Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology

Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

STRAINS

DEFORMATION
Consider a body subjected to external loading that causes it to take up the position
pictured by the dashed lines, Figure 1, in which A is displaced to A', B to B', and so
on, until all the points in the body are displaced to new positions. The displacements
of any two points such as A and B are simply AA' and BB', respectively, and may be a
consequence of deformation (straining), rigid body motion (translation and rotation),
or some combination. The body is said to be strained if the relative positions of
points in the body are altered. If no straining has taken place, displacements AA' and
BB' are attributable to rigid-body motion.

uA

A′ L B′
vA A Lo
B

x
Figure 1. Displacement and strain in a body.

To describe the magnitude and direction of the displacements, points within the
body are located with respect to an appropriate coordinate reference as, for example,
the xyz system. Therefore, in the two-dimensional case shown in Figure 1, the
components of displacement of point A to A' can be represented by u and v in the x
and y coordinate directions, respectively. In general, the components of displacement
at a point, occurring in the x, y, and z directions, are denoted by u, v, and w,
respectively. The displacement at every point within the body constitutes the
displacement field, u = u(x, y, z), v = v(x, y, z), and w = w(x, y, z).
1

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

DEFINITION OF STRAIN
Strain is the measure of intensity of deformations caused by forces. Consider now
line AB, shown in Figure 2, which is axially loaded by force P. Therefore, the line
will be deformed to become A'B'. The length of AB is x (Figure 2a). Figure 2b
shows that points A and B have each been displaced; A an amount u, and B, u+u.
Stated differently, point B has been displaced by an amount u in addition to
displacement of point A and the length x has been increased by u. Normal strain,
the unit change in length, is defined as x,
Δu du
εx = lim ⁡= (1)
Δx→0 Δx dx

Figure 2. Normal strain in a prismatic bar: (a) undeformed state; (b) deformed state.

Fore two-dimensional analysis, consider an element with dimensions dx, dy and of

unit thickness, as shown in Figure 3. The total deformation may be regarded as
possessing the following feature: a change in length experienced by the sides
(Figure3a) and a relative rotation without accompanying changes of length
(Figure3b).

Recalling the basis of Equation (1), two normal or longitudinal strains are
apparent upon examination of Figure 3a:
∂u ∂𝑣
εx = ⁡ , εy ⁡= (2)
∂x ∂y

A positive sign applied to elongation; a negative sign, to contraction.

2

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

Figure 3. Deformation of an element: (a) normal strain; (b) shearing strain.

Now consider the change experienced by right angle DAB (Figure 3b). It is
assumed that the angle x between AB and A'B' to be so small as to permit the
approximation 𝑥 ≈ ⁡𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝑥 . Also, in view of the smallness of 𝑥 ⁡, the normal strain
is small, so 𝐴𝐵 ≈ ⁡𝐴′𝐵′. As a consequence of the aforementioned considerations
𝜕𝑣
𝑥 ≈ , where the counterclockwise rotation is defined as positive. Similar analysis
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
leads to −𝑦 ≈ ,. The total angular change of angle DAB, the angular change
𝜕𝑦

between lines in the x and y directions, is defined as the shearing strain and denoted
by γxy :
∂u ∂𝑣
γxy = α𝑥 − α𝑦 = + (3)
∂y ∂𝑥

The shear strain is positive when the right angle between two positive (or negative)
axes decreases. That is, if the angle between +x and +y or -x and -y decreases, we
have positive γxy ; otherwise the shear strain is negative.

In the case of a three-dimensional element, a rectangular prism with sides dx, dy,
dz, an essentially identical analysis leads to the following normal and shearing
strains:
∂u ∂v ∂w
εx = ,⁡⁡⁡⁡εy = ⁡,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡εz =
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u
(4)
γxy = + ⁡,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡γyz = + ,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡γzx = +
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z
3

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

Clearly, the angular change is not different if it is said to occur between the x and y
directions or between the y and x directions; γxy = γ𝑦𝑥 . The remaining components
of shearing strain are similarly related:

γ𝑥𝑦 = γ𝑦𝑥 ⁡⁡⁡⁡,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡γyz = γ𝑧𝑦 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡γ𝑧𝑥 = γ𝑥𝑧

The expressions (4) are the strain-displacement relations of continuum mechanics.

