Separation and Purification Technology 206 (2018) 268–285

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Separation and Purification Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seppur

An overview of operating parameters and conditions in hydrocyclones for T

enhanced separations
⁎
Jinyi Tiana,b, Long Nia,b, , Tao Songa,b, James Olsonc,d, Jianing Zhaoa,b
a
School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, PR China
b
Heilongjiang Cold Region Architectural Science Key Laboratory, Harbin, PR China
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
d
The Pulp and Paper Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Hydrocyclones are widely employed in both heavy and light industries. However, exact mechanisms underlying
Hydrocyclone enhanced-separation technologies developed by optimizing operating parameters and conditions in hydro-
Separation efficiency cyclones remain unclear. Accordingly, many research groups have conducted numerous investigations to expand
Cut size the application range of hydrocyclones by optimizing operating parameters and conditions. This paper presents a
Energy consumption
comprehensive state-of-the-art review of the aforementioned hydrocyclone enhanced-separation technologies,
Split ratio
which are classified into two groups: (i) operating parameters, including feed flow rate, feed pressure, feed
density difference, feed particle parameters (concentration, size, shape, and arrangement), and feed fluid
parameters (viscosity and rheology); and (ii) operating conditions, including electrical hydrocyclones, magnetic
hydrocyclones (electromagnetic field and permanent magnetic field), magnetic fluids hydrocyclones, electro-
chemical hydrocyclones, flocculant-assisted hydrocyclones, hydrocyclones enhanced by flotation, hydrocyclones
enhanced by control particles; hydrocyclones enhanced by adjusting back pressure, and hydrocyclones enhanced
by monitoring and automatic control. These enhanced-separation technologies were analyzed and summarized
based on the critical separation-performance parameters, such as separation efficiency, cut size, split ratio,
energy consumption, capacity, and separation sharpness. It is hoped that both reviewed contents and proposed
challenges may be helpful to the researchers and eventually yield some perspective knowledge, which results in
the improvement of economic feasibility of separation by hydrocyclones.

1. Introduction research, including the PM2.5 separation [5], cell separation [6], sub-
micron particles separation [7–13], cyanide recovery [14,15], ha-
Cyclones, i.e., stationary mechanical devices using the centrifugal zardous-trace-metals (e.g., Cd, Pb, and Ni) separation [16], ions and
force to separate or classify, have been extensively applied in both molecules separation [17,18], flocs separation [19], flocs classification
heavy and light industrial applications [1–4] including gas cleaning, [20], fibre separation [21], fibre fractionation [22,23], chemical
burning, atomizing, spraying, liquid clarification, liquid thickening, oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand (BOD) removal
powder classification according to size, sorting according to solids [24], insoluble slimes removal [25,26], radionuclide and volatile or-
density, sorting according to particle shape and density, and counter- ganic compounds (VOC) removal from soil and ground water [27],
current washing. Generally, they are classified into two groups: (i) The froth flotation of mineral particles and dispersed oil [28], SO2 removal
cyclones particularly designed for liquids, which are referred to as from flue gas [29], and natural gas separation [30].
hydrocyclones [3], hydraulic cyclones, dense medium cyclones, solid- Wherein, recent years, hydrocyclones have been witnessed a rising
liquid cyclones, liquid-solid cyclones or liquid-liquid cyclones; and (ii) worldwide popularity owing to their irreplaceable merits in solid-li-
the other cyclones, which are referred to as gas cyclones, cyclone se- quid, gas-liquid, liquid-liquid, gas-liquid-solid, gas-liquid-liquid, and
parators, cyclone dust collectors, gas-liquid cyclones, solid-gas cyclones solid-liquid-liquid separation [1–3], such as small cut sizes (≥ 2 μm
or cyclone collections. A survey of literature demonstrates that a large [3,31], even submicron [8,9,11]), high separation efficiency, low en-
number of investigations dealing with cyclones have been published ergy consumption, no moving parts, wide operating range, low cost,
and cited in the last two decades (Fig. 1), presenting high potential for and small volume. Specifically, to date, hydrocyclones have been

⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, PR China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Ni).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.06.015
Received 16 April 2018; Received in revised form 23 May 2018; Accepted 5 June 2018
Available online 05 June 2018
1383-5866/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Tian et al. Separation and Purification Technology 206 (2018) 268–285

350 7000
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Number of publications
300 Publications 6000 Citations
5500

Number of citations
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Year Year
Fig. 1. Number of publications and citations related to cyclones in recent 20 years, obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection with the following keywords:
hydrocyclone*, hydraulic cyclone*, dense medium cyclone*, solid-liquid cyclone*, liquid-solid cyclone*, liquid-liquid cyclone*, cyclone separator*, cyclone dust
collector*, gas cyclone*, gas-solid cyclone*, solid-gas cyclone*, and cyclone collection* (Check on May 23, 2018).

widely employed in industries, such as mineral [32,33], chemical ions, and their aggregates, and effect of the shear force on the particle
[34,35], coal [36,37], petroleum [38], papermaking [21], environ- behaviors. Tim Napier-Munn [61] introduced the past, present, and
mental protection [24,39], soil remediation [27,40], waste manage- future of the dense medium cyclones. Our last review [62] on hydro-
ment [41,42], agriculture [43], aquaculture [44], food [45,46], bio- cyclone technologies concentrated on the enhanced-separation tech-
technology [47,48], nanotechnology [8], material science technology nologies developed by optimizing geometric parameters, which seem to
[49], and thermal energy [50,51]. Therefore, to optimize the separation be less complex than those developed by optimizing operating para-
performance and further expand the application scope of hydro- meters and conditions.
cyclones, a great deal of previous research into hydrocyclones have What is worse, a number of different, even contrary, results were
been conducted to develop novel enhanced-separation hydrocyclone obtained during the past years. For instance, some argued that the “fish-
technologies. hook effect”, that is, an inflexion in the separation efficiency curve
To the best of authors’ knowledge, although the first patent on the indicating a dip at sub sieve sizes, was of physical origin [63–70],
hydrocyclone is about 128 years old, to date, there are just a few re- whereas others [71–77] believed that it was just random and sporadic
views on hydrocyclones (Table 1), and marginal effort has been at- phenomenon caused by the measurement errors. Most researchers be-
tempted to comprehensively review and summarize enhanced-separa- lieved that the feed pressure did not have significant effect on the se-
tion hydrocyclone technologies developed by optimizing operating paration performance of hydrocyclones, and it was not need to use high
parameters and conditions. For example, Sheng [52] published a review feed pressure (> 150 kPa) to enhance hydrocyclone separation
on the separation of liquids in a conventional hydrocyclone, which [44,78–81]. Nevertheless, by using a hydrocyclone operating at high
mainly demonstrated the definition of the separation efficiency of a feed pressure up to 6 MPa, Neesse et al. [8] realized the solids classi-
two-phase, liquid system in the presence of a solid. Chakraborti et al. fication in submicron range, which cannot be achieved by utilizing
[53], Svarovsky [54] and Narasimha et al. [55,56] presented reviews hydrocyclones with lower feed pressure.
on hydrocyclone models. Bergström and Vomhoff [57] reviewed the The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive and state-of-
experimental studies about the flow field of hydrocyclones. Holtham the-art review of existing literatures on the enhanced-separation hy-
[58] focused on dense medium cyclones for coal washing, while drocyclone technologies developed by optimizing operating parameters
Kharoua et al. [59] and Liu et al. [60] on de-oiling hydrocyclones and and conditions. To achieve a better understanding of these technolo-
three-phase hydrocyclones, respectively. Wang et al. [18] presented the gies, the enhanced-separation technologies are categorized into two
researches and developments of the hydrocyclonic separation technol- main groups (Fig. 2): (i) operating parameters, including feed flow rate,
ogies, including the fish-hook phenomenon, separation of molecules, feed pressure, feed density difference, feed particle parameters

Table 1
List of reviews relating to hydrocyclones.
Review title Authors Year & Ref.

Separation of liquids in a conventional hydrocyclone H.P. Sheng 1977 [52]

Fluid flow in hydrocyclones: a critical review N. Chakraborti, J.D. Miller 1992 [53]
A critical review of hydrocyclone models L. Svarovsky 1996 [54]
Dense medium cyclones for coal washing - A review P. N. Holtham 2006 [58]
A review of flow modeling for dense medium cyclones M. Narasimha, M. S. Brennan, P. N. Holtham 2006 [55]
A review of CFD modelling for performance predictions of hydrocyclone M. Narasimha, Matthew Brennan, P. N. Holtham 2007 [56]
Experimental hydrocyclone flow field studies Jonas Bergström, Hannes Vomhoff 2007 [57]

Hydrocyclones for de-oiling applications - A review N. Kharoua, L. Khezzar, Z. Nemouchi 2010 [59]
Cyclonic separation technology: Researches and developments Hualin Wang, Yanhong Zhang, Jiangang Wang, Honglai Liu 2012 [18]
Three-phase hydrocyclone separator – A review Yucheng Liu, Qixuan Cheng, Bo Zhang, Feng Tian 2015 [60]
The dense medium cyclone - past, present and future Tim Napier-Munn 2018 [61]
Optimizing geometric parameters in hydrocyclones for enhanced separations: A review and Long Ni, Jinyi Tian, Tao Song, Yongson Jong, Jianing Zhao 2018 [62]
perspective

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J. Tian et al. Separation and Purification Technology 206 (2018) 268–285

PM2.5 separation; Mineral industry;

Cell separation; Chemical industry;

Sub-micron particles separation; Coal industry;

Flocs separation/classification; Petroleum industry;

Fibre separation/fractionation; Papermaking industry;

Cyanide recovery; Environmental protection;

Extraction of heavy metals; Waste management;

Separation of ions, molecules and Soil remediation;

their aggregates;
Agriculture;
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Enhanced- and biological oxygen demand Aquaculture;
separation
(BOD) removal;
hydrocyclone
technologies
in Food industry;
Insoluble slimes removal;
Biotechnology;
Radionuclide and volatile
organic compounds (VOC) Nanotechnology;
removal from soil and ground
water; Material science technology;
automatic control
Monitoring and

Froth flotation of mineral particles Thermal energy;

and dispersed oil;
HVAC (heating, ventilation, and
SO2 removal from flue gas; air conditioning);

Separation of materials with Nuclear?

density closed to the liquid density;
Aviation?
Separation of ultra-low
concentration solid-liquid mixture; Aerospace?

