Blowout preventer

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Blowout preventer

Cameron International Corporation's EVO Ram BOP Patent Drawing (with legend)

Patent Drawing of Hydril Annular BOP (with legend)

Patent Drawing of a Subsea BOP Stack (with legend)

A blowout preventer (BOP) is a large, specialized valve or similar mechanical
device, used to seal, control and monitor oil and gas wells to prevent blowouts,
the uncontrolled release of crude oil and/or natural gas from a well. They are
usually installed in stacks of other valves.

Blowout preventers were developed to cope with extreme erratic pressures and
uncontrolled flow (formation kick) emanating from a well reservoir during drilling.
Kicks can lead to a potentially catastrophic event known as a blowout. In addition
to controlling the downhole (occurring in the drilled hole) pressure and the flow
of oil and gas, blowout preventers are intended to prevent tubing (e.g. drill pipe
and well casing), tools and drilling fluid from being blown out of the wellbore
(also known as bore hole, the hole leading to the reservoir) when a blowout
threatens. Blowout preventers are critical to the safety of crew, rig (the
equipment system used to drill a wellbore) and environment, and to the monitoring
and maintenance of well integrity; thus blowout preventers are intended to provide
fail-safety to the systems that include them.

The term BOP (pronounced B-O-P, not "bop") is used in oilfield vernacular to refer
to blowout preventers. The abbreviated term preventer, usually prefaced by a type
(e.g. ram preventer), is used to refer to a single blowout preventer unit. A
blowout preventer may also simply be referred to by its type (e.g. ram).

The terms blowout preventer, blowout preventer stack and blowout preventer system
are commonly used interchangeably and in a general manner to describe an assembly
of several stacked blowout preventers of varying type and function, as well as
auxiliary components. A typical subsea deepwater blowout preventer system includes
components such as electrical and hydraulic lines, control pods, hydraulic
accumulators, test valve, kill and choke lines and valves, riser joint, hydraulic
connectors, and a support frame.

Two categories of blowout preventer are most prevalent: ram and annular. BOP stacks
frequently utilize both types, typically with at least one annular BOP stacked
above several ram BOPs.

(A related valve, called an inside blowout preventer, internal blowout preventer,

or IBOP, is positioned within, and restricts flow up, the drillpipe. This article
does not address inside blowout preventer use.)

Blowout preventers are used on land wells, offshore rigs, and subsea wells. Land
and subsea BOPs are secured to the top of the wellbore, known as the wellhead. BOPs
on offshore rigs are mounted below the rig deck. Subsea BOPs are connected to the
offshore rig above by a drilling riser that provides a continuous pathway for the
drill string and fluids emanating from the wellbore. In effect, a riser extends the
wellbore to the rig. Unfortunately, blowout preventers do not always function
correctly. An example of this is the Deepwater Horizon blowout, where the pipe line
going through the BOP was slightly bent and the BOP failed to cut the pipe.
Contents
1 Use
2 Types
2.1 Ram blowout preventer
2.2 Annular blowout preventer
3 Control methods
4 Deepwater Horizon blowout
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Use
Blowout preventers come in a variety of styles, sizes and pressure ratings. Several
individual units serving various functions are combined to compose a blowout
preventer stack. Multiple blowout preventers of the same type are frequently
provided for redundancy, an important factor in the effectiveness of fail-safe
devices.

The primary functions of a blowout preventer system are to:

Confine well fluid to the wellbore;

Provide means to add fluid to the wellbore;
Allow controlled volumes of fluid to be withdrawn from the wellbore.
Additionally, and in performing those primary functions, blowout preventer systems
are used to:

Regulate and monitor wellbore pressure;

Center and hang off the drill string in the wellbore;
Shut in the well (e.g. seal the void, annulus, between drillpipe and casing);
�Kill� the well (prevent the flow of formation fluid, influx, from the reservoir
into the wellbore) ;
Seal the wellhead (close off the wellbore);
Sever the casing or drill pipe (in case of emergencies).
In drilling a typical high-pressure well, drill strings are routed through a
blowout preventer stack toward the reservoir of oil and gas. As the well is
drilled, drilling fluid, "mud", is fed through the drill string down to the drill
bit, "blade", and returns up the wellbore in the ring-shaped void, annulus, between
the outside of the drill pipe and the casing (piping that lines the wellbore). The
column of drilling mud exerts downward hydrostatic pressure to counter opposing
pressure from the formation being drilled, allowing drilling to proceed.

When a kick (influx of formation fluid) occurs, rig operators or automatic systems
close the blowout preventer units, sealing the annulus to stop the flow of fluids
out of the wellbore. Denser mud is then circulated into the wellbore down the drill
string, up the annulus and out through the choke line at the base of the BOP stack
through chokes (flow restrictors) until downhole pressure is overcome. Once �kill
weight� mud extends from the bottom of the well to the top, the well has been
�killed�. If the integrity of the well is intact drilling may be resumed.
Alternatively, if circulation is not feasible it may be possible to kill the well
by "bullheading", forcibly pumping, in the heavier mud from the top through the
kill line connection at the base of the stack. This is less desirable because of
the higher surface pressures likely needed and the fact that much of the mud
originally in the annulus must be forced into receptive formations in the open hole
section beneath the deepest casing shoe.

If the blowout preventers and mud do not restrict the upward pressures of a kick, a
blowout results, potentially shooting tubing, oil and gas up the wellbore, damaging
the rig, and leaving well integrity in question.

Since BOPs are important for the safety of the crew and natural environment, as
well as the drilling rig and the wellbore itself, authorities recommend, and
regulations require, that BOPs be regularly inspected, tested and refurbished.
Tests vary from daily test of functions on critical wells to monthly or less
frequent testing on wells with low likelihood of control problems.[1]

Exploitable reservoirs of oil and gas are increasingly rare and remote, leading to
increased subsea deepwater well exploration and requiring BOPs to remain submerged
for as long as a year in extreme conditions[citation needed]. As a result, BOP
assemblies have grown larger and heavier (e.g. a single ram-type BOP unit can weigh
in excess of 30,000 pounds), while the space allotted for BOP stacks on existing
offshore rigs has not grown commensurately. Thus a key focus in the technological
development of BOPs over the last two decades has been limiting their footprint and
weight while simultaneously increasing safe operating capacity.

Types
BOPs come in two basic types, ram and annular. Both are often used together in
drilling rig BOP stacks, typically with at least one annular BOP capping a stack of
several ram BOPs.

Ram blowout preventer

A Patent Drawing of the Original Ram-type Blowout Preventer, by Cameron Iron Works
(1922).

Blowout Preventer diagram showing different types of rams. (a) blind ram (b) pipe
ram and (c) shear ram.
The ram BOP was invented by James Smither Abercrombie and Harry S. Cameron in 1922,
and was brought to market in 1924 by Cameron Iron Works.[2]

A ram-type BOP is similar in operation to a gate valve, but uses a pair of opposing
steel plungers, rams. The rams extend toward the center of the wellbore to restrict
flow or retract open in order to permit flow. The inner and top faces of the rams
are fitted with packers (elastomeric seals) that press against each other, against
the wellbore, and around tubing running through the wellbore. Outlets at the sides
of the BOP housing (body) are used for connection to choke and kill lines or
valves.

Rams, or ram blocks, are of four common types: pipe, blind, shear, and blind shear.

Pipe rams close around a drill pipe, restricting flow in the annulus (ring-shaped
space between concentric objects) between the outside of the drill pipe and the
wellbore, but do not obstruct flow within the drill pipe. Variable-bore pipe rams
can accommodate tubing in a wider range of outside diameters than standard pipe
rams, but typically with some loss of pressure capacity and longevity. Pipe ram
should not be closed if there is no pipe in the hole.

Blind rams (also known as sealing rams), which have no openings for tubing, can
close off the well when the well does not contain a drill string or other tubing,
and seal it.

Patent Drawing of a Varco Shaffer Ram BOP Stack. A shear ram BOP has cut the
drillstring and a pipe ram has hung it off.