They are also referred to as the kinematic relations, treating the geometry of strain,
rather than the matter of cause and effect.

A succinct statement of Equation (4) is made possible by tensor notation:

1 ∂u ∂u𝑗
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = ( 𝑖 + ) ,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑖, 𝑗 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 (5)
2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 𝑗 𝑖

where ux=u, uy=v, uz=w, xx=x and so on, The factor 1/2 in Eq. (5) facilitates the
representation of the strain transformation equations in indicial notation. The
longitudinal strains are obtained when i = j; the shearing strains are found when 𝑖 ≠
𝑗. It is apparent from Eqs. (4) and (5) that

1 1 1
εxy = γ𝑥𝑦 , εyz = γ𝑦𝑧 , εxz = γ𝑥𝑧 (6)
2 2 2

Just as the state of stress at a point is described by a nine-term array, so Eq. (5)
represents nine strains composing the symmetric strain tensor (𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝑗𝑖 ):

1 1
𝜀𝑥 γ γ
2 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥𝑧
1 1
[𝜀𝑖𝑗 ] = γ 𝜀𝑦 γ
2 𝑦𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧
1 1
[ 2 γ𝑧x γ
2 𝑧𝑦
𝜀𝑧 ]
4

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

EQUATIONS OF COMPATIBILITY
The concept of compatibility has both mathematical and physical significance. From
a mathematical point of view, it asserts that the displacements u, v, and w match the
geometrical boundary conditions and are single-valued and continuous functions of
position with which the strain components are associated. Physically, this means that
the body must be pieced together; no voids are created in the deformed body.

The kinematic relations, Eqs. (4), connect six components of strain to only three
components of displacement. We cannot therefore arbitrarily specify all the strains as
functions of x, y, and z. As the strains are evidently not independent of one another, in
what way are they related? In two-dimensional strain, differentiation of ε𝑥 twice with
respect to y, ε𝑦 twice with respect to x, and γ𝑥𝑦 with respect to x and y results in

𝜕 2 𝜀𝑥 𝜕3 𝑢 𝜕 2 𝜀𝑦 𝜕3 𝑣 𝜕2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝜕3 𝑢 𝜕3 𝑣
= ,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ = ⁡,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ = +
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥⁡𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 ⁡𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥⁡𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥⁡𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 ⁡𝜕𝑦

or
𝜕 2 𝜀𝑥 𝜕 2 𝜀𝑦 𝜕2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
+ = (7)
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥⁡𝜕𝑦

The above equation represents the condition of compatibility of the two-

dimensional problem, expressed in terms of strain. The three-dimensional equations
of compatibility are obtained in a like manner:

∂ 2 εx ∂ 2 εy ∂2 γxy ∂ 2 εx ∂ ∂γyz ∂γxz ∂γxy

+ = ,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡2⁡ = (− + + )
∂y2 ∂x2 ∂x⁡ ∂y ∂y⁡ ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 2 εy ∂ 2 εz ∂2 γyz ∂ 2 εy ∂ ∂γyz ∂γxz ∂γxy
+ = ,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡2⁡ = ( − + ) (8)
∂z2 ∂y2 ∂y⁡ ∂z ∂z⁡ ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 2 εz ∂ 2 εx ∂2 γxz ∂ 2 εz ∂ ∂γyz ∂γxz ∂γxy
+ = ,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡2⁡ = ( + − )
∂x2 ∂z2 ∂z⁡ ∂x ∂x⁡ ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

STATE OF STRAIN AT A POINT

Consider a small linear element AB of length ds is an unstrained body (Figure 4a).
The projections of the element on the coordinate axes are dx and dy. After straining,
AB is displaced to position A'B' and is now ds' long. The x and y displacements are
5

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

u+du and v+dv, respectively. The variation with position of the displacement is
expressed by a truncated Taylor's expansion as follows:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 (a)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Figure 4. Plane Straining of an Element.

Figure 4b shows the relative displacement of B with respect to A, the straining of AB.
It is observed that AB has been translated so that A coincides with A; it is now in the
position AB. Here BD=du and DB=dv are the components of displacement.