… …

Fig. 2. Overview of enhanced-separation hydrocyclone technologies developed by optimizing operating parameters and conditions for further expansion of appli-
cation scope of hydrocyclones.

(concentration, size, shape, and arrangement), and feed fluid para- separation efficiency and the split ratio increased slower while the
meters (viscosity and rheology); and (ii) operating conditions, including pressure drop increased faster. Accordingly, the feed flow rate cannot
electrical hydrocyclones, magnetic hydrocyclones (electromagnetic be too large owing to that an unacceptable high pressure drop will be
field and permanent magnetic field), magnetic fluids hydrocyclones, caused by the further increase in feed flow rate. However, a typical
electrochemical hydrocyclones, flocculant-assisted hydrocyclones, hy- separation efficiency-feed flow rate relationship for de-oiling hydro-
drocyclones enhanced by flotation, hydrocyclones enhanced by control cyclone [85,86] showed that: as feed flow rate increased, the cen-
particles; hydrocyclones enhanced by adjusting back pressure, and trifugal forces got stronger and hence enhanced the separation; the
hydrocyclones enhanced by monitoring and automatic control. Both of increase continued until the feed flow rate reached Qmin, where the
them are analyzed and summarized according to the critical separation- efficiency plateaued. The separation efficiency basically remained
performance parameters, such as separation efficiency, cut size, split constant until Qmax, after which the separation efficiency dropped
ratio (i.e., the volumetric ratio of underflow to feed flow), energy dramatically. It was recognized that the separation efficiency plateau
consumption (usually expressed by the pressure drop of the fluid pas- was caused by the balance between decreasing the residence times and
sing through the hydrocyclone), capacity, and separation sharpness. It increasing the centripetal forces as the feed flow rate increased [87].
is hoped that both the reviewed contents and the proposed challenges Besides, the separation efficiency decreased at feed flow rates above
may be helpful to the researchers working in this field, and eventually Qmax as a result of either (i) an increased oil-droplet breakup (i.e.,
yield some perspective knowledge, which results in the improvement of emulsification) owing to the excessive shear forces and the turbulence
economic feasibility of separation by hydrocyclones and the expansion [86,88], and/or (ii) a lack of sufficient pressure gradients to drive the
of the application scope of hydrocyclones (Fig. 2). separated oil through the vortex finder as the pressure in the central of
hydrocyclone was reduced at high feed flow rates [86].
2. Review of enhanced-separation hydrocyclone technologies
developed by optimizing operating parameters 2.2. Feed pressure

Generally, the enhanced-separation technologies of hydrocyclones Feed pressure is another operating parameter affecting the separa-
by optimizing operating parameters can be categorized into 5 varieties: tion performance of hydrocyclones [8]. It is proportional to the se-
(i) feed flow rate; (ii) feed pressure; (iii) feed density difference; (iv) paration efficiency [1,89] and energy consumption [1]. Hence, to
feed particle parameters including feed particle concentration, size, achieve higher separation efficiency whereas lower energy consump-
shape, and arrangement; (v) feed fluid parameters including feed fluid tion, the well-known hydrocyclones, such as the Rietema [90], the
viscosity and rheology. Bradley [91], and the Krebs and Demco 4H models [92], operated with
relatively high feed pressure; and hydrocyclones were usually operated
2.1. Feed flow rate with a certain feed pressure that ranged from 50 to 150 kPa [44,78–81].
Besides, this also indicates that, for hydrocyclones with not too small
Feed flow rate, which is also described with feed flow velocity, cylindrical diameter, the increase in feed pressure cannot enhance the
belongs to a family of parameters affecting the separation performance hydrocyclone separation significantly.
of hydrocyclones. To date, a number of experiments [51,82] and nu- Nevertheless, over recent years, to enhance the separation perfor-
merical simulations [83,84] of various hydrocyclones at different feed mance and obtain smaller cut sizes than ever before, mini-hydro-
flow rates have been conducted using different fluids. Most results in- cyclones with extremely high feed pressure were developed and stu-
dicated that [51,82], as the feed flow rate increased, both the died. For instance, Neesse et al. [8] realized the solids classification in

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medium, the separation of low-density-difference particles is one of the

main challenges. The amount of the near gravity particles fed into hy-
drocyclones is a critical factor causing problems such as surging phe-
nomenon, underflow orifice/vortex finder overloading, and flow-
structure instability [99]. Consequently, when the feed medium density
is constant, the feed particle density is proportional to the separation
efficiency of solid-liquid hydrocyclones.
Besides, Ji et al. [100] studied the effects of interaction between the
particle density and hydrocyclone size (i.e., cylindrical section dia-
meter) on the separation performance of hydrocyclones by numerical
simulation. Results indicated that more ultrafine particles were mis-
placed to the underflow in smaller hydrocyclones, whereas more coarse
light particles were likely to unexpectedly flow to the overflow in larger
hydrocyclones. Consequently, the effect of feed particle density should
be considered for selecting hydrocyclones size.

2.4. Feed particle parameters

Fig. 3. Effect of droplet coalescence and breakup on shape of grade efficiency
curve [103]. 2.4.1. Feed particle concentration
For solid-liquid separation with hydrocyclones, even though the low
submicron range, which cannot be achieved before, by using a 10 mm feed concentration does not have a noticeable effect on separation
hydrocyclone operating at high feed pressure up to 6 MPa. They ob- performance [69], feed concentration is inversely proportional to the
served that operation at high feed pressures not only decreased cut size separation efficiency [69,101,102] and separation sharpness, whereas
but also generated a high throughput, which was around 3 times higher is proportional to the cut size and pressure drop [102]. However, for the
than that obtained under normal pressure. This clearly demonstrated separation of immiscible liquids, the increase of feed concentration
that, the smaller the cylindrical diameter, the larger the effects of feed increased the separation efficiency owing to the increasing dominance
pressure on separation performance. of droplet coalescence at high feed concentrations [103]. Therefore, for
Moreover, Neesse et al. [8] also found that, for mini-hydrocyclones a reliable design of hydrocyclones, the change of discrete-phase dis-
with extremely high feed pressure, unacceptable high energy con- tribution in flow field of hydrocyclones, that is, the droplet coalescence
sumption was the main challenge and it should be reduced by opti- and/or breakup (Fig. 3), has to be considered [103]; and further re-
mizing other parameters and operation conditions such as the feed search has to been carried out systematically to investigate the occur-
particle concentration and the discharge flux of the closed “grit pot” rence condition of discrete-phase breakup and coalescence in hydro-
(i.e., the collection box) under the underflow orifice. Additionally, cyclones.
Mukherjee et al. [93] revealed that increase in feed pressure to increase
feed flow rate would generate a pressure drop along the hydrocyclone 2.4.2. Feed particle size
axis. Thus, the free vortex formed would cause an increase of axial For any hydrocyclone, the separation efficiency can be expected to
velocity of particles, resulting in misplacement of particles during se- increase with feed particle size [77]. Nonetheless, an inflexion in the
paration. To decrease the pressure drop along the hydrocyclone axis separation efficiency curve indicating a dip at sub sieve sizes, that is,
and improve the separation effect of hydrocyclones, the vortex finder the so-called “fish-hook effect”, was reported in the early 1980 s [104].
diameter of hydrocyclones should be added in proportion to the in- Since then, numerous literatures [64,66,77,105–108] about the occur-
creased overflow rate [93]. rences of “fish-hook effect” (Figs. 4–6) and the theories to explain the
In addition, hydrocyclones are extremely sensitive to the density phenomenon have appeared. Nevertheless, the existence of the “fish-
differences and size distribution of feed material [94]. To date, most hook effect” itself has not been totally accepted as yet [74,77] and has
high-pressure hydrocyclones (> 50 kPa) have been fitted to heavy and been disputed for a long time [70,73,75–77,105]. Some argued that the
fine feed materials with densities over 2000 kg/m3 and diameters under “fish-hook effect” was of physical origin [63–70], whereas others
212 μm [8,78–80]. While most low-pressure hydrocyclones [71–77] believed that it was just random and sporadic phenomenon,
(1.38–5.56 kPa) have been developed and fitted to the materials with which caused by the measurement errors. In summary, if the “fish-hook
wide range of particle sizes and low densities, such as solid wastes in effect” is proved to be a scientifically significant physical phenomenon
recirculating aquaculture system [44,94–97] and foulant in sewage/
wastewater [50,51,98].
Therefore, considering the unacceptable high energy consumption
of high-pressure hydrocyclones, the low-pressure hydrocyclone should
be developed and used in preference to high-pressure hydrocyclones;
whereas, for the heavy and ultrafine particle, which cannot be sepa-
rated by low-pressure hydrocyclone effectively, the high-pressure hy-
drocyclone can be developed and applied.

