CSIR-UGC (NET)

Mathematical Sciences

SAMPLE

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

Complex Analysis

1. LINE INTEGRAL

b
For a real-valued function f(x), definite integral  f(x) dx is calculated always along the real axis
a
(x-axis), from x = a to x = b i.e., path of integration is always along real-axis.
b
But for a complex function f(z), the path of the definite integral  f(z) dz may be along any curve
a

joining z = a to z = b. i.e., Value of the integral depends upon the path of integration.
In case the initial point and final point coincide, then curve C, is a closed curve and integral is
called contour integral and is denoted by  f(z)dz .
C

If f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where

z = x + iy  dz = dx + idy, then

 f(z)dz =  (u  iv)(dx  idy)

C C

=  (udx  vdy)  i (vdx  udy)

C C

Therefore, definite integral of f(z) is reduced to two line integrals of real functions.
1 i
Ex. Evaluate  (x 2  iy)dz along y = x.
0

Sol. Along the line

y = x
 dy = dx and dz = dx(1 + i)
Here, z = x + iy = x(1 + i)
When z = 0  x = 0 and
when z = 1 + i  x = 1
 Given, integral is
1 1 1
2
 (x0
 ix)(1  i)dx = (1 + i)  x 2 dx  i xdx 
 0 0 
1
 x3 x2  1 i  5i
= (1 + i)   i   1  i    
3 2 0 3 2 6
Complex Line Integral

 f(z) dz is called the complex line integral along rectifiable arc L or definite integral of f(z) from
L

a to b along L and
n

 f(z)dz  lim  (z k  zk 1 )f(  k ) (ab  initio method)

L n
k 1

where, k is a point on each arc joining the points zk-1 to zk.

Note : An arc z = z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a  t  b is rectifiable if and only if the functions x(t) and
y(t) are of bounded variation in [a, b]. Length of arc I is given by
b b
I  {x(t)} 2  {y(t)} 2 dt or I   | z(t) |dt
a a

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

Properties of Complex Line Integrals

(i)  {f(z)  (z)}dz   f(z)dz   (z)dz
L L L

We can generalize this property for a finite number of functions.

(ii)  f(z)dz    f(z)dz, where –L is the opposite arc of L.
L L

(iii)  f(z)dz   f(z)dz   f(z)dz,

L1  L2 L1 L2

where the end point of L1 coincides with the initial point of L2.
(iv)  cf(z)dz  c  f(z)dz, where c is any complex constant.
L L

(v)  [c f (z)  c f (z)  ...  c f (z)] dz

L
11 2 2 n n

 c1  f1(z)dz  c 2  f2 (z)dz  ...  c n  fn (z)dz,

L L L

where c1, c2 ..., cn are complex constants.

(vi)  f(z)dz  
L L
f(z) dz
(vii) If a function f(z) is continuous on a contour L of length I and if M be the upper bound
of f(z) on L i.e., |f(z)|  M on L, then

 f(z)dz  MI
L

(viii) The line integral  p dx + qdy, defined in a domain D, depends only on the end points of
 if and only if there exists a function U(x, y) in D such that

U U
 p and q
x y

Ex. Evaluate  (z 2  3z)dz along the circle |z| = 2 from (2, 0) to (0, 2).
C

Sol. We have, z = x + iy; dz = dx + idy

|z| = 2  x2  y2 = 2  x2 + y2 = 4

Put x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t


t varies from 0 to .
2
 dx = – 2 sin t dt, dy = 2 cos t dt
z = 2 (cos t + i sin t) = 2 eit
 dz = (–2 sin t + 2 cos t) dt = 2ei((/2) + t) dt
/2
  (z 2  3z)dz =  [(2eit )2  3·2 eit ] 2ei((  / 2) t )dt
C 0

/2
= 2 0 (4e2it  6eit ) ei((  / 2) t ) dt

/2 /2
= 8 ei((  / 2) 3t )  12  ei((  / 2) 2t ) dt
0 0

/2
 ei((  / 2) t ) ei((  / 2) 2t) 
= 8·  12· 
 3! 2!  0

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

8 i 12 3 i / 2
= (e  ei / 2 )  (e  ei / 2 )
3! 2!
8 6 8 8
= ( 1  i)  ( i  i)     12
3! i 3! 3

8i 44  44 8i 
= –     
3 3  3 3
dz
Ex. Evaluate  , where L represents the circle |z – a| = r..
L za
Sol. Parametric equation of the circle |z – a| = r is
z = a + r ei, where 0    2
 dz = irei d
i
dz 2  ir e 2
2
Hence, L z  a 0 r ei d  i0 d  i[]0  2i


z2
Ex. Evaluate  dz , where L is the semi-circle
L z
z = 2eit, 0  t  .
Sol. We have,
z = 2eit, 0  t  
 dz = 2ieit dt
z2  (2eit  2)
Hence, L z dz =  2 i eit dt
0 2eit

= 2i  (1  e  it ) eit dt
0



it  eit 
= 2i  (e  1)dt  2i   t 
0
 i 0
 ei 1 
= 2i    
 i i 
= 2ei – 2 + 2i = –4 + 2i

Ex. Evaluate  f(z)dz, where f(z) = y – x – 3x2i and C

C

(i) is the line segment from z = 0 to z = 1 + i.