Schematic view of closing shear blades

Shear rams are designed to shear the pipe in the well and seal the wellbore
simultaneously. It has steel blades to shear the pipe and seals to seal the annulus
after shearing the pipe.
Blind shear rams (also known as shear seal rams, or sealing shear rams) are
intended to seal a wellbore, even when the bore is occupied by a drill string, by
cutting through the drill string as the rams close off the well. The upper portion
of the severed drill string is freed from the ram, while the lower portion may be
crimped and the �fish tail� captured to hang the drill string off the BOP.

In addition to the standard ram functions, variable-bore pipe rams are frequently
used as test rams in a modified blowout preventer device known as a stack test
valve. Stack test valves are positioned at the bottom of a BOP stack and resist
downward pressure (unlike BOPs, which resist upward pressures). By closing the test
ram and a BOP ram around the drill string and pressurizing the annulus, the BOP is
pressure-tested for proper function.

The original ram BOPs of the 1920s were simple and rugged manual devices with
minimal parts. The BOP housing (body) had a vertical well bore and horizontal ram
cavity (ram guide chamber). Opposing rams (plungers) in the ram cavity translated
horizontally, actuated by threaded ram shafts (piston rods) in the manner of a
screw jack. Torque from turning the ram shafts by wrench or hand wheel was
converted to linear motion and the rams, coupled to the inner ends of the ram
shafts, opened and closed the well bore. Such screw jack type operation provided
enough mechanical advantage for rams to overcome downhole pressures and seal the
wellbore annulus.

Hydraulic rams BOPs were in use by the 1940s. Hydraulically actuated blowout
preventers had many potential advantages. The pressure could be equalized in the
opposing hydraulic cylinders causing the rams to operate in unison. Relatively
rapid actuation and remote control were facilitated, and hydraulic rams were well-
suited to high pressure wells.

Because BOPs are depended on for safety and reliability, efforts to minimize the
complexity of the devices are still employed to ensure longevity. As a result,
despite the ever-increasing demands placed on them, state of the art ram BOPs are
conceptually the same as the first effective models, and resemble those units in
many ways.

Ram BOPs for use in deepwater applications universally employ hydraulic actuation.
Threaded shafts are often still incorporated into hydraulic ram BOPs as lock rods
that hold the ram in position after hydraulic actuation. By using a mechanical ram
locking mechanism, constant hydraulic pressure need not be maintained. Lock rods
may be coupled to ram shafts or not, depending on manufacturer. Other types of ram
locks, such as wedge locks, are also used.

Typical ram actuator assemblies (operator systems) are secured to the BOP housing
by removable bonnets. Unbolting the bonnets from the housing allows BOP maintenance
and facilitates the substitution of rams. In that way, for example, a pipe ram BOP
can be converted to a blind shear ram BOP.

Shear-type ram BOPs require the greatest closing force in order to cut through
tubing occupying the wellbore. Boosters (auxiliary hydraulic actuators) are
frequently mounted to the outer ends of a BOP's hydraulic actuators to provide
additional shearing force for shear rams. If a situation arises whereby the shear
rams are to be activated, it is best practice for the Driller to have the string
spaced as to ensure the rams will shear the body of the drillpipe as opposed to
having a tooljoint (much thicker metal) across the shear rams.

Ram BOPs are typically designed so that well pressure will help maintain the rams
in their closed, sealing position. That is achieved by allowing fluid to pass
through a channel in the ram and exert pressure at the ram's rear and toward the
center of the wellbore. Providing a channel in the ram also limits the thrust
required to overcome well bore pressure.

Single ram and double ram BOPs are commonly available. The names refer to the
quantity of ram cavities (equivalent to the effective quantity of valves) contained
in the unit. A double ram BOP is more compact and lighter than a stack of two
single ram BOPs while providing the same functionality, and is thus desirable in
many applications. Triple ram BOPs are also manufactured, but not as common.

Technological development of ram BOPs has been directed towards deeper and higher
pressure wells, greater reliability, reduced maintenance, facilitated replacement
of components, facilitated ROV intervention, reduced hydraulic fluid consumption,
and improved connectors, packers, seals, locks and rams. In addition, limiting BOP
weight and footprint are significant concerns to account for the limitations of
existing rigs.

The highest-capacity large-bore ram blowout preventer on the market, as of July

2010, Cameron's EVO 20K BOP, has a hold-pressure rating of 20,000 psi, ram force in
excess of 1,000,000 pounds, and a well bore diameter of 18.75 inches.

