Outline

‡ Loads on Bridges ‡ Design Lane

‡ Typical Loads ‡ AASHTO HL93 Loads
ƒ Truck
„ Dead Load
ƒ Tandem
„ Live Load
ƒ Uniform Load
‡ Live Load of Vehicle
‡ LL Combinations
‡ Pedestrian Load
‡ LL Placement
‡ Dynamic Load Allowance
ƒ Influence Line
EGCE 406 Bridge Design ‡ Other Loads ƒ Design Equation
„ Fatigue ƒ Design Charts
„ Wind Multiple Presence
III. Loads on Bridge Earthquake
‡
„ ‡ Distribution to Girders
„ …
‡ Load and Resistance Factor
Mahidol University Design
Praveen Chompreda First Semester, 2006

Loads on Bridge
‡ DD = downdrag (wind) ‡ BR = breaking force of vehicle
‡ DC = dead Load of ‡ CE = centrifugal force of vehicle (at curves)
structural and ‡ CR = creep of concrete
nonstructural components ‡ CT = vehicle collision force (on bridge or at

Loads on Bridge ‡ DW = dead load of wearing

surface
‡
piers)
CV = vessel collision force (bridge piers over
river)
‡ EH = earth pressure ‡ EQ = earthquake
(horizontal) ‡ FR = friction
‡ EL = secondary forces such as ‡ IC = ice
from posttensioning ‡ IM = dynamic load of vehicles
‡ LL = live load of vehicle (static)
‡ ES = earth surcharge load
‡ LS = live load surcharge
(vertical)
‡ PL = pedestrian load
‡ EV = earth pressure (vertical) ‡ SE = settlement
‡ SH = shrinkage of concrete
‡ TG = load due to temperature differences
‡ TU = load due to uniform temperature
‡ WA = water load/ stream pressure
‡ WL = wind on vehicles on bridge
‡ WS = wind load on structure
 Dead Load: DC
‡ Dead load includes the self weight of:
„ structural components such as girder, slabs, cross beams, etc…
„ nonstructural components such as medians, railings, signs, etc…

Typical Loads ‡
‡
But does not include the weight of wearing surface (asphalt)
We can estimate dead load from its density

Dead Loads: DC/DW Material Density (kg/m3)

Concrete (Normal Weight.) 2400
Live Loads of Vehicles: LL
Concrete (Lightweight) 1775-1925
Pedestrian Load: PL
Steel 7850
Dynamic (Impact) Loads: IM
Aluminum Alloy 2800
Wood 800-960
Stone Masonry 2725

Dead Load of Wearing Surface: DW Live Loads of Vehicles: LL

‡ It is the weight of the wearing surface
(usually asphalt) and utilities (pipes,
lighting, etc…)
‡ Different category is needed due to
large variability of the weight compared
with those of structural components
(DC)
„ Asphalt surface may be thicker than
designed and may get laid on top of old
layer over and over
‡ Density of asphalt paving material
= 2250 kg/m3
‡ Average Thickness of asphalt on bridge
= 9 cm
Live Loads of Vehicles: LL Live Loads of Vehicles: LL
‡ Live load is the force due to ‡ The effect of live load on the
vehicles moving on the bridge bridge structures depends on
‡ There are several types of many parameters including:
vehicles „ span length
„ Car „ weight of vehicle
„ Van „ axle loads (load per wheel)
„ Buses „ axle configuration
„ Trucks „ position of the vehicle on the
„ Semi-Trailer bridge (transverse and
longitudinal)
„ Special vehicles
„ number of vehicles on the bridge
„ Military vehicles
(multiple presence)
„ girder spacing
„ stiffness of structural members
(slab and girders)

Live Loads of Vehicles: LL Bridge LL vs. Building LL

‡ BRIDGE ‡ BUILDING

‡ LL is very heavy (several tons per ‡ LL is not very heavy, typical

wheel) 300-500 kg/m2
‡ LL can be series of point loads (wheel ‡ LL is assumed to be uniformly
loads of trucks) or uniform loads (loads distributed within a span
of smaller vehicles)
‡ Need to consider the placement within ‡ Do not generally consider
a span to get the maximum effect placement of load within a span
‡ Loads occur in one direction within ‡ Loads are transferred in to 2
lanes directions
‡ Need to consider also the placement of ‡ Need to consider various
loads in multiple spans (for continuous placements of loads for the
span bridges) entire floor
‡ Dynamic effects of live load cannot be ‡ Do not generally consider
ignored dynamic/impact effect of live
loads
 Analysis Strategy for LL Design Lane
‡ Need to know how many lanes there is on the bridge
‡ Design Lane ≠ Actual Traffic Lane
3.0 m 3.3 m to 4.6 m (3.6 m recommended)
‡ Number of Design Lanes = Roadway width/ 3.6 m
≥ No. of Actual Traffic Lane
Place them Moment/ Shear ‡ Number of Lane must be an integer (1,2,3,…) – there is no fraction of lane
Various to get Consider Distribute from Live Load (no 2.5 lanes, for example)
Live maximum dynamic Load to to be used in the
Loads effects on effects each girder
‡ For roadway width from 6 m to 7.2 m, there should be 2 design lanes, each
design of girders
span equal ½ of the roadway width
Design Truck
Design Tandem
Uniform Lane Load roadway width