(ii) consists of two line segments, one from z = 0 to z = i and the other from z = i to z =
1 + i.
Sol. We have, f(z) = y – x – 3x2 i
(i) Equation of the line joining z = 0 and z = 1 + i is
y = x.
 dy = dx
 dz = (1 + i) dx and x varies from 0 to 1.
1
  f(z)dz =  3x 2i(1  i)dx
C 0

= –i(1 + i)[x3]01 = –i(1 + i) = 1 – i

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

(ii) Along the line z = 0, to z = i, we have x = 0, y varies from 0 to 1.

 dx = 0 and dz = i dy
1
1  y2  i
 f(z)dz =  y dy  i   
C 0
 2 0 2
Now, along the line z = i to z = 1 + i, y = 1 and x varies from 0 to 1.
 dy = 0 and dz = dx
1
1  y2  i
 C f(z)dz = 0 y dy  i   
 2 0 2
1
= – i
2
i 1 1 i
 C f(z)dz =   i 
2 2 2
Important Terms
(i) Simply Connected Region (or domain) : A connected region or domain (D) is said to
be a simple connected, if a closed curve C, contained in D has its interior contained in
D, i.e., there is no hole.

(ii) Multiple Connected Region : A domain that is not simply connected, i.e., there are
some holes called multiple connected region. Multiple connected region is bounded by
more than one curve.
D
C1

C2
Any multiplically connected region can be reduced to a simply connected region by giving
it one or more cuts.

C1

C2
(iii) Multiple Point : If satisfied by more than one value of the variable in the given range,
then the point is called a multiple point of the curve.
(iv) Jordan Arc : A continuous arc without multiple point is called a Jordan arc.
(v) Regular Arc : If the derivatives of the given functions are also continuous in the given
range, then the arc is said to be a regular arc.
(vi) Contour : A contour is a Jordan curve consisting of continuous chain of a finite number
of regular arc S.
The contour is said to be closed if the starting point A coincides with end point B.
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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

2. IMPORTANT THEOREMS

Cauchy’s Theorem
Let D be a simply connected region and let f(z) be a single valued continuously differentiable
function on D, i.e., f’(z) exists and is continuous at each point of D. Then,

 f(z)dz  0,
C

where C is any closed contour contained in D.

Cauchy’s Theorem for any Closed Curve
If f(z) is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C is any closed curve, then

 f(z)dz  0
C

Application of Cauchy’s Theorem to Multiple Connected Region

Let D be a doubly connected region bounded by two simple closed curves C1 and C2 such that
C2 is contained in C1 and f(z) is analytic in the region between these curves and continuous on C1, then

 f(z)dz   f(z)dz
C C2
D
where, both C1 and C2 are transversed in the positive sense
i.e., in anti-clockwise direction.
Similarly, for n curves C1, C2, C3, ..., Cn
C2
We have
C1
 f(z)dz   f(z)dz   f(z)dz  ...   f(z)dz
C1 C2 C3 Cn

Cauchy’s Integral Formula

Let f(z) be an analytic function in a simply connected domain D enclosed by a rectifiable Jordan
Curve C and let f(z) be continuous on C. Then

1 f(z)
f(z0 )   dz
2i C (z  z0 )

where z0 is any point of C.

Derivative Form of Cauchy’s Integral Formula
Let f(z) be analytic function within and on the boundary C of a simply connected region D and
let z0 be any point within C.

n! f(z)
Then, fn(z0) =  dz
2i C (z  z0 )n1

Proof. From Cauchy’s integral formula,

1 f(z)
f(z0) =  dz ...(i)
2i (z  z0 )
C

Differentiating Eq. (i) both sides w.r.t. ‘z0’, we get

1 f(z)
f’(z0) =  dz ...(ii)
2i (z  z0 )2
C

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

Now, differentiating Eq. (ii) both sides w.r.t. ‘z0’, we get

2! f(z)
f”(z0) =  dz ...(iii)
2i C (z  z0 )3

Similarly,

3! f(z)
f”’(z0) =  dz ...(iv)
2i (z  z0 )4
C

Proceeding in the same way, we get

n! f(z)
fn(z0) =  dz
2i (z  z0 )n1
C

f(z) f n (z0 )
or C (z  z0 )n1 dz = 2i
n!

Morera Theorem (Converse of Cauchy’s Theorem)

If f(z) be continuous in a simply connected domain D and  f(z)dz = 0


where  is any rectifiable closed Jordon curve in D, then f(z) is analytic in D.

Cauchy’s Inequality
Let f(z) be analytic in a domain D and let D contain the interior and the boundary of the circle
 defined by |z – z0| = r and if |f(z)|  M on , then

M
|fn(z0)|  n!
rn

n! f(z)
Proof : We have fn(z0) =  dz
2i (z  z0 )n1


n! f(z) n! f(z)
 |fn(z0)| =  n 1
dz   dz
2i (z  z0 )
 2 z  z0 n 1


n! M
 . dz [ |f(z)|  M]
2 r n1 

n! M
= . 2r
2 r n1

M
Hence, |fn(z0)  n! ·
rn
Liouville’s Theorem
If f(z) is an analytic function satisfying the inequality |f(z)|  M for all values of z, where M is a
positive constant, then f(z) is constant.
Maximum Modulus Principle
Let f(z) be analytic within and on a simple closed contour C. Then, |f(z)| reaches its maximum
value on C, unless f(z) is constant. In other words, if |f(z)|  M on and within C, then unless f is a
constant, |f(z)| < M for every point within C.