Annular blowout preventer

Patent Drawing of Original Shaffer Spherical-type Blowout Preventer (1972)

Diagram of an Annular blowout preventer in open and fully closed configurations.

The flexible annulus (donut) in blue is forced into the drillpipe cavity by the
hydraulic pistons.
The annular blowout preventer was invented by Granville Sloan Knox in 1946; a U.S.
patent for it was awarded in 1952.[3] Often around the rig it is called the
"Hydril", after the name of one of the manufacturers of such devices.

An annular-type blowout preventer can close around the drill string, casing or a
non-cylindrical object, such as the kelly. Drill pipe including the larger-diameter
tool joints (threaded connectors) can be "stripped" (i.e., moved vertically while
pressure is contained below) through an annular preventer by careful control of the
hydraulic closing pressure. Annular blowout preventers are also effective at
maintaining a seal around the drillpipe even as it rotates during drilling.
Regulations typically require that an annular preventer be able to completely close
a wellbore, but annular preventers are generally not as effective as ram preventers
in maintaining a seal on an open hole. Annular BOPs are typically located at the
top of a BOP stack, with one or two annular preventers positioned above a series of
several ram preventers.

An annular blowout preventer uses the principle of a wedge to shut in the wellbore.
It has a donut-like rubber seal, known as an elastomeric packing unit, reinforced
with steel ribs. The packing unit is situated in the BOP housing between the head
and hydraulic piston. When the piston is actuated, its upward thrust forces the
packing unit to constrict, like a sphincter, sealing the annulus or openhole.
Annular preventers have only two moving parts, piston and packing unit, making them
simple and easy to maintain relative to ram preventers.

The original type of annular blowout preventer uses a �wedge-faced� (conical-faced)

piston. As the piston rises, vertical movement of the packing unit is restricted by
the head and the sloped face of the piston squeezes the packing unit inward, toward
the center of the wellbore.

In 1972, Ado N. Vujasinovic was awarded a patent for a variation on the annular
preventer known as a spherical blowout preventer, so-named because of its
spherical-faced head.[4] As the piston rises the packing unit is thrust upward
against the curved head, which constricts the packing unit inward. Both types of
annular preventer are in common use.

Control methods
When wells are drilled on land or in very shallow water where the wellhead is above
the water line, BOPs are activated by hydraulic pressure from a remote accumulator.
Several control stations will be mounted around the rig. They also can be closed
manually by turning large wheel-like handles.

In deeper offshore operations with the wellhead just above the mudline on the sea
floor, there are five primary ways by which a BOP can be controlled. The possible
means are:[citation needed]

Hydraulic Control Signal: sent from surface through a hydraulic umbilical;

Electrical Control Signal: sent from the surface through a control cable;
Acoustical Control Signal: sent from the surface based on a modulated/encoded pulse
of sound transmitted by an underwater transducer;
ROV Intervention: remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) mechanically control valves and
provide hydraulic pressure to the stack (via �hot stab� panels);
Deadman Switch / Auto Shear: fail-safe activation of selected BOPs during an
emergency, and if the control, power and hydraulic lines have been severed.
Two control pods are provided on the BOP for redundancy. Electrical signal control
of the pods is primary. Acoustical, ROV intervention and dead-man controls are
secondary.

An emergency disconnect system/sequence, or EDS, disconnects the rig from the well
in case of an emergency. The EDS is also intended to automatically trigger the
deadman switch, which closes the BOP, kill and choke valves. The EDS may be a
subsystem of the BOP stack's control pods or separate.[citation needed]

Pumps on the rig normally deliver pressure to the blowout preventer stack through
hydraulic lines. Hydraulic accumulators are on the BOP stack enable closure of
blowout preventers even if the BOP stack is disconnected from the rig. It is also
possible to trigger the closing of BOPs automatically based on too high pressure or
excessive flow.[citation needed]

Individual wells along the U.S. coastline may also be required to have BOPs with
backup acoustic control.[citation needed] General requirements of other nations,
including Brazil, were drawn to require this method.[citation needed] BOPs
featuring this method may cost as much as US$500,000 more than those that omit the
feature.[citation needed]