Confucius

Confucius (/kənˈfjuːʃəs/ kən-FEW-shəs;[1] 551–479 BC)[2][3] was a Chinese

Confucius
philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period.
孔子
The philosophy of Confucius, also known as Confucianism, emphasized
personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice
and sincerity. His followers competed successfully with many other schools
during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the
Legalists during the Qin dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after
the collapse of Qin, Confucius's thoughts received official sanction and were
further developed into a system known in the West as Neo-Confucianism, and
later New Confucianism (Modern Neo-Confucianism).

Confucius is traditionally credited with having authored or edited many of the

Chinese classic texts including all of the Five Classics, but modern scholars are
cautious of attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself. Aphorisms
concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but only many years
after his death.

Confucius's principles have commonality with Chinese tradition and belief. He

championed strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration, and respect of elders by
their children and of husbands by their wives, recommending family as a basis
for ideal government. He espoused the well-known principle "Do not do unto
others what you do not want done to yourself", the Golden Rule. He is also a
traditional deity in Daoism. The teaching Confucius. Portrait by
Wu Daozi, 685–758, Tang dynasty.
Confucius is widely considered as one of the most important and influential
Born 551 BC
individuals in shaping human history. His teaching and philosophy greatly
Zou, Lu, Zhou
impacted people around the world and remains influential today.[4][5]
Kingdom (present-day
Nanxinzhen, Qufu,
Shandong, China)

Contents Died 479 BC (aged 71–72)

Lu, Zhou Kingdom
Name
Nationality Zhou
Life
Early life Era Ancient philosophy
Political career
Region Chinese philosophy
Exile
Return home School Confucianism

Philosophy Main Moral philosophy,

Ethics interests social philosophy,
Politics ethics
Legacy Notable Confucianism, Golden
Disciples ideas Rule
Visual portraits
 Fictional portrayals Influences
Memorials I Ching, Book of Rites, Classic of
Descendants
Poetry
References
Citations Influenced
Bibliography Many Chinese philosophers,
External links particularly Mencius, Xun Zi, Zhu Xi
and the Neotaoists and the
Neoconfucians; François Quesnay;
Name Christian Wolff; Robert Cummings
Neville; Ezra Pound; Gottfried
The name "Confucius" is a Latinized form of the Mandarin Chinese "Kǒng Fūzǐ" Wilhelm Leibniz
(孔夫子, meaning "Master Kǒng"), and was coined in the late 16th century by
the early Jesuit missionaries to China.[6] Confucius's clan name was "Kǒng" (孔;
Confucius
Old Chinese: *[k]ʰ ˤoŋʔ), and his given name was "Qiū" (丘; OC: *[k]ʷʰ ə). His
"capping name", given upon reaching adulthood and by which he would have
been known to all but his older family members, was "Zhòngní" (仲尼, OC:*N-
truŋ-s nr[əj]), the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his
family.[6][7]

"Confucius (Kǒngzǐ)" in seal script

(top) and regular (bottom) Chinese
Life characters
Chinese name
Early life Chinese 孔子
It is thought that Confucius was born on September 28, 551 BC,[2][8] in the Hanyu Pinyin Kǒngzǐ
district of Zou ( 鄒 邑 ) near present-day Qufu, China.[8][9] The area was
Literal meaning "Master Kǒng"
notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively independent under the
local lords of Lu. His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly
Transcriptions
commandant of the local Lu garrison.[10] His ancestry traced back through the Standard Mandarin
dukes of Song to the Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou.[11][12][13][14] Hanyu Pinyin Kǒngzǐ
Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had Bopomofo ㄎㄨㄥˇ ㄗˇ
migrated the family from Song to Lu.[15]
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Koongtzyy
Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by Wade–Giles Kʻung3 Tzŭ3
his mother Yan Zhengzai (顏徵在) in poverty.[16] His mother would later die at Yale Romanization Kǔngdž
less than 40 years of age.[16] At age 19 he married Qiguan (亓官), and a year
IPA [kʰʊ̌ ŋ.tsɹ̩]̀
later the couple had their first child, Kong Li (孔鯉).[16] Qiguan and Confucius
Wu
would later have two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as
a child.[17] Suzhounese Khòn-tzỳ
Yue: Cantonese
Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned
Yale Romanization Húngjí
the Six Arts.[18]
IPA [hǒŋ.tsǐː]
Confucius was born into the class of shi (士), between the aristocracy and the Jyutping Hung2zi2
common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during
Southern Min
his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the
Hokkien POJ Khóng-chú
proceeds to give his mother a proper burial.[16][19] When his mother died,
Confucius (aged 23) is said to have mourned for three years, as was the Tâi-lô Khóng-tsú
tradition.[19] Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese khúwng tsí