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Schwarz Lemma
If f(z) is analytic in a domain D defined by |z| < R and satisfies the conditions |f(z)|  M for all
M
z  D and f(0) = 0, then |f(z)|  |z|.
R

M i
Also, if the equality occurs for any z, then f(z) = ze , where  is a real constant.
R
or If D = {z : |z| < 1} and if f(z) is analytic on D with
(a) |f(z)|  1 for all z  D
(b) f(0) = 0, then
|f’(0)|  1 and |f(z)|  |z|
for all z in D.
In case of equality f(z) = ei z, where  is a real constant.
Moreover, if |f’(0)| = 1 or |f(z)| = |z| for some z  0, then there is a constant c, |c| = 1, such that
f(w) = cw for all w  D
The Riemann Mapping Theorem
A region D is conformally equivalent to C if there is analytic function f : D  C such that f is
one-one and f(D) = C.
If D is a simple connected region which is not the whole plane and let z0  D, then there is a
unique analytic function f : D  C, with the property.
(a) f(z0) = 0 and f’(z0) > 0
(b) f is one-one.
(c) f(D) = {z : |z| < 1}
The Open Mapping Theorem
Let D be a region and suppose f is a non-constant analytic function on D. Then, for any open
set U in D, f(U) is open.
Y
1 C
Ex. Evaluate  dz, where C is the circle |z| = 3?
C z(z  1)

A(1,0)
Sol. |z| = 3 is a circle with centre at origin and radius 3. X
O 3
Now, z(z – 1) = 0 at z = 0 and z = 1
i.e., z = 0 is at O(0, 0) and z = 1 is at A(1, 0).
Since, these points are within C, we write f(z) = 1,
z-plane
which is analytic everywhere

1 A B
and  
z(z  1) z z  1

 By the method of partial fractions, we have

 1 = A(z – 1) + Bz
Putting z = 0 and z = 1, we get
A = –1 and B = 1

1 1 1
Hence, = 
z( 1) z 1 z

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

1 f(z) f(z) f(z)

  dz   dz   dz   dz ...(i)
C z(z  1) C z(z  1) C z 1 C z

But by Cauchy’s integral formula, we have

f(z)
 dz = 2 i f(1) [ z0 = 1]
C z 1
= 2i [ f(1) = 1]

f(z) f(z)
and  dz   dz  2i f(0) [ z0 = 1]
C z C z0
= 2i [ f(0) = 1]
Hence, from Eq. (i), we have

1
 dz  2 i  2i  0
C z(z  1)

z 1
Ex. Evaluate  dz where, C : |z – i| = 2.
C (z  1)2 (z  2)

Sol. |z – i| = 2 is a circle with centre (0, 1) and radius 2.

Now, poles are given by putting denominator equal to zero.
 (z + 1)2 (z – 2) = 0
 z = –1, –1, 2
Here, double pole at z = –1 and simple pole at z = 2, out of which only z = –1 lies inside
contour C.

 z 1
z 1  z  2
dz  
Hence, 
C (z  1)2 (z  2)
 C (z  1)2 dz
2i
= 2i f’(–1) = (from derivative form of Cauchy’s integral formula)
9
z 1 1 1
where f(z) =  f’(z) =  f’(–1) = –
z2 (z  2) 9

z3
Ex. Evaluate  2
C z  2z  5
dz, where C is circle

(i) z | = 1 (ii) |z + 1 – i| = 2.
Sol. (i) Here, z2 + 2z + 5 = z2 + 2z + 1 + 4
= (z + 1)2 – (2i)2 = (z + 1 + 2i)(z + 1 – 2i)

z3 A B
Let  
(z  1  2i)(z  1  2i) z  1  2i z  1  2i

By method of partial fractions, we have

 z – 3 = A(z + 1 – 2i) + B(z + 1 + 2i)
Putting z = –1 + 2i, we get
–1 + 2i – 3 = A(0) + B(–1 + 2i + 1 + 2i)

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

 –4 + 2i = 4iB

2i  4 1
 B =  i
4i 2
Putting z = –1 –2i, we get
–1 – 2i – 3 = A(–1 –2i + 1 – 2i)
 –4 –2i = –4i A
4  2i 1
 A=  – i
4! 2

1 1
i i
 z3 2 2
  .
z2  2z  5 z  1  2i z  1  2i

z3 1  1 1  1
  2
dz    i   dz    i   dz
C z  2z  5
 2  C z  1  2i  2  C z  1  2i
1
f(z) = is analytic within and on the circle |z| = 1, as the pole z = –1 –2i lies
z  1  2i
outside the circle |z| = 1.

1
  dz = 0, (by Cauchy’s integral theorem)
C z  1  2i

1
Similarly, f(z) = is analytic within and on the circle IzI = 1 as the pole z = –1
z  1  2i
+2i lies outside the circle IzI = 1.

1
  dz  0 (by Cauchy’s integral theorem)
C z  1  2i

z3
  2 dz = 0
C z  2z  5
(ii) |z + 1 – i| = 2 is the circle with centre –1 + i and radius 2.
The point –1 –2i lies outside the circle |z + 1 –i| = 2 and the point –1 + 2i lies inside the
circle |z + 1 – i| = 2.