1. Transformation of Two-Dimensional Strain

We now choose a new coordinate system x´y´, as shown in Figure 4, and examine
the components of strain with respect to it: ε𝑥´ , ε𝑦´ , γ𝑥´𝑦´ . First, the unit elongation
of ds', ε𝑥´ will be determined. The projections of du and dv on the x' axis, after
taking EB' cos α = EB' (1) by virtue of the small angle approximation, lead to the
approximation

𝐸𝐵´ = 𝑑𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑑𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃⁡ (b)

By definition, ε𝑥´ is found from EB'/ds. Thus, applying Eq. (b) together with Eqs.
(a), we obtain
𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑦
ε𝑥´ = ( + ) cos 𝜃 + (𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑠 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑠 ) sin 𝜃⁡⁡⁡ (9)
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑠

Substituting cos  for dx/ds, sin  for dy/ds, we have

εx´ = εx cos 2 θ +⁡⁡εy sin2 θ +γxy sin θ cos θ⁡ (10)

6

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

A similar transformation can be used for strain, as done befor the stress, through
the use of trigonometric identities, equation (10) may be converted to the form

1 1 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥′ = ⁡ (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + (𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) cos 2𝜃 + ( ) ⁡sin 2𝜃 (11)
2 2 2

The normal strain 𝜀𝑦′ is determined by replacing  by  + π/2 in Eq. (11).

the shearing strain, γ𝑥´𝑦´ may be derived in similar manner which results the
following expression

𝛾𝑥′𝑦′ = −(𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) ⁡sin 2𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 cos⁡2𝜃 (12)

It is observed that transformations expressions for stress are converted into strain
𝛾
relationships by replacing⁡𝜎 with 𝜀 and 𝜏 with . The substitution can be made in
2

all the analogous relations. For instance the principal strain directions (where
𝛾𝑥′𝑦′ = 0) are found as:
𝛾𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = ⁡ (13)
𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦

Similarly the magnitude of the principal strains are

𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2

𝜀1,2 = ⁡ ± √( ) +( 2 ) (14)
2 2

The maximum shearing strains are obtained via differentiating equation (12) with
respect to  and equating to zero, i.e. 𝑑𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ /𝑑𝜃 = ⁡0, then substituting the
obtained value of  yields to the maximum shearing strains

𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ⁡ ± 2√( ) +( ) = ± (𝜀1 − 𝜀2 ) (15)
2 2

2. Transformation of Three-Dimensional Strain

This case may also proceed from the corresponding stress relations by replacing⁡𝜎
𝛾
with 𝜀 and 𝜏 with . Therefore, three-dimensional strain transformation will be:
2

𝜀𝑥′ = ⁡ 𝜀𝑥 ⁡𝑙12 + 𝜀𝑦 ⁡𝑚12 + 𝜀𝑧 ⁡𝑛12 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑙1 𝑚1 + 𝛾𝑦𝑧 𝑚1 𝑛1 + 𝛾𝑥𝑧 𝑙1 𝑛1 (16a)

7

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

𝛾𝑥 ′𝑦′ = ⁡2(𝜀𝑥 𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑚1 𝑚2 +𝜀𝑧 𝑛1 𝑛2 ) + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (𝑙1 𝑚2 + 𝑙2 𝑚1 )

+𝛾𝑦𝑧 (𝑚1 𝑛2 + 𝑚2 𝑛1 ) + 𝛾𝑥𝑧 (𝑛1 𝑙2 + 𝑛2 𝑙1 ) (16b)

where 𝑙1 is the cosine of the angle between x and x', 𝑚1 is the cosine of the angle
between y and x', and so on, see the following Table:

x y z

x' 𝑙1 𝑚1 𝑛1

y' 𝑙2 𝑚2 𝑛2

z' 𝑙3 𝑚3 𝑛3

The principal strains may be found in a similar manner as that already done for stress,
this leads to the following strain cubic equation

𝜀𝑝3 − 𝐽1 𝜀𝑝2 + 𝐽2 𝜀𝑝 − 𝐽3 = 0 (17)

where

𝐽1 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + +𝜀𝑧 (18a)