Political career Old Chinese

In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal house.[20]

Baxter (1992) *khongʔ tsɨʔ
Under the duke were three aristocratic families, whose heads bore the title of Baxter–Sagart (2014) *[k]ʰˤoŋʔ tsəʔ
viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy.[21] The Ji family Kong Qiu
held the position "Minister over the Masses", who was also the "Prime
Chinese 孔丘
Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; and the Shu
family held the position "Minister of War".[21] In the winter of 505 BC, Yang Hu Hanyu Pinyin Kǒng Qiū
—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji Transcriptions
family.[21] However, by the summer of 501 BC, the three hereditary families had Standard Mandarin
succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu.[21] By then, Confucius had built up a
Hanyu Pinyin Kǒng Qiū
considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the
value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a
Bopomofo ㄎㄨㄥˇ ㄑㄧ
legitimate government.[22] Thus, that year (501 BC), Confucius came to be
ㄡ
appointed to the minor position of governor of a town.[22] Eventually, he rose to Gwoyeu Romatzyh Koong Chiou
the position of Minister of Crime.[22] Wade–Giles Kʻung3 Chʻiu1
Yale Romanization Kǔng Chyōu
Confucius desired to return the authority of the state to the duke by dismantling
the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families.[23] IPA [kʰʊ̀ ŋ tɕʰjóu]
This way, he could establish a centralized government.[23] However, Confucius Wu
relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself.[23] In 500 Romanization Khon Chieu
BC, Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu
Hakka
family.[23] Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou, a
Romanization Kung3 Hiu1
loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to the
Qi state.[23] The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely Yue: Cantonese
made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic Yale Romanization Húng Yāu
families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities.[23] Eventually, after a year IPA [hǒŋ jɐ́u]
and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family
Jyutping Hung2 Jau1
to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng
Southern Min
family in razing the walls of Cheng.[23] First, the Shu family led an army
towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in 498 BC.[23] Hokkien POJ Khóng Khiu
Tâi-lô Khóng Khiu
Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao (also known as Gongshan Buniu), a retainer of
Middle Chinese
the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi.[24][25] He
Middle Chinese Khúwng Khjuw
immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu.[23] Earlier, Gongshan
had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he Old Chinese
wanted the opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the Baxter–Sagart *[k]ʰˤoŋʔ [k]ʷʰə
idea in the end.[24] Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by (2014)
principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for Vietnamese name
generations and had exiled the previous duke.[24] Creel (1949) states that, unlike
Vietnamese Khổng Tử
the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three
hereditary families and restore the power of the duke.[26] However, Dubs (1946) Hán-Nôm 孔子
is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Korean name
Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls.[25] Whatever Hangul 공자
the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who
Hanja 孔子
continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee.[26][27]
During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You had managed to keep the duke and Transcriptions
the three viscounts together at the court.[27] Zhong You was one of the disciples Revised Romanization Gongja
of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of
McCune–Reischauer Kongja
governor by the Ji family.[28] When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested
Japanese name
that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on
his palace grounds.[29] Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke Kanji 孔子
retreated to the Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace.[30] Hiragana こうし
Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels.[30] At least
Transcriptions
one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to
Romanization Kōshi
refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court.[29] The
rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu.[30] Immediately after the revolt was
Ancestral Zi (Chinese: 子;
defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground.[30]
name (姓): Pinyin: Zǐ)
The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels Clan name Kong (Ch: 孔; Py:
against the state and their lord.[29] Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials (氏): Kǒng)
had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's Given name Qiu (Ch: 丘; Py: Qiū)
hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi (as it could have harbored such (名):
rebels) or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and Courtesy Zhongni (Ch: 仲尼;
righteousness as an official.[29] Dubs (1949) suggests that the incident brought to name (字): Py: Zhōngní)
light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human
Styled: Master Kong (Ch: 孔
character.[29]
子; Py: Kǒngzǐ)

When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor
was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the
Meng family not to do so.[30] The Zuozhuan recalls that the governor advised
against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to
the Qi state and cause the destruction of the Meng family.[29] Even though
Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back
on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls.[29]

Later in 498 BC, Duke Ding personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng Lu can be seen in China's northeast.
in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed.[31] Thus,

A Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) fresco depicting Confucius (and Laozi), from a tomb of Dongping County,
Shandong province, China

Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke.[32] He
had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far.[33] According to
accounts in the Zuozhuan and Shiji, Confucius departed his homeland in 497 BC after his support for the failed attempt of
dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families.[34] He left the state of Lu without resigning,
remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.[33]
Exile
The Shiji stated that the neighboring
Qi state was worried that Lu was
becoming too powerful while
Confucius was involved in the
government of the Lu state.
According to this account, Qi
decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by
sending 100 good horses and 80
beautiful dancing girls to the duke of
Lu. The duke indulged himself in
pleasure and did not attend to
official duties for three days.
Confucius was disappointed and
resolved to leave Lu and seek better
opportunities, yet to leave at once
would expose the misbehavior of the
Map showing the journey of Confucius to various states between 497 BC and
duke and therefore bring public
484 BC.
humiliation to the ruler Confucius
was serving. Confucius therefore
waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat
that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state.

After Confucius's resignation, he began a long journey or set of journeys around the principality states of north-east and central
China including Wey, Song, Zheng, Cao, Chu, Qi, Chen, and Cai (and a failed attempt to go to Jin). At the courts of these states,
he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.

Return home
According to the Zuozhuan, Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was
68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu.[35] The
Analects depict him spending his last years teaching 72 or 77 disciples and
transmitting the old wisdom via a set of texts called the Five Classics.

During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government

officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime.[35]

Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of
71 or 72. He died from natural causes. Confucius was buried in Kong Lin cemetery
which lies in the historical part of Qufu in the Shandong Province. The original tomb
erected there in memory of Confucius on the bank of the Sishui River had the shape
of an axe. In addition, it has a raised brick platform at the front of the memorial for
offerings such as sandalwood incense and fruit.
Tomb of Confucius in Kong Lin
cemetery, Qufu, Shandong
Philosophy Province
Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese,
many argue that its values are secular and that it is, therefore, less a religion than
a secular morality. Proponents argue, however, that despite the secular nature of
Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious.[36]
Confucianism discusses elements of the afterlife and views concerning Heaven,
but it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual matters often considered
essential to religious thought, such as the nature of souls. However, Confucius is The Dacheng Hall, the main hall of
said to have believed in astrology, saying: "Heaven sends down its good or evil the Temple of Confucius in Qufu
symbols and wise men act accordingly".[37]

In the Analects, Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented

nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the
Chinese character for study (學) that opens the text. Far from trying to build a
systematic or formalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize
older classics, so that their deep thought and thorough study would allow them to
relate the moral problems of the present to past political events (as recorded in
the Annals) or the past expressions of commoners' feelings and noblemen's
reflections (as in the poems of the Book of Odes).

The Analects of Confucius

Ethics
One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of
personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral
exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered
a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly,
through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology. His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example
is found in this famous anecdote:

廄焚。子退朝，曰：“傷人乎？” 不問馬。
When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court Confucius said, "Was
anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses.

Analects X.11 (tr. Waley), 10–13 (tr. Legge), or X-17 (tr.

Lau)

By not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrates that the sage values human beings over property; readers are led to
reflect on whether their response would follow Confucius's and to pursue self-improvement if it would not have. Confucius
serves not as an all-powerful deity or a universally true set of abstract principles, but rather the ultimate model for others. For
these reasons, according to many commentators, Confucius's teachings may be considered a Chinese example of humanism.

One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rule, sometimes called the "Silver Rule" owing to its negative form:

己所不欲，勿施於人。
"What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others."

子貢問曰：“有一言而可以終身行之者乎？”子曰：“其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。”
Zi Gong [a disciple] asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a person
throughout life?"
The Master replied: "How about 'reciprocity'! Never impose on others what you
would not choose for yourself."
 Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton

Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action
towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without
knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and
sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the
sake of righteousness.

The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in lǐ (禮) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies
associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette of daily
behavior. It was believed by some that lǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the
actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a
person to build the ideal society, rather than those simply conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.

In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at the proper time, balancing between maintaining existing norms
to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages
cultivates in people virtues that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts.

In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì (義), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as
righteousness, though it may simply mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done
out of self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if
one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of yì is doing the right thing
for the right reason.

Just as action according to lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of
rén (仁).Rén consists of 5 basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence and kindness.[38] Rén is the virtue of perfectly
fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness"; translator Arthur Waley
calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and
"selflessness." Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules.
To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules
of yì. Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount
—not too much and not too little.[38]

Politics
Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through
"rites" (lǐ) and people's natural morality, and not by using bribery and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most
important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid
the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of
propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." (Translated by James Legge) in the Great
Learning (大學). This "sense of shame" is an internalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of
following it in the form of laws as in Legalism.

Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model
themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the
Mandate of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the
people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times,
Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used
(and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose
rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people,
striving for personal and social perfection, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper
behavior with laws and rules.

Confucius did not believe in the concept of "democracy", which is itself an Athenian concept unknown in ancient China, but
could be interpreted by Confucius's principles recommending against individuals electing their own political leaders to govern
them, or that anyone is capable of self-government. He expressed fears that the masses lacked the intellect to make decisions for
themselves, and that, in his view, since not everyone is created equal, not everyone has a right of self-government.[39]

While he supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power
of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth
must always be represented. Confucius believed that if a ruler is to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in
that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father
and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the subordinates must advise their
superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if
you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary.[40]

Legacy
Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who
organized his teachings into the Analects.[41][42] Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical
school after his death.[43] These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts
in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma.

Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his
death, Mencius (孟子) and Xun Zi (荀子) both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental
ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius (4th century BC) articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the
ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén, yì, and lǐ, while Xun Zi (3rd century BC) underscored the realistic and
materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals
through training. In time, their writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical
corpus of Confucianism.

This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism, which saw filial piety as self-interest and not
a useful tool for a ruler to create an effective state. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in
223 BC when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Si, Prime Minister of the Qin dynasty, convinced Qin Shi Huang to
abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou Dynasty before them which he saw as being against
to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. When the Confucian advisers pressed their point, Li Si had many
Confucian scholars killed and their books burned—considered a huge blow to the philosophy and Chinese scholarship.

Under the succeeding Han and Tang dynasties, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Wudi, the
works of Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in 140 BC
which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th century. As Mohism lost support by the time of the Han, the main
philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Laozi, whose focus on
more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance
during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the
Ming Dynasty and even the Yuan Dynasty, although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control to them.

During the Song dynasty, the scholar Zhu Xi (AD 1130–1200) added ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Confucianism. In his
life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts
actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking Neo-
Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century.

The works of Confucius were first translated into European languages by Jesuit
missionaries in the 16th century during the late Ming dynasty. The first known
effort was by Michele Ruggieri, who returned to Italy in 1588 and carried on his
translations while residing in Salerno. Matteo Ricci started to report on the
thoughts of Confucius, and a team of Jesuits—Prospero Intorcetta, Philippe
Couplet, and two others—published a translation of several Confucian works
and an overview of Chinese history in Paris in 1687.[44][45] François Noël, after
failing to persuade Clement XI that Chinese veneration of ancestors and
Confucius did not constitute idolatry, completed the Confucian canon at Prague
in 1711, with more scholarly treatments of the other works and the first Confucius, Philosopher of the
translation of the collected works of Mencius.[46] It is thought that such works Chinese, published by Jesuit
had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly missionaries at Paris in 1687.
among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were
interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western
civilization.[45][47]

In the modern era Confucian movements, such as New Confucianism, still exist, but during the Cultural Revolution,
Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the Communist Party of China. This was partially a continuation of
the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-
mindedness and refusal of the Qing Dynasty to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th century.

Confucius's works are studied by scholars in many other Asian countries, particularly those in the Chinese cultural sphere, such
as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Many of those countries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony every year.

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes Confucius was a Divine Prophet of God, as were Lao-Tzu and other eminent
Chinese personages.[48]

In modern times, Asteroid 7853, "Confucius", was named after the Chinese thinker.[49]

Disciples
Confucius began teaching after he turned 30, and taught more than 3,000
students in his life, about 70 of whom were considered outstanding. His disciples
and the early Confucian community they formed became the most influential
intellectual force in the Warring States period.[50] The Han dynasty historian
Sima Qian dedicated a chapter in his Records of the Grand Historian to the
biographies of Confucius's disciples, accounting for the influence they exerted in
their time and afterward. Sima Qian recorded the names of 77 disciples in his
collective biography, while Kongzi Jiayu, another early source, records 76, not
completely overlapping. The two sources together yield the names of 96
disciples.[51] 22 of them are mentioned in the Analects, while the Mencius
records 24.[52] Zengzi (right) kneeling before
Confucius (center), as depicted in a
Confucius did not charge any tuition, and only requested a symbolic gift of a painting from the Illustrations of the
Classic of Filial Piety, Song dynasty
bundle of dried meat from any prospective student. According to his disciple
Zigong, his master treated students like doctors treated patients and did not turn
anybody away.[51] Most of them came from Lu, Confucius's home state, with 43 recorded, but he accepted students from all over
China, with six from the state of Wey (such as Zigong), three from Qin, two each from Chen and Qi, and one each from Cai, Chu,
and Song.[51] Confucius considered his students' personal background irrelevant, and accepted noblemen, commoners, and even
former criminals such as Yan Zhuoju and Gongye Chang.[53] His disciples from richer families would pay a sum commensurate
with their wealth which was considered a ritual donation.[51]

Confucius's favorite disciple was Yan Hui, most probably one of the most impoverished of them all.[52] Sima Niu, in contrast to
Yan Hui, was from a hereditary noble family hailing from the Song state.[52] Under Confucius's teachings, the disciples became
well-learned in the principles and methods of government.[54] He often engaged in discussion and debate with his students and
gave high importance to their studies in history, poetry, and ritual.[54] Confucius advocated loyalty to principle rather than to
individual acumen, in which reform was to be achieved by persuasion rather than violence.[54] Even though Confucius
denounced them for their practices, the aristocracy was likely attracted to the idea of having trustworthy officials who were
studied in morals as the circumstances of the time made it desirable.[54] In fact, the disciple Zilu even died defending his ruler in
Wey.[54]

Yang Hu, who was a subordinate of the Ji family, had dominated the Lu government from 505 to 502 and even attempted a coup,
which narrowly failed.[54] As a likely consequence, it was after that that the first disciples of Confucius were appointed to
government positions.[54] A few of Confucius's disciples went on to attain official positions of some importance, some of which
were arranged by Confucius.[55] By the time Confucius was 50 years old, the Ji family had consolidated their power in the Lu
state over the ruling ducal house.[56] Even though the Ji family had practices with which Confucius disagreed and disapproved,
they nonetheless gave Confucius's disciples many opportunities for employment.[56] Confucius continued to remind his disciples
to stay true to their principles and renounced those who did not, all the while being openly critical of the Ji family.[57]

Visual portraits
No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during the Han Dynasty that he was portrayed
visually. Carvings often depict his legendary meeting with Laozi. Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as
the ideal philosopher. The oldest known portrait of Confucius has been unearthed in the tomb of the Han dynasty ruler Marquis of
Haihun (died 59 BC). The picture was painted on the wooden frame to a polished bronze mirror.[58]

In former times, it was customary to have a portrait in Confucius Temples; however, during the reign of Hongwu Emperor (Taizu)
of the Ming dynasty, it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in the temple in his home town, Qufu in
Shandong. In other temples, Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation
commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on the Tang dynasty portrait by Wu Daozi.

The South Wall Frieze in the courtroom of the Supreme Court of the United States depicts Confucius as a teacher of harmony,
learning, and virtue.[59]

Fictional portrayals
There have been two film adaptations of Confucius' life: Confucius (1940) starring Tang Huaiqiu, and Confucius (2010) starring
Chow Yun-fat.

Memorials
Soon after Confucius's death, Qufu, his home town, became a place of devotion and remembrance. The Han dynasty Records of
the Grand Historian records that it had already become a place of pilgrimage for ministers. It is still a major destination for
cultural tourism, and many people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In Sinic cultures, there are many temples where
representations of the Buddha, Laozi, and Confucius are found together. There are also many temples dedicated to him, which
have been used for Confucian ceremonies.
 Followers of Confucianism have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial
ceremonies of Confucius (祭孔) every year, using ceremonies that supposedly
derived from Zhou Li ( 周 禮 ) as recorded by Confucius, on the date of
Confucius's birth. In the 20th century, this tradition was interrupted for several
decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party
and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary
feudalist beliefs which held that the subservience of the people to the aristocracy
is a part of the natural order. All such ceremonies and rites were therefore
banned. Only after the 1990s did the ceremony resume. As it is now considered a
veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Communist Party members
First entrance gate of the Temple of
may be found in attendance.
Confucius in Zhenhai
In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) strongly promoted
Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony
of Confucius (祭孔) is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. While not a national holiday, it does
appear on all printed calendars, much as Father's Day or Christmas Day do in the Western world.

In South Korea, a grand-scale memorial ceremony called Seokjeon Daeje is held twice a year on Confucius's birthday and the
anniversary of his death, at Confucian academies across the country and Sungkyunkwan in Seoul.

Descendants
Confucius's descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and
official posts. They were honored with the rank of a marquis 35 times since Gaozu of the Han dynasty, and they were promoted
to the rank of duke 42 times from the Tang dynasty to the Qing dynasty. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of
"Duke Wenxuan" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation. In 1055, Emperor Renzong of Song first bestowed the title of "Duke
Yansheng" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation.

During the Southern Song dynasty, the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou in Zhejiang,
while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who
remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng.[60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69] From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were
two Duke Yanshengs, one in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was
extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan-dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from
the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation,[70] so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke
Yansheng. The southern branch remained in Quzhou where they live to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone
number 30,000.[71][72] The Hanlin Academy rank of Wujing boshi 五經博士 was awarded to the southern branch at Quzhou by a
Ming Emperor while the northern branch at Qufu held the title Duke Yansheng.[73][74] The leader of the southern branch is 孔祥
楷 Kong Xiangkai.[75]

In 1351, during the reign of Emperor Toghon Temür of the Yuan dynasty, 93rd-generation descendant Kong Huan (孔浣)'s 2nd
son Kong Shao (孔昭) moved from China to Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, and was received courteously by Princess Noguk
(the Mongolian-born wife of the future king Gongmin). After being naturalized as a Korean citizen, he changed the hanja of his
name from "昭" to "紹" (both pronounced so in Korean),[76] married a Korean woman and bore a son (Gong Yeo (Korean: 공여;
Hanja: 孔帤), 1329–1397), therefore establishing the Changwon Gong clan (Korean: 창원 공씨; Hanja: 昌 原 孔 氏 ), whose
ancestral seat was located in Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province. The clan then received an aristocratic rank during the
succeeding Joseon Dynasty.[77][78][79][80][81] In 1794, during the reign of King Jeongjo, the clan then changed its name to Gokbu
Gong clan (Korean: 곡부 공씨; Hanja: 曲 阜 孔 氏 ) in honor of Confucius's birthplace Qufu (Korean: 곡부; Hanja: 曲 阜 ;
RR: Gokbu), Shandong Province.[82]
Famous descendants include actors such as Gong Yoo (real name Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) & Gong Hyo-jin (공효진); and artists
such as male idol group B1A4 member Gongchan (real name Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), singer-songwriter Minzy (real name
Gong Min-ji (공민지)), as well as her great-aunt traditional folk dancer Gong Ok-jin (공옥진).

Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants
until it was abolished by the Nationalist Government in 1935. The last holder of the title, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation,
was appointed Sacrificial Official to Confucius. Kung Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal
descendant, had died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grandson, Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his
great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on January 1, 2006. Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao,
lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister,
Kong Deqi, died as a young woman.[83] Many descendants of Confucius still live in Qufu today.

A descendant of Confucius, H. H. Kung was the Premier of the Republic of China. One of his sons, Kong Lingjie 孔令傑 married
Debra Paget[84] who gave birth to Gregory Kung (孔德基).

Confucius's family, the Kongs, have the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in
its 83rd generation,[85] has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to the Confucius Genealogy Compilation
Committee, he has 2 million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated 3 million in all.[86] Of these, several
tens of thousands live outside of China.[86] In the 14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000
descendants of Confucius live today.[86] One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home in Qufu during the Chinese
Civil War in the 1940s and eventually settled in Taiwan.[83] There are also branches of the Kong family who have converted to
Islam after marrying Muslim women, in Dachuan in Gansu province in the 1800s,[87] and in 1715 in Xuanwei city in Yunnan
province.[88] Many of the Muslim Confucius descendants are descended from the marriage of Ma Jiaga ( 马甲尕), a Muslim
woman, and Kong Yanrong (孔彦嵘), 59th generation descendant of Confucius in the year 1480 and are found among the Hui
and Dongxiang peoples.[89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97] The new genealogy includes the Muslims.[98] Kong Dejun (孔德軍) is a
prominent Islamic scholar and Arabist from Qinghai province and a 77th generation descendant of Confucius.

Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members
of the collateral branches in mainland China.[99] Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y
chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the
males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage
of time.[100] The aim of the genetic test was the help members of collateral branches in China who lost their genealogical records
to prove their descent. However, in 2009, many of the collateral branches decided not to agree to DNA testing.[101] Bryan Sykes,
professor of genetics at Oxford University, understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural
significance," he said. "It's not just a scientific question."[101] The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members,
many of whose family record books were lost during 20th-century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree.[102] The main branch
of the family which fled to Taiwan was never involved in the proposed DNA test at all.

In 2013 a DNA test performed on multiple different families who claimed descent from Confucius found that they shared the
same Y chromosome as reported by Fudan University.[103]

The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee
(CGCC).[104][105] It was unveiled in a ceremony at Qufu on September 24, 2009.[104][105] Women are now included for the first
time.[106]

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Further reading

Clements, Jonathan (2008). Confucius: A Biography. Stroud, Gloucestershire, England: Sutton Publishing.
ISBN 978-0-7509-4775-6.
Confucius (1997). Lun yu, (in English The Analects of Confucius). Translation and notes by Simon Leys. New
York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04019-4.
Confucius (2003). Confucius: Analects – With Selections from Traditional Commentaries. Translated by E.
Slingerland. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. (Original work published c. 551–479 BC) ISBN 0-87220-635-1.
Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1949). Confucius and the Chinese Way. New York: Harper.
 Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1953). Chinese Thought from Confucius to Mao Tse-tung. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). "Confucianism: An Overview". In Encyclopedia of Religion (Vol. C, pp. 1890–1905).
Detroit: MacMillan Reference
Dawson, Raymond (1982). Confucius. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287536-5.
Fingarette, Hebert (1998). Confucius : the secular as sacred (https://archive.org/details/confuciussecular00fing).
Long Grove, Ill.: Waveland Press. ISBN 978-1-57766-010-1.
Nylan, Michael and Thomas A. Wilson (2010). Lives of Confucius: Civilization's Greatest Sage through the Ages
(https://archive.org/details/livesofconfucius00nyla). ISBN 978-0-385-51069-1.
Ssu-ma Ch'ien (1974). Records of the Historian. Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang, trans. Hong Kong: Commercial
Press.
Van Norden, B.W., ed. (2001). Confucius and the Analects: New Essays. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-513396-X.
Van Norden, B.W., trans. (2006). Mengzi, in Philip J. Ivanhoe & B.W. Van Norden, Readings in Classical Chinese
Philosophy. 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-780-3.

External links
"Confucius" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/confuciu). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Confucius (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547k8) on In Our Time at the BBC
Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects (http://www.confucius.org/)
The Dao of Kongzi (https://web.archive.org/web/20171020011747/http://faculty.vassar.edu/brvannor/Mypapers/D
aoofKongzi.pdf), introduction to the thought of Confucius.
Riegel, Jeffrey. "Confucius" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/). In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Works by Confucius (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1180) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Confucius (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Confucius%22%20
OR%20creator%3A%22Confucius%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Confucius%22%20OR%20title%3A%22C
onfucius%22%29%20OR%20%28%22550-479%22%20AND%20Confucius%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatyp
e:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Confucius (https://librivox.org/author/3104) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Confucian Analects (http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4094) (Project Gutenberg
release of James Legge's Translation)
Core philosophical passages (http://www.wfu.edu/~moran/zhexuejialu/Analects_PEM.html) in the Analects of
Confucius.

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