1
  dz = 0, (by Cauchy’s integral theorem)
C z  1  2i

1
and  dz = 2i(1),
C z  1  2i
Since,
f(z) = 1  f(–1 + 2i) = 1
= 2i

z3 1  1 
  2
C z  2z  5
dz =   i  0    i  2i
2  2 
= i – 2 = (–2 + i)

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Ex. Evaluate the following integrals by using Cauchy’s integral formula

sin z 2  cos z 2 1 ezt

(i) C (z  1)(z  2 dz (ii)
2i C z2  1
dz, t  0,

where C represents the circle |z| = 3.

Sol. (i) We have,

1 1 1
 
(z  1)(z  2) z  2 z  1

sin z 2  cos  z 2
Now, C (z  1)(z  2) dz

 1 1 
   f(z) dz,
C z2
 z  1 

where, f(z) = sin z2 + cos z2 is analytic within and on C

f(z) f(z)
=  dz   dz
C z2 C z 1
= 2i f(2) – 2i f(1)
= 2i [(sin ·22 + cos ·22) – (sin ·12 + cos ·12)]
= 2i [1 – (–1)] = 4i
(ii) We have,

1 1 1 1 1 
2
    
z  1 (z  i)(z  i) 2!  z  i z  i 

1 ezt 1 1 1 1  zt
Now,  dz    e dz
2
2i C z  1 2i C 2i  z  i z  i 


1 1 f(z) 1 f(z) 
=   dz   dz ,
2i  2i z  i
C 2i z  i 
C

where, f(z) = ezt is analytic within and on C

1
= [f(i) – f(–i)]
2i

1 it
= (e – e–it) = sin t
2i

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

3. EXPANSION OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS AS POWER SERIES

Taylor’s Theorem
Let f(z) be analytic at all points within a circle C0 with centre z0 and radius r0. Then, for every
point z within C0, we have
f(z) = f(z0) + f’(z0)(z – z0)

f (z 0 ) f n (z0 )
+ (z – z0)2 +...+ (z – z0)n +.... C0
2! n!
r0 C
R
n

(z  z0 ) n z0 z
 f(z0 )   f (z0 )
n 1 n! w

If we put z0 = 0 in the above series, we get


zn n
f(z) = f(0) +  f (0),
n  1 n!

which is known as Maclaurin’s series.

Note : For the validity of the expansion as a Taylor’s series, it is essential that f(z) be analytic
at all points inside the circle C0 for then the convergence of Taylor’s series for f(z) is assured.
If f(z) is not analytic at z = z0, then f(z) is expanded about z = z0 by Laurent’s method.
Laurent’s Theorem
Let f(z) be analytic in the ring shaped region D bounded by two concentric circles C1 and C2 with
centre z0 and radii r1 and r2 (r1 > r2) and let z be any point of D. Then,
  C1
f(z) =  a (z  z n 0 )n   bn (z  z0 ) n
n 0 n 1
C2
r1
r2
1 f(w) z0
where an =  dw r
2i 1 (w  z0 )n1
C
z

1
and bn = (w  z0 )n1 f(w) dw, n  1, 2, 3, ...
2i C2
Note : We have, bn = a–n. Therefore, if C is any circle of radius r and centre z0 such that r2 <
r < r1, then since the integrand is analytic in r2 < |w – z0| < r1, we can write

1 f(w)
an = 2i C (w  z )n1 dw and
0

1
bn = a–n = (w  z 0 )n1 f(w)dw
2i C
In this case the resulting series becomes

f(z) =  a (z  z n 0 )n ,
n 

1 f(w)
where an =  dw
2i C(w  z0 )n1

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

1
Ex. Expand f(z) = in a Laurent’s series valid for the regions
(z  1)(z  3)

(i) |z| < 1 (ii) 1 < |z| < 3

(iii) |z| > 3 (iv) 0 < |z + 1| < 2
Sol. We have,

1
f(z) =
(z  1)(z  3)
Resolving into partial fractions, we get

1 1
f(z)  
2(z  1) 2(z  3)

(i) When |z| < 1. Then, we get

1
1 1 1 z
f(z) = 1  z    1  
2 6 3

2 3
1 1 z z z 
= 1  z  z 2  z3  ...  1         ...
2 6  3  3   3  

 1 1  1 1  1 1  2
=      z   z  ...
 2 6   2 18   2 54 

1 4 13 2
=  z z  ...
3 9 27
which is the required Laurent’s series.
(ii) When 1 < |z| < 3. Then, we have

1 |z|
 1 and 1
|z| 3

1
1 1 1  1
Now, =   1 
2(z  1)  1  2z  z
2z  1  
 z 

1  1 1 1 
=  1   2  3  ... 
2z  z z z 

1 1 1
=  2  3  ...
2z 2z 2z

1 1
and =
2(z  3)  z
6 1  
 3 

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

1
1 z 1 z z2 z3 
=  1     1     ... 
6 3 6 3 9 27 
1 1 1 2 1 2
=  z z  z  ...
6 18 54 162
Thus, the Laurent’s series valid for the region 1 < |z| < 3 is

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3
f(z)  ...  3
 2    z z  z  ...
2z 2z 2z 6 18 54 162
(iii) When |z| > 3. Then, we have (3/|z|) < 1
1 1
1  1 1  3
 f(z) = 1    1  
2z  z 2z  z

2 2
1  1 1 1  1  3 3 3 
= 1     ...   1     ... 
2z  z z 2 z3  2z

   
 z  z   z  
1 4 13 40
= 2
 3  4  5 +...
z z z z
Given is the required Laurent’s series.
(iv) Given that 0 < |z + 1| < 2
Let z + 1 = u. Then, we have 0 < |u| < 2
1
1 1 1  u
 f(z) =   1  
(z  1)(z  3) u(u  2) 2u  2
2 3
1  u u u 
= 2u  1   
     ...
 2  2   2  