2.3. Feed density difference

Feed density difference, that is, the density difference between

different materials in feed flow, is proportional to the separation effi-
ciency of hydrocyclones [50,51,98]. The reason is that the larger the
feed density difference, the greater the strength of centrifugal field.
Accordingly, for solid-liquid hydrocyclones, in which the feed density
difference is the density difference between the particles and the Fig. 4. Typical separation efficiency curve illustrating “fish-hook effect” [107].

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just a placebo and it has no usefulness for all practical applications, it

will be much easier for us to design hydrocyclones according to feed
particle size.

2.4.3. Feed particle shape

Feed particle shape is an exceedingly important factor affecting
separation performance of hydrocyclones [69,109]. Wadell [110–112]
defined the shape of a particle as having sphericity, ψ , a valid quantity
of particle shape evaluated by Eq. (1) [112].
s
ψ=
S (1)

Where s is the surface area of a sphere with a same volume as the

particle, S is the actual surface area of the particle.
Which as a working formula is Eq. (2) [110,111].
Fig. 5. Separation efficiency curve demonstrating “fish-hook effect”, which dc
ϕ=
reveals an initial increase with size till the “critical point” [64]. Shape of this Dc (2)
curve is noticeably different from all other separation efficiency curves showing
“fish-hook effect”. None of them indicate the initial increase with the size till where ϕ is in general approaches the actual ψ -value without ex-
“critical point”. cessive deviation, except for some special geometric forms, such as
circular discs; dc is the diameter of a circle equal in area to the area
obtained in standard size by projecting the particle at rest on one of its
surfaces parallel to the plane of the longest and intermediate diameters
of the particle; Dc is the diameter of the smallest circle circumscribing
the projection of particle.
There is limited studies, nonetheless, on the modelling, quantifica-
tion of particle shape and its effects on hydrocyclone performance
(Table 2) [69]. Endoh et al. [113] employed all types of particle shape,
including spherical, irregular, and plate, with aspect ratio. He found
that, compared with bulky particles, the dynamic properties of flaky
particles in hydrocyclones depended significantly on the particle shape,
suggesting that the shape separation of fine particles by hydrocyclones
is possible. Kashiwaya et al. [109] evaluated the classification behavior
of spherical particles (glass sphere), plate-like particles (PTFE and glass
flake) and block-shaped particles (quartz) by using hydrocyclones and a
Fig. 6. Separation-efficiency curve with two inflections: one at coarse end and
one at fine end [66].
cyclosizer, that is, a particle size distribution analyzer with five hy-
drocyclones. He found that, with the ratio of particle diameter to
thickness increasing, the drag coefficient increased. Zhu and Liow [63]
in the future, it will be extremely helpful for us to improve the se- estimated irregular and spherical particles with the approximate value
paration efficiency of ultrafine/light particles by controlling the “fish- of the degree of true sphericity, ϕ , (Eq. (2) [110,111]) by using scan-
hook effect”. Because it was reported that the “fish-hook effect” might ning electron microscope (SEM). Results demonstrated that non-sphe-
be controlled by adjusting the feed concentration [72], that is, when the rical particles were separated less efficiently than spherical particles.
feed concentration was higher than a certain value, the “fish-hook ef- Abdollahzadeh et al. [69] have investigated the effects of Wadell shape
fect” would disappear. Conversely, if it is corroborated, at last, that it is factor [114], that is, the degree of true sphericity, ψ , on the separation

Table 2
List of main investigations about effects of particle shape on hydrocyclone separation.
Particles Shape factor Size (μm) Concentration Cyclone diameter Feed velocity (m/ Year & Ref.
(mm) s)

Mica 0.04–0.07a 10–100 – – – 1994 [113]

Glass powder 0.77–0.91a 10–100 – – –
Silica sand 0.77–0.91a 10–100 – – –
Glass bead – 10–100 – – –
Glass flake – < 88 0.1 wt.% 25.4 0.18–1.01 2012 [109]
PTFE – < 249 0.1 wt.% 25.4 0.18–1.01
Quartz – < 105 0.1 wt.% 25.4 0.18–1.01
Glass beach sand 0.71aw < 18, < 60 0.2 vol.% 5 1 2014 [63]
Spherical 0.98aw < 18, < 60 0.2 vol.% 5 1
Flake aluminum 0.0522w from BET (wide range) 0.9–100 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2 vol.% 15 3.25, 4.25 and 2015 [69]
5.05
Glass sand 0.3447w from BET; 0.315w from SEM with MIP 0.9–100 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2 vol.% 15 3.25, 4.25 and
software (wide range) 5.05
Spherical aluminum 0.8181w from BET; 0.823w from SEM with MIP 0.9–100 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2 vol.% 15 3.25, 4.25 and
samples software (wide range) 5.05

a
Aspect ratio.
w
Wadell shape factor, ψ .
aw
Approximate value of Wadell shape factor, ϕ .

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performance of mini-hydrocyclone by adopting SEM and BET (specific 2.5. Feed fluid parameters
surface area testing instrument) together with MIP software. Results
indicated that the increase of Wadell shape factor increased the se- According to the difference in the rheology, all fluids can be cate-
paration efficiency of hydrocyclones considerably [69], which ex- gorized into two groups [120]: (i) the Newtonian fluid, the viscosity of
hibited good agreement with the results reported by Zhu and Liow [63]. which is a constant; and (ii) the non-Newtonian fluid, the viscosity of
Traditionally, the particle shape is expressed by 1–2 shape factors. which depends on the shear rate or the share rate history. Therefore, we
However, in fact, there are many shape factors and hence which shape discussed the feed fluid parameters of hydrocyclones from two different
factors were the most appropriate for depicting particle shape should be views: (i) the feed fluid viscosity of the Newtonian fluid, which always
a key problem. Bouwman et al. [115] compared nine shape factors considers continuous phase and particles separately; and (ii) the feed
including the aspect ratio, circularity, new projection shape factor, fluid rheology of the non-Newtonian fluid, which usually represents a
shape factor eR, radial shape factor, one-plane-critical-stability, stokes’ mixture of continuous phase and fine particles.
shape factor, new mass shape factor, and new roughness factor. They
found that, among the aforementioned factors, both the new projection 2.5.1. Feed fluid viscosity
shape factor and circularity worked extremely well for their particles. Feed fluid viscosity is a critical parameter affecting the separation
Zhang et al. [116] proposed an approach to utilize principal component efficiency and the pressure drop [121–123]. With the increase of the
analysis (PCA) to derive latent shape factors from microscope images of feed fluid viscosity, the separation efficiency, pressure drop, and split
particles. Their method, PCA, could be employed to analyze 2-D and 3- ratio decrease, whereas the cut size and the split ratio increase
D images. [124–128]. The reason is that, with the viscosity increasing, the tan-
In summary, to obtain effects of feed particle shape on separation gential velocity is suppressed to the extent of preventing the formation
performance of hydrocyclones, it is required to describe or express the of air core [129] and spiral movement. As a result, under highly viscous
arbitrary shape of particles as accurately as possible. Thereby, as the conditions, the character of underflow changes and the split ratio in-
development of novel technologies, more effective shape factors or creases. For example, Kawatra et al. [130,131] used an on-line vi-
shape-factor combinations should be developed, optimized, and se- brating-sphere viscometer to investigate the effect of the slurry viscosity
lected to explore the above-mentioned effects of feed particle shape as on hydrocyclone separation. They observed that both the cut size and
accurately and comprehensively as possible. the split ratio were proportional to the slurry viscosity [130,131].
Waters [132] found that the increased feed pulp viscosity obtained by
(i) sucrose addition and (ii) decreased slurry temperatures leaded to an
2.4.4. Feed particle arrangement increased cut size, increased split ratio, and decreased separation
Feed particle arrangement has a considerable influence on the se- sharpness. Muzanenhamo [122] observed that, for ore types with
paration performance of fine/light particles in hydrocyclones. Thereby, Bingham plastic behavior, the feed viscosity was proportional to the cut
based on this idea, a volute chamber, which has the pre-sedimentation size. Marthinussen et al. [123] studied the effect of liquid viscosity on
function, was installed prior to the entrance of a hydrocyclone [117]; a the cut size, grade separation efficiency curve, pressure drop, and flow
positive rotation mini-hydrocyclone, that is, the PRM-hydrocyclone pattern comprehensively by experiments (sugar was added to increase
(Fig. 7), was designed with the particle size increasing from the inside the liquid viscosity gradually), CFD, and large-eddy simulations. They
to the wall of entrance [118]; a reverse rotation mini-hydrocyclone, found that, with the liquid viscosity increasing, the cut size increased,
that is, the RRM-hydrocyclone (Fig. 7), was designed with opposite- while the grade separation efficiency decreased markedly. Additionally,
particle arrangement [118]. they also identified a model predicting experimental results well, even
Results illustrated that: (i) for fine/light particles, the separation up to viscosities of 15 Cp. Salimi [121] extended the work of Marthi-
efficiency of the novel hydrocyclone with a volute chamber was sig- nussen et al. [123] and found that the increased viscosity of liquid
nificantly higher than that of the common mini-hydrocyclones (CM- decreased the separation efficiency, pressure drop, tangential and axial
hydrocyclone). (ii) The particles closer to the lower part or the outer velocity, which was consistent with literatures mentioned above. Cil-
wall of the inlet tended to be removed with underflow, while the par- liers et al. [133] investigated the effect of liquid viscosity on the se-
ticles closer to the upside of the entrance tended to get discharged with paration performance of hydrocyclone by raising temperature. They
the so-called “short-circuit flow”. (iii) The separation efficiency of RRM- found that the cut size monotonically increased with the increase of the
hydrocyclone was markedly higher than that of the CM-hydrocyclone liquid viscosity.
and the PRM-hydrocyclone, whereas PRM-hydrocyclone could effec-
tively eliminate the “short-circuit flow”. (iv) The finer the particle, the 2.5.2. Feed fluid rheology
larger the effect of feed particle arrangement and the longer the travel Feed fluid rheology, which can be easily affected by the suspended
path. Overall, all the above-mentioned results demonstrated that, for particle density, size, shape, and concentration [134–136], plays an
hydrocyclones, the feed particle arrangement did have an apparent extremely important role in hydrocyclone separation, owing to the
impact on the separation efficiency of fine particles [117–119]. viscous resistance exerting to the movement of particles through fluid.
Accordingly, a number of researchers have conducted a lot of work to
study the effect of feed fluid rheology on the separation performance of
hydrocyclones. For example, Rusesky [137] investigated the effects of
rheological factors on hydrocyclone performance by adopting the on-
line slurry viscosity measurement. Horsley et al. [138] studied the ef-
fect of the rheology of slurries, that is, the mixtures of the ball clay and
silica, on the separation performance of hydrocyclones by using visc-
osity modifiers. Experimental results suggested that the separation ef-
ficiency of hydrocyclones is notably dependent on the feed slurry
rheology [138]. He [134] investigated the effect of non-Newtonian
rheological properties of the magnetite dense medium on the separation
performance of hydrocyclones, and studied the hydrodynamics of par-
ticle movement in non-Newtonian fluids. Results revealed that the se-
paration of fine particles (< 0.5 mm) was more sensitive to the effect of
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of particle arrangement [118]. feed fluid rheology [134,139]. Tavares et al. [80] carried out