Live Loads of Vehicles: LL 1. Design Truck

‡ For design purpose, we are interested the kind of vehicle that produce the ‡ The design truck is called HS-20
worst effect (stands for Highway Semi-Trailer
with 20-kips weight on first two
‡ AASHTO has 3 basic types of LL called the HL-93 loading (stands for HS-20 axles)
Highway Loading, year 1993)
‡ Weight shown are for each one
„ Design truck axle = 2 wheels
„ Design tandem ‡ Total Wt = 325 kN ~ 33 t.
„ Uniform loads ‡ Distance between second and
third axles may be varied to
produce maximum effect
‡ Need to multiply this load by
dynamic allowance factor (IM)
 2. Design Tandem 3. Uniform Lane Loading
‡ Two axle vehicle with 110 kN ‡ Uniform load of 9.3 kN/m acting over a tributary width of 3 m. (i.e. the
on each axle load is 3.1 kN/m2)
110 kN 110 kN
per axle per axle ‡ Need to multiply this load by ‡ May be apply continuously or discontinuously over the length of the
dynamic allowance factor (IM) bridge to produce maximum effect
PROFILE
‡ No dynamic allowance factor (IM) for this load
‡ Lead to larger moment than the
HS20 truck for simple-support
spans less than about 13.4 m

55 kN 55 kN

Loading Traffic Directions

Lane 1.8 m TOP
VIEW

55 kN 55 kN

1.2 m

Analysis Strategy for LL Live Load Combinations

‡ 3 ways to add the design truck, design tandem, and uniform load together
„ Combination 1: one HS20 truck on top of a uniform lane load per design lane
„ Combination 2: one Design Tandem on top of a uniform lane load per design
lane
„ Combination 3: (for negative moments at interior supports of continuous
Place them beams) place two HS20 design truck, one on each adjacent span but not less
Moment/ Shear
Various to get Consider Distribute than 15 m apart (measure from front axle of one truck to the rear axle of
from Live Load
Live maximum dynamic Load to another truck), with uniform lane load. Use 90% of their effects as the design
to be used in the
Loads effects on effects each girder moment/ shear
design of girders
span ‡ The loads in each case must be positioned such that they produce
maximum effects (max M or max V)
Load Combinations ‡ The maximum effect of these 3 cases is used for the design
Transverse Placement
Longitudinal Placement
Live Load Placement Live Load Placement - Transverse
‡ Need to consider two dimensions ‡ The design truck or tandem shall be positioned transversely such that the
„ Transversely (for designs of slabs and overhangs) center of any wheel load is not closer than:
„ 30 cm from the face of the curb or railing for the design of the deck overhang
roadway width
„ 60 cm from the edge of the design lane for the design of all other components

Minimum distance
min. 2' from curb = 60 cm

„ Longitudinally (for design of main girder)

‡ Note that if the sidewalk is not separated by a crashworthy traffic barrier,

must consider the case that vehicles can be on the sidewalk

Live Load Placement - Longitudinal Live Load Placement - Longitudinal

‡ Need to place the LL along the span such that it produces the maximum ‡ Methods of finding maximum moment and shear in span
effect „ Influence Line (IL) – Simple and Continuous spans
‡ For simple 1-point loading, the maximum moment occurs when the load is „ Design Equation – Simple span only
placed at the midspan
„ Design Chart – Simple span only

P
Point of Max
Moment

L/2 L/2
‡ However, truck load is a group of concentrated loads. It is not clear where
to place the group of loads to get the maximum moment
‡ REMEMBER: MAXIMUM MOMENT DOES NOT ALWAYS OCCURS
AT MIDSPAN !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Live Load Placement – Influence Line Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ Influence line is a graphical method for finding the variation of the
“structural response” at a point as a concentrated live load moves across
the structure
„ Structural response can be support reaction, moment, shear, or displacement

Live Load Placement – Influence Line Live Load Placement – Influence Line
Live Load Placement – Influence Line Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ Müller-Breslau Principle: “If a function at a point on a beam, such as
reaction, or shear, or moment, is allowed to act without restraint, the
deflected shape of the beam, to some scale, represent the influence line of
the function.

Live Load Placement – Influence Line Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ Influence line is a powerful visualization tool for the effects of live load
placements to the structural response
Live Load Placement – Influence Line Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ Notes
„ Influence line tells you how to place the LL such that the maximum
moment at a point occurs; i.e. you pick a point then you try to find
what is the maximum moment at that point when loads are moved
around
„ It does not tell you where the absolute maximum moment in the span
occurs; i.e. the maximum moment on the point you picked is not
always the absolute maximum moment that can occur in the span
(which will occur at a different point and under a different
arrangement of loads)

Live Load Placement – Influence Line Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ For series of concentrated load (such as the design truck), the placement
of load for maximum moment, shear, or reaction may not be apparent.
‡ The maximum always occur under one of the concentrated loads – but
which one?
‡ Two methods
„ Trial and Errors: Move the series of concentrated loads along the span
by letting each load on the peak of IL
‡ Use when you have only 2-3 concentrated loads

‡ Can be tedious when you have a lot of concentrated loads

Train Loading
(AREA: American Railroad Engineers Association)
Live Load Placement – Influence Line Live Load Placement – Influence Line
„ Increase/ Decrease Method „ Increase/ Decrease Method
‡ This method determine whether the response (moment, shear, or ‡ For shear
reaction) increases or decreases as the series of concentrated loads
move into the span Sloping Line Jump
‡ As the series of loads move into the span, the response increases.
ΔV = Ps(x2-x1) ΔV = P (y2-y1)
When it starts to decrease, you’ll know that the last position was
the one that produce the maximum effect.
‡ For moment
Sloping Line IL for moment
has no jumps!
ΔM = Ps(x2-x1)

‡ Note: not all loads may be in the span at the same time. Loads that have
just moved in or moved out may travel on the slope at a distance less
than distance moved between 2 concentrated loads.

Live Load Placement – Influence Line Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ Example
Live Load Placement – Influence Line Live Load Placement – Influence Line
‡ For Statically Indeterminate Structures, the Müller-Breslau Principle also
holds
‡ “If a function at a point on a beam, such as reaction, or shear, or moment,
is allowed to act without restraint, the deflected shape of the beam, to
some scale, represent the influence line of the function”
‡ For indeterminate structures, the influence line is not straight lines!

Live Load Placement - Longitudinal Live Load Placement – Design Equation

‡ Methods of finding maximum moment and shear in span ‡ Another Method: Using Barre’s Theorem for simply
„ Influence Line (IL) – Simple and Continuous spans supported spans
„ Design Equation – Simple span only „ The absolute maximum moment in the span occurs under the load
„ Design Chart – Simple span only closet to the resultant force and placed in such a way that the
centerline of the span bisects the distance between that load and the
resultant

Resultant 0.73 m 0.30 m

Resultant

145 kN 145 kN 110 kN 110 kN

35 kN

L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2

HS20 Tandem
Point of Max Point of Max
Moment Moment
 Live Load Placement – Design Equation Live Load Placement – Design Equation
Case Load Configuration Moments (kips-ft) and Loading and limitations

Resultant 0.73 m Resultant 0.30 m shears (kips) (x and l in feet)

145 kN 145 kN 110 kN 110 kN

35 kN Truck loading
32 32 8 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ 42 ⎤ P = 16 kips
M ( x) = Px ⎢4.5⎜1 − ⎟ − ⎥ MA ≥ MB for:
A ⎣ ⎝ l⎠ l ⎦
l > 28
⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ 42 ⎤ x ≤ l/3
V ( x ) = P ⎢4.5⎜1 − ⎟ − ⎥ x + 28 ≤ l
x ⎣ ⎝ l⎠ l ⎦ VA > VB for any x

L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2

HS20 Tandem ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ 21 7 ⎤ Truck loading
Point of Max Point of Max 8
32 32
M ( x) = Px ⎢4.5⎜1 − ⎟ − − ⎥ P = 16 kips
Moment Moment B ⎣ ⎝ l⎠ l x⎦ MB ≥ MA for:
l > 28
⎡ x 21⎤
V ( x) = P ⎢4 − 4.5 − ⎥ x > l/3
⎣ l l ⎦ 14 ≤ x ≤ l/2
x

172.1 19.8 ⎛ x 2⎞
M max = 81.25l + − 387 kN-m M max = 55l + − 66 kN-m 25 25 M ( x) = 50 x⎜1 − − ⎟
⎝ l l⎠ Tandem loading
l l C
⎛ x 2⎞
V ( x) = 50⎜1 − − ⎟
is more severe than truck
loading for l ≤ 37 ft
⎝ l l⎠
Mmax occurs at a section under middle Mmax occurs at a section under one of x

axle located a distance 0.73 m from the axle located a distance 0.30 m from 0.64 k/ft
M ( x) = 0.64 x
(l − x)

midspan midspan D
⎛l
2
⎞
Lane loading
V ( x) = 0.64⎜ − x ⎟
x ⎝2 ⎠

Live Load Placement – Design Equation Live Load Placement - Longitudinal

‡ If we combine the truck/tandem load with uniform load, we can get the ‡ Methods of finding maximum moment and shear in span
following equations for maximum moment in spans „ Influence Line (IL) – Simple and Continuous spans
„ Design Equation – Simple span only
„ Design Chart – Simple span only
Live Load Placement – Design Chart Live Load Placement – Design Chart
Bending Moment in Simple Span Shear in Simple Span
for AASHTO HL-93 Loading for AASHTO HL-93 Loading
for a fully loaded lane for a fully loaded lane
Moment in kips-ft Shear in kips
IM is included IM is included
1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 kips = 4.448 kN 1 kips = 4.448 kN
1 kips-ft = 1.356 kN-m

Live Load Placement – Design Chart Pedestrian Live Load: PL

‡ Use when has sidewalk wider
than 60 cm
‡ Considered simultaneously with
truck LL

‡ Pedestrian only: 3.6 kN/m2

‡ Pedestrian and/or Bicycle: 4.1
kN/m2

‡ No IM factor (Neglect dynamic

effect of pedestrians)

Design Chart for Negative Moment due to Live Load Combination 3

at Interior Support of Continuous Beams with Equal Spans
For one lane loading
IM is included
 Analysis Strategy for LL Dynamic Load Allowance: IM
‡ Sources of Dynamic Effects
„ Hammering effect when wheels hit the discontinuities on the road surface
such as joints, cracks, and potholes
„ Dynamic response of the bridge due to vibrations induced by traffic
‡ Actual calculation of dynamic effects is very difficult and involves a lot of
Place them Moment/ Shear unknowns
Various to get Distribute
Consider from Live Load ‡ To make life simpler, we account for the dynamic effect of moving vehicles
Live maximum dynamic Load to to be used in the by multiplying the static effect with a factor
Loads effects on effects each girder design of girders
span

Dynamic
Dynamic Load
Allowance Factor Allowance Factor
Effect due to Effect due to
(IM) Static Load Dynamic Load
IM

‡ This IM factor in the code was obtained from field measurements

Dynamic Load Allowance: IM Dynamic Load Allowance: IM

‡ Add dynamic effect to the following loads:
„ Design Truck
„ Design Tandem
‡ But NOT to these loads:
„ Pedestrian Load
„ Design Lane Load

Table 3.6.2.1-1 (modified)

Component IM
Deck Joint 75%
All limit states
All other components above ground
Fatigue/ Fracture Limit States 15%
All Other Limit States 33%

Foundation components below ground 0%

* Reduce the above values by 50% for wood bridges

 Analysis Strategy for LL Multiple Presence of LL

Place them Moment/ Shear

Various to get Consider Distribute from Live Load
Live maximum dynamic Load to to be used in the
Loads effects on effects each design of girders
span girder

Multiple Presence of LL
‡ We’ve considered the effect of load placement in ONE lane
Distribution Factors ‡ But bridges has more than one lane
‡ It’s almost impossible to have maximum load effect on ALL lanes at the same time
‡ The more lanes you have, the lesser chance that all will be loaded to maximum at
the same time

Multiple Presence of LL Distribution of LL to Girders

‡ We take care of this by using ‡ A bridge usually have more than one girder so the question arise on how
Multiple Presence Factor to distribute the lane load to the girders
‡ 1.0 for two lanes and less for 3 or
Number of Multiple more lanes
‡ Two main methods
Loaded Lane Presence Factor ‡ This is already included
(indirectly) into the GDF Tables „ Using AASHTO’s table: for typical design, get an approximate
“m”
in AASHTO code so we do not (conservative) value
1 1.20 need to multiply this again ‡ No need to consider multiple presence factor
‡ Use this only when GDF is „ Refined analysis by using finite element method
2 1.00 determined from other analysis ‡ Need to consider multiple presence factor
(such as computer model or
3 0.85
FEM)
>3 0.65
AASHTO Girder Distribution Factor AASHTO Girder Distribution Factor
‡ DFs are different for different kinds of superstructure system ‡ Factors affecting the distribution factor includes:
‡ DFs are different for interior and exterior beam „ Span Length (L)
„ Girder Spacing (S)
roadway width
„ Modulus of elasticity of beam and deck
„ Moment of inertia and Torsional inertia of the section
„ Slab Thickness (ts)
„ Width (b), Depth (d), and Area of beam (A)
Exterior Exterior
Interior „ Number of design lanes (NL)
„ Number of girders (Nb)
‡ DFs are available for one design lane and two or more design lanes (the „ Width of bridge (W)
larger one controls)
‡ Must make sure that the bridge is within the range of applicability of the
equation

DF DF
‡ For AASHTO method ‡ Types
first we must identify (Continued)
the type of
superstructure
(support beam & deck
types)
DFM DFM
‡ Distribution factor for ‡ Distribution factor for
moment in Interior moment in Interior
Beams Beams (continued)

DFM DFV
‡ Distribution factor for ‡ Distribution factor for
moment in Exterior shear in Interior Beams
Beams
DFV GDF – Finite Element Analysis
‡ Distribution factor for
shear in Exterior Beams

Bridge Model

GDF – Finite Element Analysis GDF – Finite Element Analysis

(a)

(b)

(c)

1 2
Boundary Conditions
Load distribution in model
 Moment and Shear in Typical Girder Outline
‡ At any section, if not using AASHTO’s GDF ‡ Loads on Bridges ‡ Design Lane
„ MLL+IM = DFM×MLL+IM,Lane×m ‡ Typical Loads ‡ AASHTO HL93 Loads
„ VLL+IM = DFV×VLL+IM,Lane×m ƒ Truck
„ Dead Load
ƒ Tandem
‡ At any section, if using AASHTO’s GDF „ Live Load
ƒ Uniform Load
„ MLL+IM = DFM×MLL+IM,Lane ‡ Live Load of Vehicle
‡ LL Combinations
„ VLL+IM = DFV×VLL+IM,Lane ‡ Pedestrian Load
‡ LL Placement
‡ Dynamic Load Allowance
ƒ Influence Line
‡ Other Loads ƒ Design Equation
Live
„ Fatigue ƒ Design Charts
Place them Increase the Moment/ Shear Wind
Loads
to get static load by
„ ‡ Multiple Presence
(Truck, Multiply from Live Load
maximum IM to account „ Earthquake ‡ Distribution to Girders
Tandem by DF to be used in the
and Lane
static for dynamic design of girders „ …
effects effects
Loads) ‡ Load and Resistance Factor
Design

Fatigue Load
‡ Fatigue load depends on two factors
„ Magnitude of Load:
use design truck with 9m between 145 kN axles placed on the bridge to

Other Loads produce maximum effect PLUS IM

Fatigue
Wind
Earthquake

„ Frequency of Occurrence:
Have to estimate ADTTSL = average daily truck traffic in a single lane
Fatigue Load Wind Load
ADT
‡ Horizontal loads
Average Daily Traffic Table C3.6.1.4.2-1 ‡ There are two types of wind loads on the structure
(All Vehicles/ 1 Direction)
From Survey (and Class of Hwy % of Truck
extrapolate to future)
„ WS = wind load on structure
Rural Interstate 0.20
Max ~ 20,000 vehicles/day Wind pressure on the structure itself
Urban Interstate 0.15
% of Truck Other Rural 0.15 „ WL = wind on vehicles on bridge
in Traffic Other Urban 0.10 Wind pressure on the vehicles on the bridge, which the load is
transferred to the bridge superstructure
ADTT
Average Daily Truck Traffic Table 3.6.1.1.2-1
(Truck Only/ 1 Direction) Number of Lanes p
Available to Trucks
Fraction of Truck Traffic in a
Single Lane (p) 1 1.00
2 0.85
ADTTSL
3 or more 0.80
Average Daily Truck Traffic
(Truck Only/ 1 Lane)

Wind Load Wind Load

‡ For small and low bridges, wind load typically do not control the design
Pont de Normandie (1995)
France
‡ For longer span bridge over river/sea, wind load on the structure is very
856 m span
important

„ Need to consider the aerodynamic effect of the wind on the structure

(turbulence/ Æ wind tunnel tests

„ Need to consider the dynamic effect of flexible long-span bridge under

the wind Æ dynamic analysis
Wind Load Wind Load
‡ For bridges or parts of bridges more than 10 m above low ground or ‡ After having the wind velocity, we can calculate the pressure on the
water level, the design wind velocity, VDZ, should be adjusted structure (in MPa)
according to:
2
⎛ VDZ ⎞ VDZ 2
⎛V ⎞ ⎛ Z ⎞ PD = PB ⎜ ⎟ = PB
VDZ = 2.5V0 ⎜ 10 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ VB ⎠ ⎝ Z 0 ⎠ ⎝ VB ⎠ 25, 600
where:
Structural component Windward Leeward load,
VDZ = design wind velocity at design elevation, Z (km/h)
load, MPa MPa
V10 = wind velocity at 10 m above low ground or above design water level (km/h)
Trusses, columns and arches 0.0024 0.0012
(needs to be measured at the site or assume as equal to 160 km/h)
Beams 0.0024 NA
VB = base wind velocity of 160 km/h at 10 m
Large flat surfaces 0.0019 NA
Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated > 10 m
‡ We must also consider different angles of winds
V0 = friction velocity depends on terrains
Z0 = friction length of upstream fetch depends on terrain

Wind Load Earthquake Load: EQ

‡ Horizontal load

‡ The magnitude of earthquake is characterized by return period

„ Large return period (e.g. 500 years) Æ strong earthquake

„ Small return period Æ (e.g. 50 years) Æ minor earthquake

‡ For large earthquakes (rarely occur), the bridge structure is allowed to

suffer significant structural damage but must not collapse

‡ For small earthquakes (more likely to occur), the bridge should still be in
the elastic range (no structural damage)
‡ Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Tacoma, Washington, USA)
„ The bridge collapsed in 1940 shortly after completion under wind speed lower
than the design wind speed but at a frequency near the natural frequency of
the bridge
„ The “resonance” effect was not considered at the time
Earthquake Load: EQ Earthquake Load: EQ
‡ Analysis Methods to determine EQ ‡ To do the Nonlinear Dynamic Method you probably have to learn
„ Nonlinear Dynamic Method (most complex) „ Structural Dynamics – to do the dynamic part
„ Linear Dynamic Method (still complex) „ Advanced Design of RC/ PC/ Steel – to properly model the nonlinear
„ Nonlinear Static Method (many programs can do it) behavior of materials
„ Linear Static Method (we’re familiar with this) „ Earthquake Design – to understand the earthquake behaviors and the
design requirements
„ Numerical Methods and/or Finite Elements – to be able to solve the
problems correctly

Too Complex !!!

only use for very important
structures

Earthquake Load: EQ Earthquake Load: EQ

‡ The January 17, 1995 Kobe
earthquake had its epicenter right
between the two towers of the
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge
‡ The earthquake has the
magnitude of 7.2 on Richter scale
‡ The uncompleted bridge did not
have any structural damages
‡ The original planned length was
1990 meters for the main span,
but the seismic event moved the
towers apart by almost a meter!
Earthquake Load: EQ Earthquake Load: EQ
‡ To do the Linear Static Method you only need ‡ For static linear elastic structural analysis method, what happen are:
„ Structural Analysis (already known) „ The forces are too large
„ Earthquake Design (still need to learn this!!!) „ The deformations are too small
‡ Basic concept of the method ‡ Therefore, we need to modified the forces and deformations by some
factors in order to get the “true” forces and deformations under nonlinear
„ Model a structure in a program using linear elastic behavior of
behavior
materials
‡ Factors influencing the earthquake load
„ Apply and equivalent horizontal force to a structure
„ How frequent is the seismic activity and the maximum ground acceleration
„ Press the “Run” button
expected in the area
„ Get the forces (moment, shear, axial force, etc…) and deformations at Seismic Zone 1 to 4, from less to frequent
the points interested „ What is the soil condition of the area
„ Modified these force and deformations by some factor Soil Profile Type I to IV - I is rock and IV is soft clay
„ Use these values in the design of members

Water Loads: WA Vehicular Collision Force: CT

‡ Static Pressure ‡ For structures that are not protected by either:
‡ Buoyancy „ Embankment
‡ Stream pressure „ Crashworthy barriers 1.37m height located within 3 m
„ Any barriers 1.07 m height located more than 3 m
‡ For piers and abutment located within 9 m from edge of roadway or 15 m
from the centerline of railway track
„ Use equivalent static force of 1800 kN acting horizontally at 1.2 m
above ground
Vessel Collision: CV Outline
‡ Loads on Bridges ‡ Design Lane
‡ Typical Loads ‡ AASHTO HL93 Loads
ƒ Truck
„ Dead Load
ƒ Tandem
„ Live Load
ƒ Uniform Load
‡ Live Load of Vehicle
‡ LL Combinations
‡ Pedestrian Load
‡ LL Placement
‡ Dynamic Load Allowance
ƒ Influence Line
‡ Other Loads ƒ Design Equation
„ Fatigue ƒ Design Charts
„ Wind ‡ Multiple Presence
„ Earthquake ‡ Distribution to Girders
„ …
‡ Load and Resistance Factor
Design

Historical Development
‡ The first US standard for bridges in 1931 (AASHO), the 17th edition of
AASHTO Specifications in 2002
‡ Working stress design (WSD), based on allowable stresses

AASHTO LRFD Designs ‡ In 1975-79 work on the new code, Ontario Ministry of Transportation,
the 1st edition of the OHBDC in 1979
‡ In 1986-87 feasibility study initiated by a group of bridge engineers
‡ Work on the new code1988-93
Introduction ‡ 1st edition of AASHTO LRFD Code in 1994, the 2nd in 1998, 3rd in 2004
Design Criteria – as an alternative document
‡ By 2007, only AASHTO LRFD in the USA
Load Multiplier
Load Factor and Load Combinations
Resistance Factors
Major Changes in LRFD Codes Design Criteria
‡ Introduction of a new philosophy of safety ‡ AASHTO LRFD Specifications
‡ Identification of four limit states (strength, service, fatigue, extreme event) ‡ For each limit state:
‡ Development of new load models (including new live load)
‡ Development of new load and resistance factors
Factored Load ≤ Factored Resistance
‡ Revised techniques for the analysis and load distribution
‡ Combined presentation of plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete;
shear design based on strut and tie model ‡ Load and resistance factors serve as partial safety factors
‡ Introduction of limit state-based provisions for foundation design and soil ‡ They are determined using the code calibration procedure
mechanics
‡ Expanded coverage on hydraulics and scour
‡ Changes to the earthquake provisions
‡ Inclusion of FHWA Spec for ship collision
‡ Coverage of bridge rails based on crash testing
‡ Introduction of isotropic deck design process
‡ Development of parallel commentary

Design Criteria Design Criteria

‡ General format in AASHTO LRFD Code:

LOAD Mean Mean RESISTANCE

Load Resistance
Nominal
Load Nominal ∑ ηγiQi ≤ ΦRn
Resistance

Load Multiplier
Nominal Resistance
Load Factor
Resistance Factor
Nominal Load Effect

Factored FAILURE Factored

Load Resistance η = ηIηDηR
 Load Multiplier
‡ ηI = Importance factor
‡ The owner may declare a bridge or any structural component and
connection thereof to be of operational importance.

Load Multiplier ‡ For strength and extreme event limit states

„ 1.05 for bridge considered of operational importance e.g. the only bridge
crossing the river
„ 1.00 for typical bridges

η = ηI ηD ηR ‡
„ 0.95 for bridge considered nonimportant
For all other limit states
„ 1.00 for all bridges

Load Multiplier Load Multiplier

‡ ηD = Ductility factor (Brittle v.s. Ductile failure) ‡ ηR = Redundant factor
‡ The structural system shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the ‡ Multiple load path and continuous structures should be used. Main
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the elements whose failure is expected to cause the collapse of the bridge
strength and extreme event limit states before failure. shall be designated as failure-critical (nonredundant)
‡ For strength limit states ‡ For strength limit states
„ 1.05 for nonductile components & connection which may fail in a brittle „ 1.05 for nonredundant members e.g. a simple span bridges
manner „ 1.00 for conventional level of redundancy
„ 1.00 for conventional designs „ 0.95 for exceptional level of redundancy e.g. multi-girder continuous beam
„ 0.95 for components with enhanced ductility e.g. has additional stirrups for bridge
shear reinforcements ‡ For all other limit states
‡ For all other limit states „ 1.00
„ 1.00
 Loads & Probabilities
‡ How do we use all the loads for the structural analysis?
Load Factor & „ Add all the mean value of loads together?
‡ No, because we must consider the chance that the load may be larger or

Load Combinations „
smaller than calculated.
Add all the extreme value of loads together?
‡ No, because then the bridge must have to resist an enormous load and
that would make it really expensive!

γi
‡ The chance that the maximum value of one load occurring at the same
time as the maximum value of another load is very small.
„ We need to consider several cases where each case we have one load
at its maximum value expected while other loads are around their
mean values

Loads & Probabilities Limit States

‡ Load factors are There are 4 types of “limit states”
determined so that, for ‡ Ultimate limit states – involving the strength and stability of the structure,
each factored load, the both local and global
probability of being „ Strength I, II, III, IV
exceeded is about the ‡ Extreme Event limit states - relates to the structural survival of a bridge
same for all load during a major earthquake, flood, or collision
components. „ Extreme Event I, II
‡ Serviceability limit states – involving the usability of the structure including
stress, deformation, and crack widths
„ Service I, II, III
‡ Fatigue limit state - relates to restrictions on stress range to prevent crack
growth as a result of repetitive loads during the design life of the bridge
„ Fatigue
‡ All limit states are equally important (AASHTO LRFD 1.3.2.1)
Permanent Loads Transient Loads
‡ DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments ‡ LL = vehicular live load
‡ DW = dead load of wearing surface and utilities ‡ IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
‡ EL = accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from the ‡ PL = pedestrian live load
construction process
‡ LS = live load surcharge
‡ DD = downdrag
‡ BR = vehicular braking force
‡ EH = horizontal earth pressure load
‡ ES = earth surcharge load ‡ CE = vehicular centrifugal force
‡ EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill ‡ CT = vehicular collision force
‡ CV = vessel collision force
‡ EQ = earthquake

Transient Loads Load Combinations

‡ CR = creep
‡ SH = shrinkage
‡ FR = friction
‡ TG = temperature gradient
‡ TU = uniform temperature
‡ WA = water load and stream pressure
‡ IC = ice load
‡ WL = wind on live load
‡ WS = wind load on structure
‡ SE = settlement
Load Combinations Load Combinations
‡ STRENGTH I: Basic load combination relating to the normal use of bridge.
Maximum combination is used when LL produces the same effect as DC.
Minimum combination is used when LL produces opposite effect to DC.
‡ STRENGTH II: load combination for special vehicles specified by owner
‡ STRENGTH III: load combination where the bridge is subjected to high
wind (> 90 km/h) and traffic is prevented
‡ STRENGTH IV: load combination for long span bridges (>67 m span)
which has large ratio of DC to LL
‡ STRENGTH V: load combination where bridge and traffic on the bridge is
subjected to wind velocity of 90 km/h

Load Combinations Load Combinations

‡ EXTREME EVENT I: load combination for structural survival under major ‡ Example of combinations:
earthquake
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM) (Strength I)
‡ EXTREME EVENT II: load combination for structural survival under
combination of events such as flood and vessel collision „ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.4WS (Strength III)
„ 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 1.4WS (Strength III)
‡ SERVICE I: load combination for normal operation of the bridge and for „ 1.50DC + 1.50DW (Strength IV)
checking compression in prestressed concrete „ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.35(LL+IM) + 0.4(WS+WL) (Strength V)
‡ SERVICE II: load combination for steel bridges to control yielding „ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0EQ (Extreme I)
‡ SERVICE III: load combination relating to tension in prestressed concrete
„ 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0EQ (Extreme I)
during service
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0 (CT or CV) (Extreme I)
‡ FATIGUE: load combination for fatigue and fracture due to repetitive LL „ 0.90DC + 0.65DW + 0.5(LL+IM) + 1.0 (CT or CV) (Extreme I)
and IM
Load Combinations
‡ For slabs and girders designs, we normally have only DC, DW,
and (LL+IM)
„ 1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM) (Strength I)
„ 1.50DC + 1.50DW (Strength IV) Resistance Factors
„ 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 1.00(LL+IM) (Service I)
1.00DC + 1.00DW + 1.30(LL+IM) (Service II, Steel)

Φ
„
„ 1.00DC + 1.00DW + 0.80(LL+IM) (Service III, Prestressed)

Resistance and Probabilities Resistance Factors

‡ Resistance factor is ‡ Resistance factors are different for different types of action (moment or
determined so that the shear, for example) and for different types of materials (steel or
reliability index, β, is concrete). They are specified under each section of materials.
close to the target
value, βT (about 3.5)

Concrete Structures

Types Φ
Flexure and Tension
in Reinforced Concrete 0.90
in Prestressed Concrete 1.00
Shear in Normal Weight Concrete 0.90
Axial Compression 0.75
Bearing on Concrete 0.70
Resistance Factors

Steel Structures

Types Φ
Flexure 1.00
Shear 1.00
Axial Compression (steel or composite) 0.90
Block shear 0.80
Tension
Yielding limit state 0.95
Fracture limit state 0.80
Design Equation

Case Load Configuration Moments (kips-ft) and Loading and limitations

shears (kips) (x and l in feet)

32 32 Truck loading
8 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ 42 ⎤ P = 16 kips
M ( x) = Px ⎢4.5⎜1 − ⎟ − ⎥ MA ≥ MB for:
A ⎣ ⎝ l⎠ l ⎦
l > 28
⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ 42 ⎤ x ≤ l/3
V ( x) = P ⎢4.5⎜1 − ⎟ − ⎥ x + 28 ≤ l
x ⎣ ⎝ l⎠ l ⎦ VA > VB for any x

32 32 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ 21 7 ⎤ Truck loading
8 M ( x) = Px ⎢4.5⎜1 − ⎟ − − ⎥ P = 16 kips
B ⎣ ⎝ l⎠ l x⎦ MB ≥ MA for:
l > 28
⎡ x 21⎤
V ( x ) = P ⎢ 4 − 4 .5 − ⎥ x > l/3
⎣ l l ⎦ 14 ≤ x ≤ l/2
x

⎛ x 2⎞
25 25 M ( x) = 50 x⎜1 − − ⎟
⎝ l l⎠ Tandem loading
C
⎛ x 2⎞ is more severe than truck
V ( x) = 50⎜1 − − ⎟ loading for l ≤ 37 ft
⎝ l l⎠
x

0.64 k/ft (l − x)
M ( x) = 0.64 x
2
D Lane loading
⎛l ⎞
V ( x) = 0.64⎜ − x ⎟
x ⎝ 2 ⎠
Bending Moment in Simple Span for AASHTO HL-93 Loading for a fully loaded lane
Moment in kips-ft
IM is included
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 kips = 4.448 kN
1 kips-ft = 1.356 kN-m
Shear in Simple Span for AASHTO HL-93 Loading for a fully loaded lane
Shear in kips
IM is included
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 kips = 4.448 kN
Design Chart for Negative Moment due to Live Load Combination 3 at Interior Support of Continuous Beams with Equal Spans
For one lane loading
IM is included