KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION: PROBABILITY DENSITY AND

CURRENT

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ρ = Ψ† Ψ (1)
and the probability current is given by (generalizing our earlier result to
3-d and using natural units):
i  † †

J= Ψ∇Ψ − Ψ ∇Ψ (2)
2m
The continuity equation for probability is then

∂ρ
+∇·J = 0 (3)
∂t
We’ll now look at how these results appear in relativistic quantum me-
chanics, using the Klein-Gordon equation:

∂ 2φ
= ∇2 − µ2 φ = 0


2
(4)
∂t
We can multiply this equation by φ† and then subtract the hermitian con-
jugate of the result from the original equation to get

∂ 2φ ∂ 2 φ†
φ† = φ† ∇2 − µ2 φ − φ ∇2 − µ2 φ†



2
− φ 2
(5)
∂t ∂t
= φ† ∇2 φ − φ∇2 φ† (6)
The LHS can be written as
2φ ∂ 2 φ†

∂φ†

†∂ ∂ † ∂φ
φ −φ 2 = φ −φ (7)
∂t2 ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
(use the product rule on the RHS and cancel terms).
The RHS of 6 can be written as (use the product rule again):
1
 KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION: PROBABILITY DENSITY AND CURRENT 2

 
φ† ∇2 φ − φ∇2 φ† = ∇ · φ† ∇φ − φ∇φ† (8)
We can write this as a continuity equation for the Klein-Gordon equation,
with the following definitions:

∂φ†
 
† ∂φ
ρ ≡ i φ −φ (9)
∂t ∂t
 
† †
j = −i φ ∇φ − φ∇φ (10)

[The extra i is introduced to make ρ and j real. Note that the factor within
the parentheses in both expressions is a complex quantity minus its complex
conjugate, which always gives a pure imaginary term. Thus multiplying by
i ensures the result is real.]
Then

∂ρ
+∇·j = 0 (11)
∂t
We can put this in 4-vector form if we use (for some 3-vector A):

∇ · A = −∂ i ai (12)
where the implied sum over i is from i = 1 to i = 3 (spatial coordinates),
and the minus sign appears because we’ve raised the index on ∂ i . If we
define
 
† †
ji = i φ ∂i φ − φ∂i φ (13)
(that is, the negative of 10), then ∇ · j = ∂ i ji . To make jµ into a 4-vector,
we add j0 = ρ and we get

∂j0
+ ∂ i ji = ∂ µ jµ = 0 (14)
∂t
[Note that my definition of ji is the negative of the middle term in Klauber’s
equation 3-21, although raising the i index agrees with the last term in 3-21.
I can’t see how his middle and last equations for ji and j i can both be right,
since raising the i in the middle equation for ji merely raises the φ,i to φ,i
without changing the sign.]
The curious thing about the Klein-Gordon equation is that its probability
density ρ in 9 need not be positive, depending on the values of φ and its time
derivative. To see how this can affect the physical meaning of the equation,
consider the general plane wave solution to the Klein-Gordon equation
 KLEIN-GORDON EQUATION: PROBABILITY DENSITY AND CURRENT 3

1 
−ikx † ikx

φ=∑ √ Ak e + Bk e (15)
k 2V ωk
Klauber explores this starting with his equation 3-24, where he takes a
test solution in which all Bk† = 0 and shows that ρ d3 x = ∑k |Ak |2 = 1 so
R

that in this case, the total probability of finding the system in some state is
+1 as it should be. Let’s see what happens if we take all Ak = 0. In that
case, 9 becomes
" #" #
†
Bk iω k 0B 0 0
ρ=i ∑√ e−ikx ∑ √ k ik x
e −
k 2ω k V k0 2ω kV0
" #" #
Bk†0 0 −iω k B k
i ∑√ eik x ∑ √ e−ikx (16)
k0 2ω k 0 V k 2ω k V
" #" #
†
Bk ω k 0B 0 0
=− ∑√ e−ikx ∑ √ k
eik x − (17)
k 2ω k V k0 2ω k 0 V
" #" #
Bk†0 0 ω B
k k
∑0 √2ωk0 V eik x ∑ √2ωkV e−ikx (18)
k k

We now wish to calculate ρ d3 x. We can use the orthonormality of

solutions to do the integral. We have

1
Z
0
ei(k −k)x d3 x = δk,k0 (19)
V
We get
" #" #
†
Bk ω B |Bk |2
Z
0
k k0 ik0 x
−ikx 3
− √
∑ 2ωkV e √
∑0 2ωk0 V e d x = − ∑ 2 (20)
k k k
" #" #
†
Bk0 ωk Bk −ikx 3 |Bk |2
Z
ik0 x
− ∑0 √2ωk0 V e ∑ √2ωkV e d x = −∑
2
(21)
k k k
Z
ρ d3 x = − ∑ |Bk |2 (22)
k
Thus the total probability of finding the system in one of the state k is
negative.

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