1 1 u u2
=     ...
2u 4 8 16
1 1 z  1 (z  1)2
=     ...
2(z  1) 4 8 16
Which is the required Laurent’s series.

z2  1
Ex. Obtain the Taylor’s and Laurent’s series which represent the function f(z) = in the
(z  2)(z  3)
regions
(i) |z| < 2 (ii) 2 < |z| < 3
(iii) |z| > 3

z2  1 5z  7
Sol. Let f(z) =  1
(z  2)(z  3) (z  2)(z  3)

Resolving into partial fractions, we get

3 8
f(z)  1  
z2 z3

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

(i) When |z| < 2. Then, we have

1 1
3 z 8 z
f(z) = 1 +  1     1  
2 2 3 3

3 z z 2 z3  8 z z2 z3 
= 1 +  1   2  3  ...    1   2  3  ... 
2 2 2 2  3 3 3 3 
n n
3  n  z 8  n  z
= 1 +  ( 1)     ( 1)  
2 n0  2  3 n0 3
Which is the required expansion.

2 |z|
(ii) When 2 < |z| < 3. Then, we have < 1 and < 1
|z| 3

1 1
3 2 8 z
 f(z) = 1 +  1     1  
z z 3 3

3 2 22  8 z z 2 z3 
= 1 +  1   2
 ...    1   2  3  ... 
z z z  3 3 3 3 
n n
3  n 2 8  n  z
= 1 +  ( 1)     ( 1)  
z n0 z
  3 n0 3
Which is the required expansion.

3
(iii) When |z| > 3. Then, we have < 1
|z|

1 1
3 2 8 3
 f(z) = 1 +  1     1  
z z z z

2 3
3  2 2 2  8  3  3  2  3 3 
= 1 + 1         ...  1         ...
z  z  z   z   3  z  z   z  
n n
3  n 2 8  n 3
= 1 +  ( 1)     ( 1)  
z n0 z 3 n0 z
Which is the required expansion.
Ex. Find two Laurent’s series expansions in powers of z of the function

1
f(z) 
z(1  z 2 )

Sol. We have,

1
f(z) =
z(1  z 2 )

1 z
Resolving into partial fractions, we get f(z) =  .
z 1  z2

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

When, 0 < |z| < 1. Then, we have

1 1
f(z) = – z(1 + z2)–1 = – z(1 – z2 + z4 – z6 +...)
z z
1
= – z + z3 – z5 +...
z
When, |z| > 1. Then we have
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
f(z) =   1  2     1  2  4  6  ... 
z z z  z z z z z 

1 1 1
= 3
 5  7  ...
z z z
Which is the required expansion.

1
Ex. Find the Laurent’s series of the function f(z) = 2
about z = 0.
z (1  z)
Sol. We have,

1 1 1 
n
f(z) =
z 2 (1 – z)
–1
= 2 (1 + z + z2 +...) = 2
z z
z
n0

1 1 
 f(z) = 2
  1   zn
z z n 1

Which is the required expansion.

1
Ex. Obtain the Taylor’s or Laurent’s series which represents the function f(z) = 2
,
(1  z )(z  2)

when (i) |z| < 2, (ii) 1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2
Sol. Resolving f(z) into partial fractions, we obtain

1 1 z2
f(z)   2
5  z  2 z  1


(i) For |z| < 1, f(z) is analytic and so we have,

1
1 1 z 1
f(z) = .  1    (z – 2)(1 + z2)–1
5 2 2 5

1  z z2 n z
n

= 10 1   2
 ...  ( 1) n
 ...
 2 2 2 

(z  2)
– [1 – z2 + z4 – z6 +...+ (–1)n z2n +...]
5
n
1  n z z2 
=  ( 1) · n
  ( 1)n z 2n
10 n0 2 5 n0

This series being in the positive powers of z and hence represents Taylor’s expansion for
f(z).

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

1 1
(ii) When 1 < |z| < 2, then we have < 1 or < 1, so that the binomial expansion
|z| | z |2
1
 1
of  1  2  is valid.
 z 
1
1 1 1 z2 1  1
f(z)  . (1  z)1  . 1  z2 
5 2 2 5 z2  

1  z z 2 z3  z2 1 1 
 1   2  3  ...  2 
1  2  4  ... 
10  2 2 2  5z  z z 

1  zn z  2  1
  ( 1)n n  2 
( 1)n 2n
10 n0 2 5z n0 z

The above series being in positive and negative powers of z and hence represents
Laurent’s expansion for f(z) in the region 1 < |z| < 2.
(iii) When |z| > 2, then we have
1 1
1 1 2 1 1  1
f(z) = .  1    (z  2)· 2  1  2 
5 z z 5 z  z 

1  2 22 23  z2 1 1 1 
= 1   2  3  ...  2 
1  2  4  6  ...
5z  z z z  5z  z z z 
n
1  2 1  1 2   ( 1)n
=  ( 1)n      2   2n
5z n 0 z 5  z z  n0 z

1
Ex. Find the expansion of in powers of z.
(z  1)(z 2  2)
2

When, (i) |z| < 1 (ii) 1 | z |  2 (iii) |z|  2

1
Sol. Let f(z) 
(z  1)(z 2  2)
2

Resolving into partial fractions, we get

1 1
f(z)  2
 2
z 1 z  2
(i) When |z| < 1. Then, we have
1
2 –1
1 z2 
f(z) = (1 + z ) – 1  
2 2

2 3
1  z 2  z 2   z2  
= (1 – z2 + z4 – z6 +...) – 1         ....
2 2  2  2 

2n

1  n z
=  ( 1)n z2n 
n0

2 n0
( 1)
2n
Which is the required expansion.

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

(ii) When 1 < |z| < 2 , then we have

1 1
1 1 1 z2 
f(z) = 2  1    1  
z  z 2  2 2

2 2 3
1  1 1 1  1 z  z2   z2  
= 2  1     ... 
 2  1         ...
z  z2 z4 z6   2  2  2 

2
 1 1 1  1 z z4 z6 
=  2  4  6  ...     2  3  4  ... 
z z z  2 2 2 2 
2n

1 
n z
=  ( 1)n1
n 1
 
z 2n n 0
( 1)
2n1

Which is the required expansion.

(iii) When |z| > 2 , then we have

1 1
1  1 1 2 
f(z) =  1  z2   z 2  1  z 2 
z2    

1  1 1  1 2 22 
=  1    ...   2 
1   4  ... 
z2  z 2
z 4
 z  z 2
z 
1 1 1
= (2 – 1)  (22  1) 6  (23  1) 8  ...
z4 z z

n 1 1
=  ( 1) (2n  1) 2n  2
n 1 z
Which is the required expansion.

z
Ex. If 0 < |z – 1| < 2, then express f(z) = in a series of positive and negative powers
(z  1)(z  3)
of (z – 1).

z
Sol. Given that, f(z) = .
(z  1)(z  3)
Resolving into partial fractions, we get

1 3 1
f(z)    .
2(z  1) 2 (z  3)
Now, putting z – 1 = u, then we have 0 < |u| < 2 and
1 3
f(z) = – 
2u 2(u  2)
1
1 3 u 1 3 u u 2 u3 
= –  1       1   2  3  ... 
2u 4  2 2u 4  2 2 2 
n n
1 3  u 1 3   z  1
=         
2u 4 n0  2  2(z  1) 4 n0  2 
Which is the required expansion.
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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

1
Ex. Find different developments of in powers of z according to the position of the point
(z  1)(z  3)
in the z-plane. Expand the function in Taylor’s series about z = 2 and indicate the circle of
convergence.

1
Sol. Let f(z) =
(z  1)(z  3)

Now, resolving into partial fractions, we get

1 1
f(z)   
2(z  1) 2(z  3)

Obviously, f(z) is regular everywhere except at z = 1 and 3.

(i) When 0 < |z| < 1, then we have
1 n
1 1 1 z 1  n 1  z
f(z) = (1  z)   1     z    
2 6 3 2 n0 6 n0  3 

1 1  n
=  2  1  3 n1 
z
n 0 
which is Taylor’s expansion of f(z) in the region 0 < |z| < 1.
(ii) When 1 < |z| < 3, then we have
1 1
1  1 1 z
f(z) = – 1    1  
2z  z 6 3
n
1  1 1  z
= –   
2z n 0 zn 6 n 0  3 

which is Laurent’s series in the positive and negative powers of z in the region 1 < |z|
< 3.
(iii) When |z| > 3, then we have
1 1
1  1 1  3
f(z) = – 1    1  
2z  z 2z  z

n
1  1 1  3 1  n 1
= –  n
      (3  1) n 1
2z n  0 z 2z n  0  z  2 n0 z

which is a Laurent’s series in the negative powers of z for the region |z| > 3.
Let us consider a circle with centre at z = 2. Then, the distance of both the singular points z =
1 and z = 3 from the centre of the circle is 1. Hence, if we draw the circle |z – 2| = 1, then the
function f(z) is regular within this circle, therefore f(z) can be expanded in a Taylor’s series within
this circle i.e., in the region |z – 2| < 1. Consequently, |z – 2| = 1 is the circle of convergence.

1 1 1
Hence, f(z) =  2 
(z  1)(z  3) z  4z  3 (z  2)2  1

2n

 z  1
= –[1 – (z – 2)2]–1 = –   
n 0  2 

Which is a Taylor’s expansion of f(z) about z = 2.

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

Ex. Expand log(1 + z) in a Taylor’s series about z = 0 and determine the region of convergence for
the resulting series.
Sol. Let f(z) = log(1 + z),
then Taylor’s expansion for f(z) about z = 0 is given by
z2
f(z) = f(0) + zf’(0) + f”(0) +... ...(i)
2!
We have,
1 1
f’(z) =  f”(z) = –
1 z (1  z)2

2 (n  1)!
n n–1
 f”’(z) = 2 3 , ...  f (z) = (–1)
(1  z ) (1  z)n
Hence, f(0) = 0  f’(0) = 1  f”(0) = –1  f”’(0) = 2,...
 fn(0) = (–1)n–1 (n – 1)!
Substituting these values in relation (i), we have
1 2 2 3 ( 1)n1(n  1)! zn
log(1 + z) = z – z  z  ...  +...
2! 3! n!
z 2 z3 zn
= z –   ...  ( 1)n 1  ...
2 3 n
Let un be the nth term of the series. Then,

zn ( 1)n zn1
un = (–1)n–1 , un1 
n n 1

un n 1 1
Hence, lim  lim 
n un1 n  nz |z|

Therefore, by d’Alembert’s ratio test the series converges for the region |z| < 1.

z
Ex. Find Taylor’s series expansion of the functions f(z) = 4 around z = 0.
z 9
Find also radius of convergence.
Sol. Given that
1 n
z z z4  z   z4 
f(z) = 4   1     ( 1)n  
z 9 9 9  9 n0  9
z  z 4n 
z 4n1
 f(z) =  ( 1)n 2n   ( 1)n 2n 2
9 n0 3 n 0 3

z 4n 1
n
 f(z) =
n0
 (1)
32n 2
...(i)

Which is Taylor’s expansion of f(z).