2 2 12
𝐽2 = 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑧 + +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 − (𝛾𝑥𝑦 + 𝛾𝑦𝑧 + 𝛾𝑥𝑧 ) (18b)
4
1 1
𝜀𝑥 γ𝑥𝑦 γ
2 2 𝑥𝑧
1 1
𝐽3 = ||2 γ𝑦𝑥 𝜀𝑦 γ |
2 𝑦𝑧 |
(18c)
1 1
γ𝑧x γ 𝜀𝑧
2 2 𝑧𝑦

MOHR'S CIRCLE FOR STRAIN

It is concluded that the transformation properties of stress and strain are identical, it is
apparent that a Mohr's circle for strain may be drawn and that the construction
technique does not differ from that of Mohr's circle for stress. In Mohr's circle for
strain, the normal strains are plotted on the horizontal axis, positive to the right.
When the shear strain is positive, the point representing the x axis strains is plotted a
𝛾 𝛾
distance below the 𝜀 line, and the y axis point a distance above the 𝜀 line, and vice
8

2 2

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

versa when the shear strain is negative. Note that this convention for shear strain,
used only in constructing and reading values from Mohr's circle.
9

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

THE STRAIN ROSETTE

1. Strain Gage
The electrical-resistance strain gage is a device for measuring normal strain in a
specific direction. Gages of this type operate on the principle that the change in
electrical resistance of wires or foil strips is directly related to a change in their
10

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

lengths. The gage is cemented to the object, so that the gage and the object undergo
the same normal strain. The resulting change in the electrical resistance of the gage
element is measured and converted into strain. Figure 5 shows a typical foil strain
gage. Commercially available gages have gage lengths that vary from 0.008 in. to 4
in. A wide variety of other strain gages are available that depend upon electrical
properties other than resistance, such as capacitance and inductance. However, the
electrical-resistance gages are by far the most widely used because they are relatively
inexpensive while at the same time very accurate and durable. Electrical-resistance
strain gages are useful for measuring both static and dynamic strains.

Figure 4. Electrical-resistance strain gage.

2. Strain Rosette
Because the state of plane strain at a point is determined by three strain components,
x, y, and xy, we need three strain readings to determine a state of strain. For
example, one gage in the x-direction and one in the y-direction can be used to
determine x and y. Because there is no equipment for direct measurement of shear
strain, we must determine xy indirectly. This can be done by using a third gage to
measure the normal strain in a direction different from the x- or y-axis.

We now show how a state of plane strain can be determined from three normal
strain measurements. The strain rosette, shown in Figure 5, contains three strain
gages oriented at angles a, b, and c with respect to a reference line, such as the x-
axis. We denote their strain readings by a, b, and c. Substituting these strains and
angles into Eq. (11), we obtain the following set of simultaneous equations:
11

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

1 1 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑎 = ⁡ (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + (𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) cos 2𝜃𝑎 + ( ) ⁡sin 2𝜃𝑎 (a)
2 2 2
1 1 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑏 = ⁡ (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + (𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) cos 2𝜃𝑏 + ( ) ⁡sin 2𝜃𝑏 (b)
2 2 2
1 1 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑐 = ⁡ (𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 ) + (𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 ) cos 2𝜃𝑐 + ( ) ⁡sin 2𝜃𝑐 (c)
2 2 2

Eqs. (a)–(c) represent three linear algebraic equations that can be solved for the three
unknowns 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 . After these unknowns have been found, we can construct
Mohr’s circles for strain and stress as explained in the preceding article.

Figure 5. Strain rosette with arbitrary orientation of gages.

 The 45º Strain Rosette

The 45º strain rosette is shown in Figure 6. The orientation of the strain gages
are a=0, b=45º, and c=90º. Substituting these angles into Eqs. (a)–(c) and
solving, we obtain
12

Figure 6. The 45º Strain Rosette

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah
 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

 The 60º Strain Rosette

The 60º strain rosette is shown in Figure 7. The orientation of the strain gages
are a=0, b=60º, and c=120º. Using these values into Eqs. (a)–(c) and
solving, we obtain

Figure 7. The 60º Strain Rosette

13

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department
14

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Strains University of Technology
Lecture Notes on Advanced Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

END OF STRAIN LECTURES

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Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah