Physical and Chemical

Hydrogeology

Second Edition

Patrick A. Domenico
David B. Harris Professor of Geology
Texas A&M University

Franklin W. Schwartz
Ohio Eminent Scholar in Hydrogeology
The Ohio State University

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

New York Chichester Weinheim Brisbane Toronto Singapore
 Contents

Chapter 1 Chemical Rock-Water Interactions: Secondary

Introduction 1 Porosity in Sandstones 26
1.1 What Is Hydrogeology? 1 2.5 Uplift, Diagenesis, and Erosion 27
Physical Hydrogeology Before the Early 1940s 2 The Style of Formations Associated with
Chemical Hydrogeology Before the Early 1960s 3 Uplift 27
Post-1960 Hydrogeology 4 Secondary Porosity Enhancement in Carbonate
1.2 The Relationship Between Hydrogeology and Rocks 29
Other Fields of Geology 4 2.6 Tectonism and the Formation of
1.3 Hydrologic Cycle 5 Fractures 29
Components of the Hydrologic Cycle 5 Style of Fracturing 30
Evapotranspiration and Potential Fluid Pressure and Porosity 31
Evapotranspiration 7 Connectivity 31
Infiltration and Recharge 8
Base Flow 8
Hydrologic Equation 10 Chapter 3
Ground-Water Movement 33
Chapter 2 3.1 Darcy's Experimental Law and Field
The Origin of Porosity and Permeability 13 Extensions 33
2.1 Porosity and Permeability 13 The Nature of Darcy's Velocity 34
Porosity and Effective Porosity 13 Hydraulic Head: Hubbert's Force Potential 34
Permeability 15 The Gradient and Ground-Water Flow 36
2.2 Continental Environments 16 Physical Interpretation of Darcy's Proportionality
Weathering 16 Constant 36
Erosion, Transportation, and Deposition 17 Units and Dimensions 37
Fluvial Deposits 17 3.2 Hydraulic Conductivity and Permeability of
Eolian Deposits 20 Geologic Materials 37
Lacustrine Deposits 20 Observed Range in Hydraulic Conductivity
Glacial Deposits 20 Values 37
2.3 The Boundary Between Continental and Character of Hydraulic Conductivity
Marine Environments 20 Distribution 38
2.4 Marine Environments 21 Anisotropicity and Heterogeneity Within
Lateral and Vertical Succession of Strata 21 Units 39
Ancestral Seas and Their Deposits 22 Heterogeneity Among Units and the Classification
The Paleozoic Rock Group 23 of Aquifers 41
The Mesozoic Rock Group 24 Creating Hydraulic Conductivity Averages 42
The Cenozoic Rock Group 24 Darcy's Law for Anisotropic Material 43
Diagenesis in Marine Environments 24 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity 44
Porosity Reduction: Compaction and Pressure Laboratory Testing 44
Solution 24 The Search for Empirical Correlations 44
vii
Viii Contents

3.3 Mapping Flow in Geological Systems 45 5.2 Surface Features of Ground-Water Flow 91
Hydrogeological Cross Sections 46 Recharge-Discharge Relations 91
Potentiometric Surface and Water-Table Maps 47 Ground Water-Lake Interactions 93
Closing Statements 48 Ground Water-Surface Water Interactions 95
3.4 Flow in Fractured Rocks 48 5-3 Some Engineering and Geologic Implications
Continuum Approach to Fluid Flow 48 of Topographic Drive Systems 97
Intergranular Porous Rocks 49 Large Reservoir Impoundments 97
Fractured Rocks 49 Excavations: Inflows and Stability 98
3.5 Flow in the Unsaturated Zone 51 The Sea-Level Canal 98
Hydraulic and Pressure Heads 51 Ground-Water Inflows into Excavations 99
Water Retention Curves 53 The Stability of Excavations in Ground-Water
Darcy's Law for Variably Saturated Flow 54 Discharge Areas 99
Unsaturated Flow in Fractured Rocks 54 Landslides and Slope Stability 101

Chapter 4 Chapter 6
Main Equations of Flow, Boundary Hydraulic Testing: Models, Methods, and
Conditions, and Flow Nets 58 Applications 103
4.1 Organizing the Study of Ground-Water Flow 6.1 Prototype Geologic Models in Hydraulic
Equations 58 Testing 103
4.2 Conservation of Fluid Mass 59 6.2 Conventional Hydraulic Test Procedures and
Main Equations of Flow 60 Analysis 105
4.3 The Storage Properties of Porous Media 62 The Theis Nonequilibrium Pumping Test
Compressibility of Water and Its Relation to Method 105
Specific Storage for Confined Aquifers 63 The Curve-Matching Procedure 107
Compressibility of the Rock Matrix: Effective Assumptions and Interpretations 107
Stress Concept 64 Modifications of the Nonequilibrium
Matrix Compressibility and Its Relation to Equation 108
Specific Storage of Confined Aquifers 65 Time-Drawdown Method 108
Equation for Confined Flow in an Aquifer 67 Distance-Drawndown Method 109
Specific Yield of Aquifers 68 Steady-State Behavior as a Terminal Case of the
4.4 Boundary Conditions and Flow Nets 68 Transient Case 109
Graphic Flow Net Construction 71 The Hantush-Jacob Leaky Aquifer Method 110
4.5 Dimensional Analysis 72 Water Table Aquifers 112
6.3 Single-Borehole Tests 114
Recovery in a Pumped Well 114
Chapter 5 The Drill Stem Test 114
Ground Water in the Basin Hydrologic Slug Injection or Withdrawal Tests 115
Cycle 75 Response at the Pumped Well: Specific Capacity
5.1 Topographic Driving Forces 75 and Well Efficiency 116
The Early Field Studies 75 6.4 Partial Penetration, Superposition, and
Conceptual, Graphical, and Mathematical Models Bounded Aquifers 118
of Unconfined Flow 76 Partial Penetration 118
Effects of Basin Geometry on Ground-Water Principle of Superposition 118
Flow 78 Bounded Aquifers 120
Effects of Basin Geology on Ground-Water Flow 80
6.5 Hydraulic Testing in Fractured or Low-
Ground Water in Mountainous Terrain 83
Permeability Rocks 122
Ground Water in Carbonate Terrain 87
Ground Water in Coastal Regions 88 Single-Borehole Tests 123
The Fresh Water-Salt Water Interface in Coastal Multiple-Borehole Tests 123
Regions 89 6.6 Some Applications to Hydraulic
The Ghyben-Herzberg Relation 89 Problems 124
The Shape of the Interface with a Submerged Screen Diameter and Pumping Rates 125
Seepage Surface 90 Well Yield: The Step-Drawdown Test 125
Upconing of the Interface Caused by Pumping A Problem in Dewatering 125
Wells 91 A Problem in Water Supply 127
 Contents ix

6.7 Computer-Based Calculations 128 8.2 Abnormal Fluid Pressures in Active

Code Demonstration 131 Depositional Environments 172
Bounded Aquifers Revisited 131 Origin and Distribution 172
Mathematical Formulation of the Problem 174
Chapter 7 Isothermal Basin Loading and Tectonic
Ground Water as a Resource 136 Strain 175
7.1 Development of Ground-Water One-Dimensional Basin Loading 176
Resources 136 Extensions of the One-Dimensional Loading
The Response of Aquifers to Pumping 136 Model 177
Yield Analysis 137 Thermal Expansion of Fluids 179
Case Study: The Upper Los Angeles River Area 137 Fluid Pressures and Rock Fracture 182
Management Strategies 139 Phase Transformations 183
Artificial Recharge 139 Subnormal Pressure 184
Conjunctive Use 141 Irreversible Processes 185
7.2 Introduction to Ground-Water Flow 8.3 Pore Fluids in Tectonic Processes 185
Simulation 142 Fluid Pressures and Thrust Faulting 185
Generalized Modeling Approach 142 Seismicity Induced by Fluid Injection 186
Conceptual Model 142 Seismicity Induced in the Vicinity of
Ground-Water Flow Simulation 143 Reservoirs 187
Evaluation of Model Results 144 Seismicity and Pore Fluids at Midcrustal
Model Verification 144 Depths 188
A Note of Caution 144 The Phreatic Seismograph: Earthquakes and
7.3 Formulating a Finite-Difference Equation for Dilatancy Models 188
Flow 145
Description of the Finite-Difference Grid 145 Chapter 9
Derivation of the Finite-Difference Equation 146 Heat Transport in Ground-Water Flow 191
7.4 The MODFLOW Family of Codes 147 9.1 Conduction, Convection, and Equations of
Solving Systems of Finite-Difference Heat Transport 191
Equations 148 Fourier's Law 192
Modular Program Structure 148 Convective Transport 193
Illustrative Example 148 Equations of Energy Transport 194
Operational Issues 152 The Heat Conduction Equation 195
Time-Step Size 152 The Conductive-Convective Equation 195
Drawdowns at "Pumping" Nodes 152 Dimensionless Groups 196
Water-Table Conditions 153 9.2 Forced Convection 197
Boundary Conditions 153 Temperature Profiles and Ground-Water
7.5 Case Study in the Application of Velocity 197
MODFLOW 154 Heat Transport in Regional Ground-Water
Model Development 154 Flow 199
Data Preparation and Model Calibration 156 Heat Transport in Active Depositional
Environments 203
Chapter 8 Heat Transport in Mountainous Terrain 205
Stress, Strain, and Pore Fluids 159 9.3 Free Convection 207
8.1 Deformable Porous Media 159 The Onset of Free Convection 207
One-Dimensional Consolidation 159 Sloping Layers 208
Development of the Flow Equation 159 Geological Implications 208
The Undrained Response of Water Levels to Natural
Loading Events 160 9.4 Energy Resources 209
The Drained Response of Water Levels to Natural Geothermal Energy 209
Loading Events 163 Energy Storage in Aquifers 209
Land Subsidence as a One-Dimensional Drained 9.5 Heat Transport and Geologic Repositories
Response 163 for Nuclear Waste Storage 210
Mathematical Treatment of Land Subsidence 165 The Nuclear Waste Program 210
Three-Dimensional Consolidation 169 The Rock Types 210
Elastic Properties in Deformational Problems 169 Thermohydrochemical Effects 212
Flow Equations for Deformable Media 171 Thermomechanical Effects 213
X Contents

Chapter 10 Chapter 12
Solute Transport 215 Chemical Reactions 255
10.1 Advection 215 12.1 Acid-Base Reactions 255
10.2 Basic Concepts of Dispersion 216 Natural Weak Acid-Base Systems 256
Diffusion 218 CO2-Water System 256
Mechanical Dispersion 219 Alkalinity 257
10.3 Character of the Dispersion 12.2 Solution, Exsolution, Volatilization, and
Coefficient 220 Precipitation 258
Studies at the Microscopic Scale 220 Gas Solution and Exsolution 258
Dispersivity as a Medium Property 221 Solution of Organic Solutes in Water 258
Studies at Macroscopic and Larger Scales 221 Volatilization 259
10.4 A Fickian Model of Dispersion 223 Dissolution and Precipitation of Solids 262
Solid Solubility 262
10.5 Mixing in Fractured Media 226
12.3 Complexation Reactions 263
10.6 A Geostatistical Model of Dispersion 228
Stability of Complexes and Speciation
Mean and Variance 228
Modeling 263
Autocovariance and Autocorrelation
Major Ion Complexation and Equilibrium
Functions 229
Calculations 264
Generation of Correlated Random Fields 230
Enhancing the Mobility of Metals 265
Estimation of Dispersivity 230
Organic Complexation 265
10.7 Tracers and Tracer Tests 231
12.4 Reactions o n Surfaces 266
Field Tracer Experiments 232
Sorption Isotherms 266
Natural Gradient Test 232
Hydrophobic Sorption of Organic
Single Well Pulse Test 232
Compounds 267
Two-Well Tracer Test 233
ATd-based Approaches for Modeling the Sorption
Single Well Injection or Withdrawal with Multiple
Observation Wells 233 of Metals 269
Estimates from Contaminant Plumes and Multiparameter Equilibrium Models 269
Environmental Tracers 233 12.5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 272
Massively Instrumented Field Tracer Tests 233 Oxidation Numbers, Half-Reactions, Electron
Borden Tracer Experiment 234 Activity, and Redox Potential 272
Validation of the Stochastic Model of Kinetics and Dominant Couples 275
Dispersion 235 Control on the Mobility of Metals 276
Biotransformation of Organic Compounds 276
Chapter 11 12.6 Hydrolysis 277
Principles of Aqueous Geochemistry 238
12.7 Isotopic Processes 277
11.1 Introduction to Aqueous Systems 238
Radioactive Decay 277
Concentration Scales 239
Isotopic Reactions 278
Gas and Solid Phases 240
Deuterium and Oxygen-18 279
11.2 Structure of Water and the Occurrence of
Mass in Water 240
Chapter 13
11.3 Equilibrium Versus Kinetic Descriptions of
Reactions 240 Colloids and Microorganisms 282
Reaction Rates 241 13.1 A Conceptual Model of Colloidal
Transport 282
11.4 Equilibrium Models of Reaction 241
Occurrence of Colloidal Material 283
Activity Models 242
Stabilization 283
11.5 Deviations from Equilibrium 243 Transport and Filtration 284
11.6 Kinetic Reactions 244 13.2 Colloidal Transport in Ground Water 284
11.7 Organic Compounds 245 Sampling and Measuring 284
11.8 Ground-Water Composition 248 Studies at Cape Cod 285
The Routine Water Analysis 248 13.3 Microbiological Systems 285
Specialized Analyses 249 Biofilms 287
11.9 Describing Chemical Data 250 Sampling and Enumerating Microbial
Abundance or Relative Abundance 252 Populations 287
Abundance and Patterns of Change 253 Plate Counts 288
 Contents XI

Direct Counting Procedures 288 Carbon-14 320

Biochemical Techniques 288 Chlorine-36 322
Rates of Microbial Reactions 288 Indirect Methods 322
Microbial Ecology of the Subsurface 290 S'HO and <5D 322
13.4 Microbial Processes 291 Chlorofluorocarbons 322
Issues in Biodegradation 292
Bionlm Kinetics 292 Chapter 16
13.5 Biotransformation of Common Mass Transport in Ground-Water Flow:
Contaminants 293 Geologic Systems 326
Hydrocarbons and Derivatives 293 16.1 Mass Transport in Carbonate Rocks 326
Halogenated Aliphatic Compounds 294 The Approach Toward Chemical Equilibrium in
Halogenated Aromatic Compounds 294 Carbonate Sediments 327
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 295 The Problem of Undersaturation 329
Complex Transformation Pathways 295 Dolomitization 330
16.2 Economic Mineralization 330
Chapter 14 Origin of Ore Deposits 331
The Equations of Mass Transport 296 Roll-Front Uranium Deposits 331
14.1 Mass Transport Equations 296 Mississippi Valley-Type Lead-Zinc Deposits 332
The Diffusion Equation 296 Noncommercial Mineralization: Saline Soils and
Evaporites 337
The Advection-Diffusion Equation 297
The Advection-Dispersion Equation 297 16.3 Migration and Entrapment of
14.2 Mass Transport with Reaction 298 Hydrocarbons 337
First-Order Kinetic Reactions 298 Displacement and Entrapment 337
Equilibrium Sorption Reactions 299 Basin Migration Models 339
Heterogeneous Kinetic Reactions 299 16.4 Self-Organization in Hydrogeologic
14.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions 300 Systems 341
Patterning Associated with Dissolution 341
Patterning Associated with Precipitation and
Chapter 15 Mixed Phenomena 341
Mass Transport in Natural Ground-Water
Systems 303
Chapter 17
15.1 Mixing as an Agent for Chemical Introduction to Contaminant
Change 303 Hydrogeology 344
The Mixing of Meteoric and Original Formation
Waters 303 17.1 Sources of Ground-Water
Diffusion in Deep Sedimentary Contamination 344
Environments 305 Radioactive Contaminants 346
Trace Metals 347
15.2 Chemical Reactions in the Unsaturated Nutrients 349
Zone 306
Other Inorganic Species 349
Gas Dissolution and Redistribution 306
Organic Contaminants 349
Weak Acid-Strong Base Reactions 307
Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Derivatives 349
Sulfide Oxidation 309 Halogenated Aliphatic Compounds 350
Gypsum Precipitation and Dissolution 309 Halogenated Aromatic Compounds 350
Cation Exchange 309 Polychlorinated Biphenyls 350
Organic Reactions 309 Health Effects 350
15.3 Chemical Reactions in the Saturated Biological Contaminants 350
Zone 310 17.2 Solute Plumes as a Manifestation of
Weak Acid-Strong Base Reactions 310 Processes 352
Dissolution of Soluble Salts 312 Fractured and Karst Systems 357
Redox Reactions 312 Babylon, New York, Case Study 357
Cation Exchange 315 Alkali Lake, Oregon, Case Study 359
15.4 Case Study of the Milk River Aquifer 316 17.3 Design and Quality Assurance Issues in
15.5 Age Dating of Ground Water 319 Solute Sampling 360
Direct Methods 319 Design of Sampling Networks 360
Tritium 319 Assuring the Quality of Chemical Data 362
Xll Contents

11A Sampling Methods 362 A Case Study of Gasoline Leakage 404

Conventional Wells or Piezometers 362 Hyde Park Landfill Case Study 404
Multilevel Samplers 363 19.3 Partitioning 405
Solid and Fluid Sampling 364 19.4 Fate of Organics in the Unsaturated
Cone Penetrometry 365 Zone 406
Other Sampling Methods 367 Volatilization 406
Dissolved Contaminants in the Unsaturated Gas Transport by Diffusion 408
Zone 367 Equilibrium Calculations of Mass
17.5 Indirect Methods for Detecting Distributions 409
Contamination 367 Mass of VOC in Gas Phase 411
Soil-Gas Characterization 367 Mass of VOC in Aqueous Phase 411
Geophysical Methods 368 Mass of VOC in Sorbed Phase 411
Electrical Methods 369 Mass of VOC in NAPL Phase 411
Ground-Penetrating Radar 370 19.5 Fate of Organics in the Saturated Zone 411
Magnetometry 371 Equilibrium Calculations of Mass
Seismic Methods 371 Distribution 412
19.6 Air-Permeability Testing 412
Chapter 18 19.7 Recognizing DNAPL Sites 413
Modeling the Transport of Dissolved Systematic Screening Procedure 414
Contaminants 372
18.1 Analytical Approaches 372 Chapter 20
Advection and Longitudinal Dispersion 372 Remediation: Overview and Removal
The Retardation Equation 375 Options 417
Radioactive Decay, Biodegradation, and 20.1 Containment 417
Hydrolysis 376 Slurry Walls 417
Transverse Dispersion 377 Sheet Pile Walls 418
Models for Multidimensional Transport 378 Grouting 418
Continuous Sources 378 Surface Seals and Surface Drainage 418
Numerical Integration of an Analytical
Hydrodynamic Controls 419
Solution 380
The Instantaneous Point Source Model 380 Stabilization and Solidification 420
18.2 Programming the Analytical Solutions for 20.2 Management Options 420
Computers 382 20.3 Overview of Methods for Contaminant
18.3 Numerical Approaches 384 Removal 420
A Generalized Modeling Approach 384 Excavation and Ex Situ Treatment 421
The Common Solution Techniques 385 Pump and Treat 421
Adding Chemical Reactions 386 Interceptor Systems 421
Soil-Vapor Extraction 421
18.4 Case Study in the Application of a
Numerical Model 386 20.4 Pump and Treat 422
The Problem of Pump and Treat 422
Technical Considerations with
Chapter 19
Injection-Recovery Systems 423
Multiphase Fluid Systems 393
Methods for Designing Pump-and-Treat
19.1 Basic Concepts 393 Systems 425
Saturation and Wettability 393 Expanding Pilot-Scale Systems 425
Interfacial Tension and Capillary Forces 394 Capture Zones 426
Imbibition and Drainage 394 Analytical Approaches to Defining Capture
Relative Permeability 395 Zones 426
Solubility and Effective Solubility 397 Model-Based Approaches for the Design of
19.2 LNAPLs and DNAPLs 398 Recovery Systems 429
Conceptual Models for the Occurrence of Simulation-Optimization Techniques 429
LNAPLs 399 Issues in the Design of Capture Zones 430
Occurrence of DNAPLs in Ground Water 401 20.5 Interceptor Systems for NAPL
Secondary Contamination Due to NAPLs 401 Recovery 430
Conceptual Models and Quantitative 20.6 Soil-Vapor Extraction 431
Methods 403 Components of an SVE System 432
 Contents xiU

When Can SVE Systems Be Used? 433 21.3 Abiotic Chemical Destruction 449
Estimating Removal Rates 434 Reactive Barrier Systems 450
Removal Rate Calculations 435 Funnel-and-Gate Systems 450
Field Estimates of Soil Permeability 435 21.4 Risk Assessment 450
Heterogeneity and the Efficiency of SVE Data Collection and Data Evaluation 451
Systems 436
Exposure Assessment 451
20.7 Air Sparging 437 Toxicity Assessment 453
Airflow and Channeling 437 Health-Risk Assessment 454
Designing Air-Sparging Systems 438 Types of Risk Assessments 455
20.8 Case Studies in Site Remediation 438 Environmental Risk Assessment 456
Oil Spill: Calgary, Alberta 438 21.5 Fernald Case Study 456
Gilson Road: Nashua, New Hampshire 439 Detailed Risk Assessment 457
Hyde Park Landfill: Niagara Falls, New York 440
Groveland Wells Site, Massachusetts 441 Answers to Problems 461
Appendix A
Chapter 21
Derivation of the Flow Equation in a
In Situ Destruction and Risk
Deforming Medium 463
Assessment 443
21.1 Intrinsic Bioremediation 443 Appendix B
21.2 Bioventing and Bioslurping 445 About the Computer Disk 464
Applicability of the Technology to Contaminant Appendix C
Groups 446
Table of Atomic Weights 466
Requirements for Success with Bioventing
Systems 446 References 468
In Situ Respiration Testing 447
Progress in Solvent Bioremediation 448 Index 494