associated with tap changer of TFs, on governor of generating equipment to
control the voltages level with varying load (used during normal conditions).
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Classification of Relays
III. Reclosing, synchronism check, synchronizing relays:
Relays of this type are used in energizing or restoring lines to service after an outage and in interconnecting
pre-energizing parts of the systems.
IV. Monitoring Relays:
Relays of this type are used in energizing or restoring lines to service after an outage and in interconnecting
pre-energizing parts of the systems.
V. Auxiliary Relay:
There are two categories: contact multiplication (repeat contactors) and circuit isolation.
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Principles of Relaying
Since protective relaying comes into action at the time of
equipment distress, a certain safeguard is necessary in
the unlikely event of its failure to act at the hour of need.
Hence, two groups of protective schemes are generally
employed -
a) Primary Protection
b) Back-up Protection
Primary Protection is the first line of defense, whereas
back-up relaying takes over the protection of equipment,
should the primary protection fail.
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Primary Protection
The Primary Protection has following characteristic features -
1. It has always a defined zone of operation.
2. It should operate before any back-up protection
could operate, therefore, it should be faster in
operation.
3. It should be able to completely isolate the fault
from all the current feeding sources.
4. It should be stable for all operating conditions.
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Back-up Protection
1. Back-up protection should provide sufficient time
for the primary protection to perform its duty.
2. Back-up protection covers a wider zone of
protection. Therefore, there is always a possibility
of large scale disturbance, when back-up relays
operate.
3. Under primary protection failure, several back-up
relays may operate for complete isolation of fault.
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Protection Concept
Circuit Breaker
CT / VT
Cabling
D IS T A N C E R E L A Y
Protection Battery
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Protection - One Out of Two Principle
Trip Trip
System Coil1 Coil 2 System
1 2
Battery 1 Battery 2
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Redundancy Concept of DC Circuits
Battery 1
Battery 2
Main Protection Back-up Protection Busbar Protection
87T 50/51 87BB BF
TR TR TR
TC 1 TC 2
Trip remote infeed
L- L-
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Types of Protective Relays
• 50 – Instantaneous Over current Relay – 7SJ61,62,63,64, 7SJ80
• 51 – Time Over current Relay - 7SJ61,62,63,64, 7SJ80
• 67 – Directional Over current Relay – 7SJ62,63,64,7SJ804
• 21 – Distance Relay – 7SA5, 7SA6
• 87 – Differential Relay – 7SD5, 7SD6
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Overcurrent Relays
• Detect current above normal and trip
• Two types
• Instantaneous (ANSI Code 50)
• Inverse Time (ANSI Code 51)
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Overcurrent Relay Types
• Instantaneous (50, 50N)
• Time-Delayed (51, 51N)
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Inverse Time OC (ANSI Code 51)
• Works like a fuse
• Trip fast for high overcurrent
• Trip slow for small overcurrent
• Desirable attribute for many protection problems
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Application of OC Relays
• Commonly used for:
• Primary fault protection for radial feeders
• Backup fault protection for more sophisticated relay schemes
• Supervisory elements for more sophisticated relay schemes
• Overload protection
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Overcurrent Application
Fast Bus Fast Bus
Distribution Bus
Trip Scheme Trip Scheme
Distribution Feeder
IABC IABC
Trip Trip
52 52
Distribution Feeder
Distribution Bus
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Overcurrent Application
Core Balance CT
52
52
IABC
IABC
Trip
IN
IN
Trip
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Summary for Overcurrent Relays
Measure Rating
Sensitivity Poor
Selectivity Poor
Speed Depends
Simplicity Best
Cost Best
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Directional Overcurrent Relays
• ANSI Code 67
• Two criteria
• Determine that current is flowing in a particular direction
• Detect current above normal and trip
• More selective
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How do we determine direction?
• Which way did he go?
• AC current reverses direction every half cycle!
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How do we determine direction?