Second Part. Let f(z) =  u (z)
n0
n ...(ii)

z 4n1
By relations (i) and (ii), we have un(z) = (–1)n
32n 2
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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

z 1
Ex. Expand f(z) = as a Taylor’s series about
z 1
(i) z = 0
(ii) z = 1
(iii) its Laurent’s series for the domain 1 < |z| < 
Sol. (i) Given that
z 1 2 2
f(z) =  1 or f(z) = 1 – ...(i)
z 1 z 1 z 1

 f(z) = 1 – 2(1 + z)–1 = 1 – 2  ( 1)n zn
n0

 f(z) = 1 – 2  ( 1)n zn
n0
Which is Taylor’s series about z = 0.

1 ( 1)n n!
(ii) Let (z) =  (n)(z) =
z 1 (z  1)n1

If we write
(n) (1) ( 1)n ( 1)n
an = , then an = 
n! (1  1)n1 2n1

n

( 1)n (z  1)n
Now, (z) =  a (z  1)  
n 0
n
n0 2n1
...(ii)

( 1)n (z  1)n

 f(z) = 1 –  [from relations (i) and (ii)]
n 0 2n
Which is Taylor’s expansion about z = 1.
(iii) We have
1
2 2 1
f(z) = 1 –  1  1  
z 1 z z

2  1
 f(z) = 1 –  ( 1)n n
z n0 z
Which is the required Laurent’s series.

1
Ex. Find Laurent’s series of the function f(z) = valid in the region 1 < |z| < 2.
(z 2  4)(z  1)

1 1 1 1
Sol. f(z) =   
(z  2)(z  2)(z  1) 12(z  2) 4(z  2) 3(z  1)

1 1 1
1  z 1 z 1  1
=  1    1     1 
24  2 8 2 3z  z

n n
1  z 1  n  z 1  ( 1)n
= –    (  1) 
 2  3z  zn
24 n  0  2  8 n0   n 0

Which is the required Laurent’s series.

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)


Ex. Expand sin z in a Taylor’s series about z = .
4
 n
 
Sol. Let f(z) =  an  z   ...(i)
n0  4
 
f (n)  
4
where an = ...(ii)
n!

 n 
Now, f(z) = sin z  f(n)(z) = sin  z 
 2 

   n 
 f(n)   = sin   
4 4 2 
Now, putting these values in relation (i), we get

n
 
z  4 

  n   
f(z)   sin   
n0  4 2  n!

Which is the required Taylor’s series.

1
Ex. Expand as a Taylor’s series about z = 1.
z
Sol. Given that

1
f(z) =
z
For Taylor’s expansion about z = 1,

n f (n) (1)
Let f(z) =  a (z  1) , where a
n 0
n n 
n!

( 1)n n! (n) ( 1)n n!

f(n)(z) =  f (1) 
zn1 1n1
 an = (–1)n

n n
Hence, f(z) =  ( 1) (z  1)
n0

Which is the required Taylor’s series.

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

z
1. If 0 < |z – 1| < 2, the expansion of f(z) = is
(z  1)(z  3)

1 3   z  1
n 
2n  1 n1
(A) (B)  z
  
2(z  1) 4 n  0  2  n0 2n

n
1   1  1  z
(C)     (D) No expansion exist
2z  n  0 zn1  4 n  0  2 

3z 2  z
2.  dz (where, c is the circle |z| = 2) is
C z2  1

(A) 4i (B) i

(C) 2i (D) 0

e2z
3. The value of  4
dz is
|z| 2 | z  1|

8 i –2
(A) 2ie–1 (B) e
3
2i –2
(C) e (D) 0
3

4. An analytic function f(z) is such that Re {f’(z)} = 2y and f(1 + i) = 2 then the imaginary part of
f(z) is
(A) –2xy (B) x2 – y2
(C) 2xy (D) y2 – x2

5. f(z) =  tan z dz in the circle |z| = 2

C

 
(A) and – are two poles Inside the circle
2 2
(B) No poles exist
(C) f(z) = –4i
(D) Residues are –1, –1

z2  z  1
6. Evaluate C dx, where, C is the circle
z 1
z2  z  1
(A) When |z| = 1, C z  1 dz = 2i
1 z2  z  1
(B) When |z| = , C z  1 dz = 0
2

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

z2  z  1
(C) When |z| = 1, C z  1 dz  0
1 z2  z  1
(D) When |z| = , C z  1 dz  2i
2

sin z2  cos z2

7. The value of the integral  (z  4)(z  2) dz where c is the circle |z| = 3 traced anti-clockwise,
c
is
(A) –2i (B) i
(C) –i (D) 2i

cot z
8. Given f(z) =
(z  a)2
(A) z = 0 is simple poles. (B) z =  non-isolated essential singularity.
(C) z = 0 is not a pole. (D) z =  is the limit point of the simple pole.