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experiments with phosphate ore slurries of variable particles con-

centration and chemical environment to account for effects of slurry
rheology on classification. Results indicated that, under the conditions
investigated, the slurry rheology had a main influence on cut size, while
had little direct effect on the capacity, separation sharpness, and split
ratio. Wu et al. [136] measured the performance of a hydrocyclone in
removing particles suspended in different power law fluids. They found
that: i) for power law fluids, when the feed velocity and split ratio were
fixed, with the increase of the flow behavior index, n, from 0.51 to 1.00,
the molecular viscosity decreased, which resulted in that both the
tangential velocity and the separation efficiency increased (about 40%).
ii) The higher the flow behavior index, the larger the effect of the feed
velocity on separation efficiency.
Furthermore, a number of models considering the rheology of the
fluid in hydrocyclones were developed and solved. For instance,
Yablonskii [140] solved a series of equations of rheodynamics depicting
the flow of non-Newtonian fluid in hydrocyclones numerically. For
expressing the complex rheological behavior of magnetite suspension as
accurately as possible, Vakamalla et al. [141] developed a modified
mixture model, which considered fluid rheology via various forms of
viscosity models, such as the granular viscosity, the Newtonian and
non-Newtonian model corrected with the particle loading and the
fraction of ultra-fines. Results demonstrated that the multiphase simu-
lation with non-Newtonian Herschel-Bulkley viscosity model could
predict the fluid separation close to the gamma ray tomography data. Li
et al. [142] introduced a modified model of emulsion viscosity corre-
lation, based on the power law equation and the experimental data of
crude oil, to predict the viscosity of oil-in-water emulsions. Results
suggested that: (i) the non-Newtonian behavior of oil-in-water emul-
sions could influence the separation efficiency of hydrocyclones at low
feed flow rates. (ii) The novel model provided higher precision than
models associated with other existing rheological models.
In addition, the rheological properties of dispersion medium can
also affect the separation performance of hydrocyclones. For example,
Fig. 8. Schematic of underflow-collecting-box electrical hydrocyclones (i)
in most cases, the suspensions separated in chemical industry are non-
without underflow: (a) Without electrical potential; (b) Center side +, wall side
Newtonian media, the effective viscosity of which increases with the
-; (c) Centre side -; wall side +; and (ii) with underflow (Modified from [147]):
intensity of deformation rates decreasing and hence affects the hydro- (d) Without electrical potential; (e) Center side +, wall side -; (f) Centre side -;
dynamics of hydrocyclones [143]. Accordingly, in order to investigate wall side +.
the effects of rheological properties of dispersion medium on the se-
paration of suspensions in hydrocyclones, Yablonskii et al. [143,144]
collecting box of which had a desired DC electrical potential between
constructed a model of separation of the above-mentioned suspensions
the central metal rod electrode and the cylindrical metal wall (Fig. 8);
with a non-Newtonian dispersion medium in hydrocyclones, which
and (2) the conical-section electrical hydrocyclones proposed by Nenu
considered the effect of Coriolis force on particles.
et al. [10,11] and Yoshida et al. [9], the conical section of which had a
desired DC electrical potential between the center electrode and the
3. Review of enhanced-separation hydrocyclone technologies
conical wall (Fig. 9).
developed by optimizing operating conditions
With respect to the underflow-collecting-box electrical hydro-
cyclones (Fig. 8), based on experimental studies, researchers found that:
The enhanced-separation hydrocyclone technologies developed by
(i) for hydrocyclones without underflow (Fig. 8(a)–(c)), it has been
optimizing operating conditions, many of which can only be used in
acknowledged that [145–147], compared with hydrocyclones without
some specific applications, are classified into 10 categories: (i) electrical
electrostatic force (Fig. 8(a)), electrical hydrocyclones with electro-
hydrocyclones; (ii) magnetic hydrocyclones, including electromagnetic
static force (Fig. 8(b) and (c)) can significantly decrease the cut size.
hydrocyclones and permanent magnetic hydrocyclones; (iii) magnetic
While for hydrocyclones with underflow, different results were ob-
fluids hydrocyclone; (iv) electrochemical hydrocyclone; (v) flocculant-
tained [145,147]. For example, in 2005, Pratarn et al. [145] observed
assisted hydrocyclones; (vi) hydrocyclones enhanced by flotation; (vii)
that, for hydrocyclones with underflow (Fig. 8(d)–(f)), compared with
hydrocyclones enhanced by control particles; (viii) hydrocyclones en-
hydrocyclones without electrostatic force (Fig. 8(d)), electrical hydro-
hanced by adjusting back pressure; (ix) hydrocyclones enhanced by
cyclones with electrostatic force (Fig. 8(e) and (f)) increased the cut size
monitoring and automatic control.
considerably. While in 2008, Pratarn et al. [147] found the reversed
results, that is, compared with hydrocyclones without electrostatic
3.1. Electrical hydrocyclones
force (Fig. 8(d)), electrical hydrocyclones with electrostatic force
(Fig. 8(e) and (f)) decreased the cut size significantly. (ii) In both
Electrical hydrocyclones, which apply the external electrical field to
without and with underflow, electrical hydrocyclones with positive
enhance separation, were first reported by Pratarn et al. [145] and
potential applying at the side wall and negative potential at the central
Yoshida et al. [146]. To date, according to the position of the applied
rod (Fig. 8(c) and (f)) exhibit stronger effect than the electrical hy-
electrostatic potential, electrical hydrocyclones can be classified into
drocyclones with negative potential applying at the side wall and po-
two groups: (1) the underflow-collecting-box electrical hydrocyclones
sitive potential at the central rod (Fig. 8(b) and (e)) [145,147]. (iii) In
developed by Pratarn et al. [145] and Yoshida et al. [146], the slurry

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Fig. 9. Enhanced separation mechanism in conical-section electrical hydrocyclones [11].

was consisted with that obtained by Lim et al. [148]. The reason may be
that [10], the lower feed flow rate means the longer residence time of
particles in electrical hydrocyclones, and leading to a higher separation
efficiency. (iii) The cut size was inversely proportional to the conical
length.