• We need a reference
• Called a polarizing quantity
• Phase angle of current with respect to voltage for example
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Application of Directional Relays
• Twice as selective as 50/51 relays
• Used in applications that need more selectivity such as:
• Networked lines with fused loads
• Bus mains and ties
• Supervisory elements for more sophisticated relay schemes
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Directional Overcurrent Protection
• Relay responds to overcurrent condition in the forward direction only
(device #67, 67N, 67NT)
• Will not respond to reverse faults
• Compares the current in the line versus a known reference that will always be
the same (such as a voltage or polarizing current source)
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Directional Overcurrent Example
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Directional Relay Application
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Summary for Directional Relays
Measure Rating
Sensitivity Depends
Selectivity Good
Speed Good
Simplicity Moderate
Cost Higher
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Distance Relays
• ANSI Code 21
• Determines:
• Not only the direction of the fault
• But, also how far away it is
• Set the reach of the relay in ohms (Resistance and Reactance)
• Line has characteristics ohms/mile
• Measured ohms = distance
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Distance Relays
• A distance relay measures the impedance of a line using the voltage applied
to the relay and the current applied to the relay.
• When a fault occurs on a line, the current rises significantly and the voltage
collapses significantly.
• The distance relay (also known as impedance relay) determines the
impedance by Z = V/I. If the impedance is within the reach setting of the
relay, it will operate.
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Distance Relays
• Electromechanical distance relays use torque to restrain or operate
• Microprocessor distance relays use equations to restrain or operate
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Distance Relays
CT and PT
Connections
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Distance Relays
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Distance Relays
Typical zone reach
settings
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Distance Relays
When a fault occurs on a transmission
line, the current increases and the angle of
the current with respect to the voltage
changes to a lagging angle, usually
between 60 to 85 degrees.
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Distance Relays
• The most common characteristic (or
protection shape) of distance relays is the
mho characteristic, a circular type reach
characteristic.
• Distance relays have a settable maximum
torque angle (mta), which is the angle of
the current compared to the angle of the
voltage at which the relay is most sensitive.
In the drawing on the right, the mta is
approximately 75 degrees.
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Distance Relays-Pilot Protection
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Pilot Relaying Scheme
• A protection scheme which employs communications to send a signal from
one station to another to allow high speed tripping (permission) or to prevent
high speed tripping (blocking).
• Pilot protection allows over-reaching zones of protection to ensure full
protection of the line as well as high speed tripping.
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Pilot Relaying Scheme
Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB):
A communications based protection scheme where high speed over-reaching
tripping is allowed unless a block signal is received.
Permissive over-reaching transfer trip (POTT):
A communications based protection scheme where high speed over-reaching
tripping is allowed only if a permissive signal is received
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Blocking Scheme Operating Principle
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Blocking Scheme Operating Principle
External Fault
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Blocking Scheme Operating Principle
Internal Fault
No block signal is sent
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Permissive Scheme
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Permissive Scheme – Internal Fault
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Permissive Scheme – Internal Fault
High Speed Tripping Takes Place at Station A and B
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Permissive Scheme – External Fault
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Permissive Scheme – External Fault
No High Speed Tripping Takes Place Because the Fault Is Reverse to the Relay at Station B.
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Summary for Distance Relays
Measure Rating
Sensitivity Good
Selectivity Better
Speed Better
Simplicity Poor
Cost Higher
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Differential Relays
• ANSI Code 87
• Simple concept:
• Measure current in vs. current out
• If they are not equal, then trip
• Operates on the difference in current – not the total current, thus sensitivity is
good
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Differential Relays
• No fault or external fault, current at each end is balanced
• The current going into the line is going out at other end
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Differential Relays
• Internal fault, relay trip is processed
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Types of Differential Relays
• Differential Overcurrent
• Operates on magnitude of difference
• Percent Restrained Differential
• Difference must be a percentage of the total current
• Automatically adjusts sensitivity
• Line Current Differential
• Communicate current at remote and of each zone through
communications channel
• High Impedance Bus Differential
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Application of Differential Relays
• Applied anywhere that high speed, high sensitivity, and high selectivity is
required:
• Transformers
• Generators
• Bus Sections
• Lines
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Differential Relay Application
52 52
HV LV
(REF)
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Bus Differential
Current into bus must equal current out of bus
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Bus Differential
Bus Fault
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Summary for Differential Relays
Measure Rating
Sensitivity Best
Selectivity Best
Speed Best
Simplicity Moderate
Cost Depends
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Summary
• There are four main relay types for detecting faults
• 50/51, 67, 21, 87
• We decide on which types of relays to use based upon several factors
• Sensitivity, selectivity, speed, cost, simplicity
• There are two measures for reliability
• Dependability, security
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