z2
9. Given f(z) = 2
z  a2
(A) z = ia is a simple pole of f(z). (B) z = ia is not a simple pole of f(z).
1 1
(C) ia is a residue at z = ia of f(z). (D) ia is a residue at z = ia of f(z).
2 3

1
10. The value of  dz , where c is circle z = ei, 0     is
C z
(A) i (B) –i
(C) 2i (D) 0

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

SOLUTIONS

1. (A) Here, we have

z 1 3 1
f(z)    .
(z  1)(z  3) 2(z  1) 2 (z  3)

on Putting z – 1 = u, we have 0 < |u| < 2 and

1
1 3 1 3 u
f(z)      1  
2u 2(u  2) 2u 4  2

1 3 u u2 u3 
   1   2  3  ... 
2u 4  2 2 2 
n
1 3  u
  
2 4 n  0  2 
n
1 3   z  1
  
2(z  1) 4 n  0  2 

2. (C) Here, f(z) = 3z2 + z is an analytic function. The Integral has singularities at z2 – 1 = 0
 z = 1, –1, The circle |z| = 2.
has centre at zero and radius 2. Then, the point z = 1, –1 lies inside the circle |z| = 2.

1 1
Also, 
z2  1 (z  1)(z  1)

1 1 1 
 
2  z  1 z  1 


3z 2  z 3z 2  z
 C 2 dz  C (z  1)(z  1) dz
z 1

1 3z 2  z 1 3z 2  z
 dz  dz
2 C z  1 2 C z  1
Hence, by Cauchy’s Integral formula

3z2  z 1 1
C z2  1 dz  2 2i (1)  2 2i  1
= i(3 + 1) – i(3 – 1)
= 4i – 2i
= 2i

3! e2z
3. (B) f”’(z) = dz
2i   z  ( 1)4

e2z 2i 3
 I=  4
dz  F ( 1)
|z|  2
(z  1) 6

2i –2 8 i –2
= 8e = e
6 3
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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

4. (D) f(z) = f(x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

f(1 + i) = u(1, 1) + iv(1, 1)
Given f(1 + i) = 2, so v(1, 1) = 0
 either v = x2 – y2 or y2 – x2
if v = x2 – y2  vx = 2x = uy; vy = –2y = ux
then u(x, y) = –2xy  u(1, 1) = –2, a contradiction
Let v = y2 – x2  vx = –2x = –uy; vy = 2y = ux then, u(x, y) = 2xy  u(1, 1) = 2
 v(x, y) = y2 – x2.
5. (A,C,D)
sin z
Given that, f(z) = tan z = , hence poles are given by cos z = 0.
cos z
(2n  1)  
 z = , n is any integer, out of these only and – are Inside circle
2 2 2
|z| = 2 ( = 3.14)

  sin z
 res f    lim
2 z  / 2 d
cos z
dz

sinz
 lim  1
z / 2  sinz

 
and res f    = –1
 2
By residue theorem

    
 f(z)dz  2i resf    resf    
C
 2  2 

= 2i (–1 –1) = –4i.

f(z)dz z2  z  1
6. (A,B) (i) Since, C z  a C z  1 dz


 f(z) = z2 – z + 1 and a = 1.
Since, f(z) is analytic within and on circle c : |z| = 1 and a = 1, lies on c.
 By cauchy’s Integral formula.

1 f(z)
 dz  f(a)  1
2i z  a
C

z2  z  1
i.e.,  dz  2i
C z 1
1
(ii) Here, a = 1, lies outside the circle c : |z| = , So, (z2 – z + 1)/(z – 1) is analytic
2
everywhere within c.

z2  z  1
 By Cauchy theorem C z  1 dz  0
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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

sin z2  cos z 2

7. (C) f(z) =  dz
(z  4)(z  2)

Poles are (z – 4)(z – 2) = 0

 z = 4 and z = 2
z = 2 lie inside the circle |z| = 3
 Residue of f(z) at z = 2 = lim (z – 2)f(z)
z2

sin z 2  cos z 2
 lim(z  2)
z 2 (z  4)(z  2)

sin 4  cos 4 1
 
2 2

  f(z)dz = 2i (sum of the residues)

c

 1
 2i     i.
 2
8. (A,B,D)
cot z
Given that f(z) =
(z  a)2

cos z

sin z(z  a)2
Hence, poles of f(z) are obtained by equating to zero the denominator of f(z).
 (z – a)2 sin z = 0
 sin pz = 0 or (z – a)2 = 0
Now, sin z = 0  z = n  z = n
where n, is any Integer,
and (z – a)2 = 0  z = a
Hence, z = a is double pole and
z = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ... are simple poles
z = 
is a limit point of these simple poles, therefore z =  is non-isolated essential singularity.

z2 z2
9. (A,C) Given that, f(z) = 2 
z  a2 (z  ia)(z  ia)

z = ia is a simple pole of f(z)

Now, residue at z = ia, is lim (z – ia) f(z)
z ia

z2
 lim (z  ia)
z ia (z  ia)(z  ia)

z2 a 2 1
 lim   ia
z ia z  ia 2ia 2

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 Mathematical Sciences -MA (Sample)

10. (A) We have circle

z = ei, 0    
 dz = iei d

1  1
Hence,  dz   i iei d
C z 0 e

 i  d
0


 i  0  i

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