3.2. Magnetic hydrocyclones

Magnetic hydrocyclones [149], characterized by compound force

fields, including centrifugal force, magnetic forces, Stokes’s force (re-
sistive), inertia force, Archimedes force, and weight force [150], have
been utilized to enhance the hydrocyclone separation. They were
mainly employed on magnetic minerals in separation, purification, de-
sliming and recycling operations [49]. According to the magnetic field
excitation form, magnetic hydrocyclones can be described in terms of
two categories: the electromagnetic hydrocyclones and the permanent
Fig. 10. Schematic of overflow magnetic hydrocyclones developd by Fricker magnetic hydrocyclones.
[151].
3.2.1. Electromagnetic hydrocyclones
both without and with underflow, the cut size was inversely propor- Based on where magnetically susceptible particles primarily dis-
tional to the initial pH values (owing to the increased negative zeta charged from, the electromagnetic hydrocyclones could be divided in
potential under the high pH condition) [146,147], central rod diameter two groups: the overflow magnetic hydrocyclones (e.g., Fig. 10) and the
(owing to the increased electrostatic effect) [146,147], length of un- underflow magnetic hydrocyclones (e.g., Fig. 11).
derflow collecting box [145–147], and the feed flow rate [146,147]. Fricher [151] developed the main overflow magnetic hydrocyclones
With respect to the conical-section electrical hydrocyclones (Fig. 9), (Fig. 10) for sorting and recycling the magnetic media and the titanium
experimental results demonstrated that: (i) the negative zeta potential magnetite iron ore. Svoboda et al. [152] designed another type of
of sub-micron silica particles was proportional to the particle diameter overflow magnetic hydrocyclone for separating the kimberlite in an
[9,10], leading to that the enhanced separation by use of the electro- industrial test. Fan et al. [153] adopted an axial electromagnetic field
static potential was possible [9,10] and the classification of sub-micron (Fig. 12) to enhance the separation density of hydrocyclones. The re-
particles was realized using electrical hydrocyclones [11]. (ii) The se- sults demonstrated that the presence of magnetic field could increase
paration efficiency was proportional to the applied electrostatic po- the separation density.
tential [9–11], whereas was inversely proportional to the feed flow rate Contrary to the aforementioned overflow magnetic hydrocyclones,
[9,10]. This trend contrasted with that of the aforementioned under- Watson et al. [154] developed a two-pole underflow magnetic hydro-
flow-collecting-box electrical hydrocyclones, which was in accord with cyclone, which was improved by Boxmag-Rapid Ltd. [155]. They found
with the effect of feed flow rate on the separation efficiency of the that the separation performance under eight poles was the best. Vatta
conventional hydrocyclones as discussed in “2.1 Feed flow rate”, while et al. [156] investigated the effect of magnetic field on hydrocyclones
by conducting tests. They found that, to ensure that ferrosilicon flow

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Fig. 11. Schematic of underflow magnetic hydrocyclones developed by Watson

and Amoako-Gyampah [154].

Fig. 14. Schematic of novel magnetic hydrocyclone [157].

combined magnetic, centrifugal, and electric forces to remove the im-

purities from liquid. Experimental results illustrated that the turbidity
of the contaminated process water was decreased markedly from 33.6
to 8.5, with a visible change in the sample colour from dark brown to
extremely light yellow.

3.2.2. Permanent magnetic hydrocyclones

In addition to electromagnetic hydrocyclones, permanent magnetic
hydrocyclones have also been studied by many scholars. For instance,
Tang et al. [157] installed a permanent magnet inside a hydrocyclone
and decreased the metal loss (Fig. 14). Premaratne and Rowson [158]
applied a permanent rare earth magnet made from neodymium-iron-
boron (Nd–Fe–B) to separate titanium from ultrafine particles of beach
sands (Fig. 15). They observed that the Nd–Fe–B magnetic hydro-
cyclone had better separation performance than the conventional hy-
drocyclones without magnetic field. Peng et al. [159] laid four Nd–Fe–B
permanent magnets at the apex of hydrocyclones to explore the effect of
permanent magnetic field acting on the apex on the separation per-
Fig. 12. Schematic of axial electromagnetic hydrocyclone [153]. formance of the hydrocyclone. They found that the separation density
was improved. Fan et al. [49] attached different arrangements of per-
manent magnets on the outside of the hydrocyclone (Fig. 16) to ma-
patterns are not disrupted, a suitable magnetic induction must be kept.
nipulate the separation density. They concluded that: (i) the magnetic
Furthermore, Ali-Zade et al. [150] produced a novel underflow
field strength was inversely proportional to the separation density; (ii)
electromagnetic hydrocyclone (EMHC) illustrated in Fig. 13. The EMHC
the presence of the magnetic field would reduce the separation

Fig. 13. Schematic of (a) electromagnetic hy-

drocyclone and (b) experimental unit. EMHC,
electromagnetic hydrocyclone; DC, direct cur-
rent [150]: 1 - cylindrical section made of dia-
magnetic metal (or plastic); 2 - conic ferromag-
netic metal core body; 3 - inlet pipe; 4 - outlet
pipe for heavy influent; 5 - central electrode for
light product; 6 - cover made of ferromagnetic
metal; 7 - bobbin; 8 - electrical isolation of pipes.

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magnetohydrostatic suspension principle. Accordingly, when the mag-

netic fluids flow through the hydrocyclone, the magnetic fluids are
subjected to the magnetic force, leading to the artificial “weight gain”
or “weight reduction”, namely, the apparent density gain or reduction.
As a result, according to the density difference and the magnetization
coefficient difference, minerals were suspended in different sorting
space, resulting in that satisfactory classification and separation was
achieved. In summary, the MFH successfully enhanced the hydro-
cyclone separation with magnetic force, especially for the particles with
size of < 100 μm.

3.4. Electrochemical hydrocyclones

Moreover, electrochemical hydrocyclones, which combined the

electro-deposition process with the centrifugal separation process, were
proposed by Dhamo and Kammel [161–163]. The electrochemical re-
action was added into the hydrocyclones. Under the action of the
centrifugal force, the electrodeposition was discharged with underflow,
whereas the liquid flowed out with the overflow. The electrochemical
hydrocyclones were primarily utilized for the electrolytic recovery of
Fig. 15. Cross section of magnet coupling for magnetic hydrocyclone [158]. valuable metals, such as the gold, silver, and copper, from dilute so-
lutions [161–163].

3.5. Flocculant-assisted hydrocyclones

Flocculants can agglomerate particles in hydrocyclones feed to form

flocs. Hence, it has been verified by several experiments that, compared
with traditional hydrocyclones, the flocculant-assisted hydrocyclones
have higher separation efficiency [164–166]. For example, Yalcin [164]
used a flocculant-assisted hydrocyclone to treat the copper-nikel mill
tailing. Results suggested that the use of flocculants increased the se-
paration efficiency of hydrocyclones markedly. Yalcin and Brunet [167]
attempted to use the flocculant-assisted hydrocyclone to reduce or
eliminate thickener requirements at Mount Wright Concentrator. They
observed that the use of shear-resistant flocculants enhanced the hy-
drocyclone separation performance by decreasing the solids con-
centration in overflow. In order to use flocculant-assisted hydro-
cyclones for the mine backfill preparation from mill tailings, Ni [166]
selected the flocculant type and the flocculant addition point through
hydrocyclone tests. Experimental results demonstrated that: i) ten kinds
of flocculants tested could improve the solid recovery to underflow in
various degree. ii) Compared with addition of flocculant to the pump
outlet, the addition of flocculant to the pump outlet yielded higher solid
Fig. 16. Positions and magnetic pole stack types of permanent magnets system recovery to underflow. The reason was that the high rotational speed of
(a) test positions, (b) magnetic pole stack types. [49]. pump could damage the flocculant, although the flocculant was shear-
resistant. iii) The flocculant dosage was proportional to the solid con-
accuracy slightly. centration in underflow, whereas was inversely proportional to the
Compare the permanent magnetic hydrocyclones with electro- solid concentration in overflow.
magnetic hydrocyclones, it can be concluded that: (i) the permanent
magnetic hydrocyclones have lower energy consumption; (ii) whereas 3.6. Hydrocyclones enhanced by flotation
the electromagnetic hydrocyclones can be adjusted and controlled more
conveniently; (iii) consequently, whether the magnetic hydrocyclones The hydrocyclone enhanced by flotation, generally referred to as
are designed as electromagnetic or as permanent magnetic is de- “the air-sparged hydrocyclone (ASH),” “hydrocyclone enhanced by air
termined by certain conditions. bubbles,” or “air-injected hydrocyclone”, has been extensively used in
various industries. Its specific development process is as follows.
Although the history of the centrifugal flotation has extended about
3.3. Magnetic fluids hydrocyclones 96 years [168], the importance of flotation of fine particles was not
recognized until 1981. As a result, the first hydrocyclone enhanced by
Unlike magnetic hydrocyclones, which were applied to enhance the flotation named as the air-sparged hydrocyclone (ASH), which com-
separation and classification of magnetic granular material with hy- bines hydrocyclone separation with flotation, was first proposed by
drocyclones, magnetic fluids hydrocyclones (MFH) were employed to Miller [169] in 1981 for fast flotation in a centrifugal field. To date, the
enhance the separation and classification of natural non-magnetic mi- ASH has been extensively utilized in the flotation of solid particles and
neral particles by treating the water-based magnetic fluids, that is, oil droplets owing to its unique merits, such as extending the fine
ferrofluids, as medium. The MFH was firstly introduced by Lin et al. particles flotation limit [14,15,23,28,29], decreasing the flotation time
[160]. By putting the hydrocyclone in an outside magnetic field, the to less than a second [170], and increasing the specific capacity to
MFH combined the centrifugal separation principle with the 100–600 times higher than that of the conventional flotation machines

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[170]. For example, Yalamanchili and Miller [26] used the ASH to
enhance insoluble slimes removal from potash ore. Results indicated
that the specific capacity of a single-stage ASH was 100 times as high as
that of a conventional flotation, and the separation efficiency of the
insoluble slimes was higher than 70%. Yi [27] employed the ASH to
separate radionuclide and volatile organic compounds (VOC) from soil
and ground water, and found that the ASH had a diversified functions to
remove radionuclides, VOC, DNAPL, oil and others from the con-
taminated soil and groundwater. Torres and Cocke [14] utilized the
ASH to enhance the cyanide recovery. Experimental data demonstrated
that a single-stage ASH decreased the aqueous cyanide-ion concentra- Fig. 17. Schematic of oil/bubble attachment [88,172].
tion from 250 ppm to < 20 ppm with the recovery efficiencies higher
than 80%. Hupka et al. [15] applied the ASH as a reactor for HCN
floatation separation, and could certainly enhance the hydrocyclone
stripping and absorption, and realized a rapid absorption of over 99%
separation. (ii) The vortex finder diameter of the air-injection hydro-
of HCN from HCN gas. Bokotko et al. [29] utilized the ASH as a ab-
cyclone should be larger than the hydrocyclone without air injection.
sorber for SO2 emissions. Results indicated that the separation effi-
(iii) The highest separation efficiency was obtained when the micro-
ciency of SO2 was up to 97%, which suggested that the ASH could be
pore diameter was smallest. The reason might be that, with the increase
successfully employed as a gas-liquid contactor in notorious processes,
of the micro-pore diameter, the air velocity toward the center in-
which applied the aqueous solution of sodium sulfite, dimethylaniline
creased, whereas the residence time decreased. (iv) Nevertheless, the
solution, limestone slurry, and citrates as absorbents. Dabros et al. [23]
micro-pore diameter could not be too small. The reasons might be as
used the ASH to enhance the fibre fractionation. Experimental results
follows: the larger the micro-pore diameter, the harder for the bubbles
showed that the ASH was an effective unit for fibre fractionation, and
to be scattered into the fluid, and its capability carrying oil droplets
surfactants added into the feed flow might be helpful for air bubbles to
increased; if the micro-pore diameter was too small, there would cer-
entrap a lot of long fibre networks.
tainly lead to blockage. (v) There did exist an optimum air-liquid ratio
Furthermore, to understand the mechanism underlying the ASH
for hydrocyclone separation, which was supported by Bai et al.
flotation, Niewiadomski et al. [28] investigated the interactions be-
[88,172,174]. (vi) The optimum separation efficiency could be got by
tween the air bubble and the discrete phase (i.e., the oil droplet and the
the first one third fine-cone injection.
mineral particle) in the ASH. Three kinds of interactions, including the
encounter, liquid film thinning followed by rupture/attachment, and
detachment, were considered, and four main mechanisms [171] re- 3.7. Hydrocyclones enhanced by control particles
sponsible for the encounter of the air bubble and the particle, including
turbulent motions, interception, gravity action, and inertial impaction, Similar to the above-mentioned hydrocyclone enhanced by flota-
were explained. They found that: (i) in the centrifugal fields of the ASH, tion, that is, the so-called “hydrocyclone enhanced by air bubbles”, the
the encounter efficiency in the oil-droplets flotation was much lower hydrocyclone enhanced by control particles are the hydrocyclone using
than that in the mineral-particles flotation; (ii) the collision contact control particles (i.e., the micro-particles in Fig. 18), including the solid
times (< 0.14 ms) of the investigated air bubble and oil droplet sizes particles, droplets, and gas-liquid composite drops, to enhance the hy-
were much lower than the water film rupture times (2–3 ms), which drocyclone separation, which was proposed by Wang et al. [18]. Its
meant that the collision was not enough for water film rupture; (iii) the principle is as follows. Generally, the ions, molecules, and their ag-
stability of the air bubble/oil droplet aggregate was much higher than gregates in fluids are easily to be adhered on the surfaces of large
that of the air bubble/mineral particle aggregate; (iv) the high energy particles. Thus, we can first use the control particles with relatively
dissipation in the ASH could enhance the emulsification of the oil at- large diameter (i.e., the micro-particles in Fig. 18) to adhere the ions,
tached to the air bubble and hence decrease the air bubble/oil droplet molecules, and their aggregates (i.e., the nano-particles in Fig. 18), and
aggregates; hence, (v) polymeric flocculants should be added to en- then enhance the separation of the ions, molecules, and their aggregates
hance the oil recovery by increasing the air bubble/oil droplet ag- by separating the control particles with larger diameter (i.e., the micro-
gregates. particles in Fig. 18). By this way, we can also enhance the separation by
In contrast, in the view of hydrocyclones, the above-mentioned increasing the adsorption capacity of control particles. To date, how-
examples also confirmed that the hydrocyclone separation could be ever, although the hydrocyclone enhanced by control particles has been
effectively enhanced by the flotation. Therefore, recent years, to en- successfully in several applications [18], further research is still re-
hance hydrocyclone separation by flotation, researchers introduced quired to study its mechanism, and the range of its application should
various approaches to add air bubbles into hydrocyclones. For instance, be significantly expanded.
to enhance the oil-water separation in hydrocyclones, Bai et al.
[88,172] utilized an air-liquid mixing pump to produce 15–60 μm air 3.8. Hydrocyclones enhanced by adjusting back pressure
bubbles and provide high probability for oil-bubble interaction. After
air bubbles with larger diameter, which could decrease the separation The back pressure at the sink outlet, which is associated with col-
efficiency, were separated using an air-liquid separation pot, the air lection approaches of overflow and underflow, has a great influence on
bubbles, oil, and water were fed into the hydrocyclone together. Then the flow within hydrocyclones and the split ratio. For example, Closed
the air bubbles were entrapped by a single oil droplet or oil droplets methods of collection, such as the conventional hydrocyclones with a
with flocculated structure (Fig. 17), which resulted in that the oil was closed “grit pot” under apex, inevitably create the back pressure, which
separated more easily and rapidly than that without air bubbles. Results alters split ratio in an entirely predictable, although not related manner
demonstrated that: (i) the air bubbles occurred in the water could [1]. Piller et al. [175] examined the sensitivity of DynaWhirlpool hy-
ameliorate the separation efficiency of hydrocyclones [88,172]. (ii) The drocyclone operation to the applied back-pressure. They found that the
separation efficiency reached the maximum when the air-liquid ratio optimum range of the back pressure did exit for normal operating of
was close to 1% [88]. Zhao et al. [173] injected the air into hydro- hydrocyclones. The reasons were as follows: (i) if the back pressure was
cyclones through the micro-pore section to combine them with dis- below the lower threshold limit of the aforementioned optimum range,
persed oil. Experimental results demonstrated that: (i) the air-injection there would appear an abnormal local fluid recirculation phenomenon;
hydrocyclone had two functions: hydrocyclone separation and (ii) if the back pressure was above the upper aforementioned back-

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Fig. 18. Schematic of hydrocyclones enhanced by

micro-particles (i.e., control particles) [18]: (a) the
flow field in the hydrocyclone; (b) the movement
of particles in the outer swirling flow; (c) the dis-
tribution of axial velocity in the outer flow field;
(d) a micro-particle (i.e., a control particle); and
(e) finer particles, such as the ions, molecules, and
their aggregates.

pressure, there would occur two large recirculation regions, which increased the danger of blocking the apex [2], the underflow pumping
deteriorated the normal separation performance of hydrocyclones. can avoid the apex blocking successfully. Therefore, compared with
The back pressure can also affect the separation efficiency. For adjusting the underflow pipe diameter, although with a large increased
small-diameter hydrocyclone, the back pressure in overflow increases energy consumption, the underflow pumping is a robust technique for
the separation efficiency at the same split ratio [1], which means the adjusting the back pressure in underflow and controlling the hydro-
decrease of the back pressure in the underflow relative to the overflow cyclone separation performance. Recently, Ni et al. [50,51,98,178] in-
can enhance the separation efficiency of hydrocyclones. That is, the troduced the reflux device, which made hydrocyclones have the con-
back pressure in underflow decreased the separation efficiency at the tinuous underflow and reflux function, to hydrocyclones and proposed
same split ratio and measures should be taken to improve the separa- the novel de-foulant hydrocyclone with continuous flow and reflux
tion efficiency. Consequently, Strasser [176] proposed a novel coupled function (Fig. 20). As a result, with just a little increased energy con-
hydrocyclone-ejector and employed ejector under apex to improve se- sumption, the reflux device, which also has a similar influence as
paration efficiency (Fig. 19). Sabbagh et al. [177] used a pump in un- changing the underflow pipe diameter, enhanced the hydrocyclone
derflow to actively control the separation performance of hydro- separation considerably and avoided the clogging at apex effectively.
cyclones either through providing the back pressure or by the pump Therefore, owing to the importance of the back pressure mentioned
suction. They found that the pressure ratio, that is, the ratio of absolute above, further investigations are required to study the effects of back
underflow pressure to overflow pressure, resulting from underflow pressure on various separation parameters of hydrocyclones and to
pumping has a similar effect, in terms of affecting downstream condi- develop novel enhanced-separation hydrocyclone technologies by ad-
tions and controlling hydrocyclone performance, as altering the un- justing back pressure.
derflow pipe diameter by a valve. Nevertheless, unlike the approaches
using a valve, either under automatic control or manually, which 3.9. Hydrocyclones enhanced by monitoring and automatic control

Although the hydrocyclone has a number of merits, its separation

performance is never perfect and numerous efforts are still continuing
along different directions for achieving optimum solutions.
Accordingly, non-invasive and quick monitoring of hydrocyclone per-
formance are important for enhancing the separation performance of
hydrocyclones. It has been acknowledged that the spray angle can be
employed as an indicator for monitoring the separation performance of
hydrocyclones [179]. Hence, in order to assess the separation perfor-
mance of hydrocyclones, Gutierrez et al. [180] utilized electrical im-
pedance tomography (EIT) to control hydrocyclone underflow dis-
charge. Petersen et al. [181] and Van Vuuren et al. [182] used image
processing techniques to measure spray angle and spray width, re-
spectively. Rashid et al. [183] linked the spray angle in pressure swirl
atomizers with design and operating variables by applying “Image J
software”. Mazumdar et al. [184] attempted to apply an image pro-
cessing based algorithm on MATLAB to quantify the spray angle of
hydrocyclones at different various operating conditions. Aldrich et al.
[185] employed multivariate image analysis to estimate the particle
size in underflow of hydrocyclones.
Fig. 19. Mesh of coupled hydrocyclone-ejector [176]. Furthermore, to verse the amendment of operating state of

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Fig. 20. Schematic of practical project of sewage source heat pump with novel de-foulant hydrocyclone with continuous underflow and reflux function [98].

hydrocyclones with corresponding change in underflow discharge pat- corresponding change in operating state (e.g., underflow dis-
tern. Dubey et al. [179] captured and analyzed the underflow discharge charge pattern), with advanced artificial intelligence technologies;
profile by utilizing a digital camera and an image processing algorithm, (11) Effects of the interaction between various parameters (e.g., the
respectively. Results verified that the spray angle was sensitive to the feed pressure and the hydrocyclone diameter) on separation-per-
variations of design and operating variables. formance parameters of hydrocyclones by employing the response
surface methodology, multi-criteria decision analysis, and ortho-
4. Challenges and perspectives gonal experimental methodology; integrative application of en-
hanced-separation hydrocyclone technologies developed by opti-
Considering the reviews mentioned above, the challenges, i.e., areas mizing operating parameters and conditions and those developed
requiring further investigation to understand the effects of operating by optimizing geometric parameters, particularly the technologies
parameters and conditions on the separation performance of hydro- with low energy consumption and small split ratio; drawing les-
cyclones and to develop novel, substantially enhanced-separation hy- sons from enhanced-separation technologies of gas cyclones [5],
drocyclone technologies are summarized below. vortex tubes [186], and other similar separation devices with
strong swirling flow [187]; combination of hydrocyclone separa-
(1) The possibility and effects of the discrete-phase (e.g., liquid dro- tion with other separation approaches, such as the membrane
plets, air bubbles, and solid particles) breakup and coalescence in separation and nanofiltration;
various hydrocyclones; (12) Development of novel enhanced separation technologies of hy-
(2) The real reason for the decline in the separation efficiency at feed drocyclones by optimizing operating parameters and conditions
flow rates above Qmax, after which the separation efficiency drops by using and developing i) advanced technologies, such as 3-D
dramatically; printing technology [188], x-ray computed tomography (x-ray CT)
(3) Effects of various operating parameters and conditions on the [170], high-speed imaging techniques [189], inline measurement
discharge capacity of the apex and the vortex finder; techniques of droplet and particle size distribution, the three-di-
(4) Whether “fish-hook effect” is a scientifically significant physical mensional three-component velocimetry technique (i.e., volu-
phenomenon or just random and sporadic phenomenon; metric three-component velocimetry technique) [190], and the
(5) More effective shape factors or shape-factor combinations should four-dimensional three-component velocimetry technique (in-
be developed, optimized, and selected to investigate the effects of corporating the time dimension); ii) more effective and affordable
the arbitrary shape of feed particles as accurately and compre- CFD techniques including the DPM model [118,191], CFD coupled
hensively as possible; with the discrete element method (DEM) (CFD-DEM) [192,193],
(6) More investigations on effects of the feed-continuous-medium coarse-grained CFD-DEM model [194], two-fluid model [195],
rheology and the feed-dispersion-medium rheology on various and dimensionless rotation parameter which establishes a cri-
separation-performance parameters; terion for choosing cost-effective and accurate turbulence models
(7) Development and application of more compound-force-field hy- [196]; and iii) modern particle processing techniques through
drocyclones, such as the electrical hydrocyclones, magnetic hy- which particles with the uniform parameters (e.g., shape, size, and
drocyclones, magnetic fluids hydrocyclones, electrochemical hy- density) can be manufactured;
drocyclones, and hydrocyclones enhanced by flotation; (13) Enlargement of the application scope of hydrocyclones, especially
(8) More investigations on effects of various flocculants on separation- in the disposal of solid waste, wastewater, and waste gas in pet-
performance parameters; apart from flocculant-assisted hydro- rochemical, HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning),
cyclones, more novel hydrocyclones with the help of other che- nuclear, aviation, aerospace, and other heavy industries.
mical or biological methods should be developed;
(9) Mechanism behind the hydrocyclone separation enhanced by ad- 5. Summary and conclusion
justing back pressure;
(10) Development of more intelligent hydrocyclones, which can verse A comprehensive state-of-the-art review of enhanced-separation
the amendment of operating state of hydrocyclones with hydrocyclone technologies developed by optimizing operating

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parameters and conditions is presented here. To achieve an improved indicating a dip at sub sieve sizes, that is, the so-called “fish-hook ef-
understanding of these technologies, the enhanced-separation technol- fect” was reported by several researchers. To date, the existence of the
ogies were categorized into two main groups: i) operating parameters, “fish-hook effect” itself has not been totally accepted as yet.
including feed flow rate, feed pressure, feed density difference, feed With respect to the feed particle shape, the shape separation of fine
particle parameters (concentration, size, shape, and arrangement), and particles by hydrocyclones is possible. With the increase of the Wadell
feed fluid parameters (viscosity and rheology); and ii) operating con- shape factor, i.e., the degree of true sphericity, the separation efficiency
ditions, including electrical hydrocyclones, magnetic hydrocyclones increased. However, to explore the effects of feed particle shape as
(electromagnetic field and permanent magnetic field), magnetic fluids accurately and comprehensively as possible, more effective shape fac-
hydrocyclones, electrochemical hydrocyclones, flocculant-assisted hy- tors or shape-factor combinations should be developed, optimized, and
drocyclones, hydrocyclones enhanced by flotation, hydrocyclones en- selected.
hanced by control particles, adjusting back pressure, and performance With respect to the feed particle arrangement, the feed particle ar-
monitoring and automatic control. These enhanced-separation tech- rangement does have an apparent impact on the separation efficiency of
nologies were analyzed and summarized according to the essential se- fine particles. The finer the particle, the larger the effect of feed particle
paration-performance parameters of hydrocyclones, including separa- arrangement. The particles closer to the lower part or the outer wall of
tion efficiency, cut size, split ratio, energy consumption, capacity, and the inlet tend to be removed with underflow, while the particles closer
separation sharpness. The following conclusions were drawn. to the upside of the entrance tend to get discharged with the so-called
“short-circuit flow”. Furthermore, the separation efficiency of RRM-
5.1. Operating parameters hydrocyclone is markedly higher than that of the CM-hydrocyclone and
the PRM-hydrocyclone, whereas the PRM-hydrocyclone can eliminate
(1) Feed flow rate. With the increase in the feed flow rate, the se- effectively the “short-circuit flow”.
paration efficiency and the split ratio increase slower and slower,
whereas the pressure drop increases faster and faster. Then feed (5) Feed fluid parameters. With respect to the feed fluid viscosity, with
flow rate levels out over the operating range of hydrocyclones. the increase of the feed fluid viscosity, the separation efficiency,
Because further increase in feed flow rate will lead to an un- pressure drop, and split ratio decrease, whereas the cut size and the
acceptable high pressure drop. What is worse, for de-oiling hydro- split ratio increase.
cyclones, further increase in feed flow rate will also ultimately in-
duce the separation efficiency to decrease acutely. With respect to the feed fluid rheology, like the aforementioned feed
(2) Feed pressure. Feed pressure is proportional to the separation effi- fluid viscosity, both the rheology of the feed continuous medium and
ciency, energy consumption, and capacity. Nevertheless, the that of the feed dispersion medium (e.g., the suspensions separated in
smaller the cylindrical diameter, the larger the effects of feed chemical industry, which are non-Newtonian media) have a significant
pressure on separation performance. As a result, (i) for hydro- influence on the separation performance of hydrocyclones.
cyclones with not too small cylindrical diameter, the increase in Therefore, the separation performance of hydrocyclones can be ef-
feed pressure cannot enhance the hydrocyclone separation sig- fectively enhanced by decreasing the feed fluid viscosity and adjusting
nificantly; while (ii) for mini-hydrocyclones, the feed pressure up to the feed fluid rheology through various methods, including adding
6 MPa can help to realize solids classification in submicron range. In additions and raising the fluid temperature.
addition, to date, most high-pressure hydrocyclones have been
fitted to heavy and fine feed materials with densities over 2000 kg/ 5.2. Operating conditions
m3 and diameters under 212 μm; whereas most low-pressure hy-
drocyclones (1.38–5.56 kPa) have been developed and fitted to the (1) Electrical hydrocyclones. Electrical hydrocyclones can be classified
materials with wide range of particle sizes and low densities, such into two groups: the underflow-collecting-box electrical hydro-
as solid wastes in recirculating aquaculture system and foulant in cyclones and the conical-section electrical hydrocyclones.
sewage/wastewater.
(3) Feed density difference. Feed density difference is proportional to With respect to the underflow-collecting-box electrical hydro-
the separation efficiency. Hence, the separation of low-density- cyclones, (i) for hydrocyclones without underflow, compared with hy-
difference material is one of the main challenges for hydrocyclones, drocyclones without electrostatic force, electrical hydrocyclones with
which results in that the amount of the near gravity material fed electrostatic force can significantly decrease the cut size. While for
into hydrocyclones is a critical factor causing problems, such as hydrocyclones with underflow, different results were obtained. (ii) In
surging phenomenon, underflow orifice/vortex finder overloading, both without and with underflow, electrical hydrocyclones with posi-
and flow-structure instability. Moreover, the effect of the feed tive potential applying at the side wall exhibit stronger effect than the
particle density should be considered for selecting hydrocyclones electrical hydrocyclones with negative potential applying at the side
size. The reason is that more ultrafine particles are misplaced to wall. (iii) In both without and with underflow, the cut size is inversely
underflow in smaller hydrocyclones, whereas more coarse light proportional to the initial pH values, central rod diameter, length of
particles are likely to unexpectedly flow to the overflow in larger underflow collecting box, and the feed flow rate.
hydrocyclones. With respect to the conical-section electrical hydrocyclones, (i) the
(4) Feed particle parameters. With respect to the feed particle con- negative zeta potential of sub-micron silica particles is proportional to
centration, for solid-liquid separation, feed concentration is in- the particle diameter, leading to that the enhanced separation by use of
versely proportional to the separation efficiency and separation the electrostatic potential is possible. (ii) The separation efficiency is
sharpness, whereas is proportional to the cut size and pressure drop. proportional to the applied electrostatic potential, whereas is inversely
While for the separation of immiscible liquids, the increase of feed proportional to the feed flow rate. This trend contrasts with that of
concentration increases the separation efficiency owing to the in- underflow-collecting-box electrical hydrocyclones, which is consistent
creasing dominance of droplet coalescence at high feed con- with the effect of feed flow rate on the separation efficiency of the
centrations. conventional hydrocyclones.

With respect to the feed particle size, for any hydrocyclone, the (2) Magnetic hydrocyclones. According to the magnetic field excitation
separation efficiency can be expected to increase with the feed particle form, magnetic hydrocyclones are classified into two categories: the
size. Nonetheless, an inflexion in the separation efficiency curve electromagnetic hydrocyclones and the permanent magnetic

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hydrocyclones. Compare the permanent magnetic hydrocyclones (8) Hydrocyclones enhanced by adjusting back pressure. The back
with the electromagnetic hydrocyclones, the permanent magnetic pressure at the sink outlet, which is associated with collection ap-
hydrocyclones have lower energy consumption, whereas the elec- proaches of overflow and underflow, has a great influence on the
tromagnetic hydrocyclones can be adjusted and controlled more flow within hydrocyclones, split ratio, and separation efficiency.
conveniently. Specifically, the decrease of back pressure in underflow relative to
(3) Magnetic fluids hydrocyclones. Magnetic fluids hydrocyclones can the overflow can enhance the separation efficiency of hydro-
be employed to enhance the separation and classification of natural cyclones. Hence, to improve the separation efficiency, several ap-
non-magnetic mineral particles by treating the water-based mag- proaches, including coupled hydrocyclone-ejector, hydrocyclone
netic fluids, that is, ferrofluids, as medium. By putting the hydro- underflow pumping, and hydrocyclone with continuous flow and
cyclone in an outside magnetic field, magnetic fluids hydrocyclones reflux function, were proposed to adjust the back pressure of hy-
combine the centrifugal separation principle with the magnetohy- drocyclone. Results indicated that: i) all of the three approaches can
drostatic suspension principle, and can successfully enhance the effectively enhance the separation efficiency. ii) The pressure ratio,
hydrocyclone separation with magnetic force, especially for the that is, the ratio of absolute underflow pressure to overflow pres-
particles with size of < 100 μm. sure, resulting from underflow pumping or reflux device has a si-
(4) Electrochemical hydrocyclones. Electrochemical hydrocyclones, milar effect, in terms of affecting downstream conditions and con-
which combine the electro-deposition process with the centrifugal trolling hydrocyclone performance, as altering the underflow pipe
separation process, are primarily utilized for the electrolytic re- diameter using a valve. iii) Unlike the approaches using a valve,
covery of valuable metals, such as the gold, silver, and copper, from either under automatic control or manually, which increased the
dilute solutions. danger of blocking the apex, the underflow pumping can avoid apex
(5) Flocculant-assisted hydrocyclones. Several Flocculants can ag- blocking successfully with a large increased energy consumption,
glomerate particles in hydrocyclones feed to form flocs, which re- whereas the reflux function can avoid apex blocking effectively
sults in that the flocculant dosage is proportional to the solid con- with a low increased energy consumption. Therefore, iv) compared
centration in underflow, whereas is inversely proportional to the with changing underflow pipe diameter, both of the underflow
solid concentration in overflow. Therefore, the flocculant can en- pumping and the reflux device are robust techniques for adjusting
hance the hydrocyclone separation. Different kinds of flocculant the back pressure in underflow and controlling the hydrocyclone
can enhance the separation efficiency in various degree. Compared separation performance.
with addition of flocculant to the pump outlet, the addition of (9) Hydrocyclones enhanced by monitoring and automatic control.
flocculant to the pump outlet yields higher separation efficiency. Although the hydrocyclone has a number of merits, its separation
(6) Hydrocyclones enhanced by flotation. Not only hydrocyclones can performance is never perfect. Accordingly, non-invasive and quick
be successfully used to extend the flotation limit, but also the flo- monitoring of the separation performance are important for en-
tation could be effectively employed to enhance the hydrocyclone hancing hydrocyclone separation. It has been acknowledged that
separation of dissolved solid particles, oil and fibres. To date, the spray angle can be employed as an indicator for monitoring the
available hydrocyclones enhanced by flotation are main used for oil separation performance of hydrocyclones. A number of new tech-
removal from liquid, and can be classified into two groups ac- nologies, including the electrical impedance tomography, image
cording to the approaches adding air bubbles: (i) the hydrocyclone processing techniques, “Image J software”, image processing based
using an air-liquid mixing pump and an air-liquid separation pot; algorithm on MATLAB, multivariate image analysis, and digital
and (ii) the air-injection hydrocyclone. For both of them, there does camera, have been utilized to monitor performance and verse the
exist an optimum air-liquid ratio for hydrocyclone separation. For amendment of operating state of hydrocyclones with the corre-
the air-injection hydrocyclones, (i) the vortex finder diameter of the sponding change in spray angle.
air-injection hydrocyclone should be larger than the hydrocyclone
without air injection. (ii) The micro-pore diameter is proportional In summary, it was found that: (i) all the aforementioned enhanced-
to the separation efficiency. (iii) The best separation efficiency can separation technologies have high potentials for enhanced hydro-
be got by the first one third fine-cone injection. cyclone separation. (ii) To date, there are no effective ways of mod-
ifying operations to overcome some inherent problems associated with
Furthermore, investigations on the ASH also demonstrated that: (i) hydrocyclones, especially particle misplacements. (iii) It is urgently
hydrocyclones enhanced by flotation could be effectively utilized not necessary to apply hydrocyclones to realize the better separation of
only as a separator, but also as a gas-liquid contactor or a rapid ab- materials with complex or extreme parameters, including shape, size,
sorber; (ii) the encounter efficiency in the oil-droplets flotation was density, and concentration, from liquid with low energy consumption
much lower than that in the solid-particles flotation; (iii) the collision and small split ratio. For example, the separation of the fibers, sub-
contact times of the air bubble and the oil droplet were much lower micron particles, materials with density closed to the liquid density,
than the water film rupture times, which meant that the collision was and the ultra-low concentration solid-liquid mixture. (iv) As a result,
not sufficient for water film rupture; (iv) the stability of the air bubble/ hydrocyclones can be successfully employed in more industries, espe-
oil droplet aggregate was much higher than that of the air bubble/ cially the disposal of solid waste, wastewater, and waste gas in petro-
mineral particle aggregate; (v) the high energy dissipation in the ASH chemical, HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning), nuclear,
could enhance the emulsification of the oil attached to the air bubble aviation, aerospace, and other heavy industries. Additionally, (v) there
and hence decrease the air bubble/oil droplet aggregates; accordingly, is a serious need for the development and utilization of universal en-
(vi) polymeric flocculants should be added to enhance the oil recovery hanced-separation hydrocyclone technologies, hydrocyclone models,
by increasing the air bubble/oil droplet aggregates; (vii) surfactants software packages covering a number of universal hydrocyclone
added into the feed flow may be helpful for air bubbles to entrap a lot of models, which can be extensively and conveniently applied in almost
long fibre networks. all application fields for optimizing hydrocyclone design and operation,
and hydrocyclones with artificial intelligence.
(7) Hydrocyclones enhanced by control particles. Similar to hydro-
cyclones enhanced by flotation, hydrocyclones enhanced by control Acknowledgements
particles (i.e., solid particles, droplets, and gas-liquid composite
drops) can really enhance the hydrocyclone separation, especially This work was financially supported by the Provincial Science
the separation of ions, molecules, and their aggregates. Foundation of Heilongjiang (No. E2017034).

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