VIMAL JYOTHI CONVENT MATRICULATION HIGHER

SECONDARY SCHOOL
COIMBATORE-641035

BIOLOGY PROJECT

Submitted by,

E.Joel

Xth – B,
Biology Project E.Joel, Xth-B

BOTANY

Table of Content:
S.No Content
1. De-oxyribo Nucleic Acid(DNA)
2. Medicinal plants

Structure of DNA:

Medicinal plant:

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DEOXYRIBO NUCLEIC ACID

DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living organisms with the exception
of some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of
information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints, like a recipe or a
code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of
cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this
genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural
purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information

Molecular Arrangement:

DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units called nucleotides, with
backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds. These
two strands run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-
parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules called bases. It
is the sequence of these four bases along the backbone that encodes information.
This information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of
the amino acids within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA
into the related nucleic acid RNA, in a process called transcription.

Within cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. These
chromosomes are duplicated before cells divide, in a process called DNA
replication. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store
most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles,
such as mitochondria or chloroplast. In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and
Achaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes,
chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact
structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping
control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.

Properties:

DNA is a long made from repeating units called nucleotides. The DNA chain is
22 to 26 ångströms wide (2.2 to 2.6 nanometers), and one nucleotide unit is
3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long.] Although each individual repeating unit is very small,
DNA polymers can be very large molecules containing millions of nucleotides.
For instance, the largest human chromosome, chromosome number 1, is
approximately 220 million base pairs long.

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In living organisms, DNA

does not usually exist as a
single molecule, but
instead as a pair of
molecules that are held
tightly together. These
two long strands entwine
like vines, in the shape of
a double helix . The
nucleotide repeats contain
both the segment of the
backbone of the molecule,
which holds the chain
together, and a base,
which interacts with the
other DNA strand in the
helix. A base linked to a
sugar is called a
nucleoside and a base
linked to a sugar and one
or more phosphate groups
is called a nucleotide. If multiple nucleotides are linked together, as in DNA,
this polymer is called a polynucleotide.

Diagram shows, The Chemical structure of DNA. Hydrogen bonds shown as

dotted lines.

The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar
residues.[10] The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose
(five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined together by phosphate groups that
form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent
sugar rings. These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction. In a
double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their
direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of
DNA strands are called the5′ (five prime) and 3′ (three prime) ends, with the 5'
end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3' end a terminal hydroxyl
group. One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-
deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar ribose in
RNA

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Branched DNA

In DNA fraying occurs when non-

complementary regions exist at the end
of an otherwise complementary double-
strand of DNA. However, branched DNA
can occur if a third strand of DNA is
introduced and contains adjoining
regions able to hybridize with the frayed
regions of the pre-existing double-strand.
Although the simplest example of
branched DNA involves only three
strands of DNA, complexes involving
additional strands and multiple branches
are also possible. Branched DNA can be
used in nanotechnology to construct
geometric shapes

Single Multiple
branch branches

A section of DNA, The bases lie horizontally between the two spiralling strands.

DNA double helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the bases attached
to the two strands. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (abbreviated A),
cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the
sugar/phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine
monophosphate.

These bases are classified into two types; adenine and guanine are fused five-
and six-membered heterocyclic compounds called purines, while cytosine and
thymine are six-membered rings called pyrimidines. A fifth pyrimidine base,
called uracil (U), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from
thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. Uracil is not usually found in
DNA, occurring only as a breakdown product of cytosine. In addition to RNA

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and DNA, a large number of artificial nucleic acid analogues have also been
created to study the proprieties of nucleic acids, or for use in biotechnology.

PREPARING A MODEL OF DNA

OBJECTIVES :

In this activity we will:

1. Learn the basic units and structure of DNA.

2. Use paper models to understand how the units making up DNA fit
together.
3. Use paper models to learn how DNA makes copies of itself.

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MATERIALS

scissors 1/2-in transparent tape, or glue

stick thumbtacks or masking tape sheets of
different colored construction paper
cardboard

PROCEDURES AND
OBSERVATIONS

Part I. Structure and Composition of DNA

a. Imagine that you can untwist the

DNA ladder. Then study Figure 1, a
diagram of the untwisted ladder.
Note that the uprights of the ladder
consists of alternating
units-.phosphate groups and
deoxyribose molecules. Now study
Figure 2 to see the structures of
deoxyribose and phosphate, and how
they chemically bond together. Their
symbols are also shown.

FIGURE 2

The rungs of the DNA ladder consist of pairs of nitrogen bases. There are two
kinds of nitrogen bases: purines and pyrimidines. The purines have a two-ringed
structure; they are adenine (A) and guanine (G). The pyrimidines have a one-
ring structure; they are cytosine (C) and thymine (T).

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 Figure 3 shows the structures of the four nitrogen bases found in DNA.
Note the symbols for the bases.
 A nucleotide consists of one nitrogen base, one phosphate group, and one
deoxyribose molecule.
 Study Figure 4 to see how the phosphate group, deoxyribose molecule,
and nitrogen base are related in a nucleotide. Each nitrogen base is
attached to the deoxyribose- side of a phosphate-deoxyribose
combination. Note that because there are four different nitrogen bases
there are four kinds of nucleotides.

FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4

Part II. Making Models of DNA

1. Cut out the phosphate, deoxyribose, and nitrogen base symbols below.
Paste them onto a piece of cardboard and cut them out.
2. Then rise the cardboard symbols to trace symbols on construction paper.
Trace and cut out 20 each of the phosphate and deoxyribose symbols and

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5 of each nitrogen base symbol. Use a different color paper for each
symbol. Label each nitrogen base with its abbreviation.
3. Make a nucleotide model by laying a phosphate, a deoxyribose, and a
nitrogen base symbol on the pattern in Figure 5. Fasten the symbols
together with short pieces of transparent tape. Prepare 20 nucleotides. Be
sure to attach the symbols at the correct angles to one another. Otherwise
your DNA model will not fit together properly.
4. In DNA, a particular purine always bonds with a particular pyrimidine.
Adenine bonds to thymine and guanine bonds to cytosine. The purines
and pyrimidines are bonded together by hydrogen bonds.
5. Study Figure 6 to see how the nitrogen bases are bonded together in a
DNA segment. Then construct a 10-rung model segment of DNA using
the nucleotides you have assembled. Match up two nitrogen bases, either
A-T or G-C, in each ladder rung. Use short pieces of tape for the bonds.
The rungs of the ladder must be of equal length. The nucleotides of each
strand can be in any sequence, as long as the two nitrogen bases paired
together in the rung are correct. Attach the deoxyribose molecules and the
phosphate groups of each strand with tape.
6. Label Figure 7 to show the nucleotide sequences of the DNA model that
you constructed. Draw in the shapes of the nitrogen base symbols and
label them A, T, G, or C.

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Part III. Learning about DNA Replication

DNA can replicate itself. In this way, the hereditary information encoded in its
structure is parsed on to new cells formed by mitosis. During replication, the
DNA double helix untwists, and the bonds between the nitrogen bases of each
rung break. Nucleotides are normal constituents of cells, and as the DNA double
helix splits apart, free nucleotides link up to matching nucleotides of each DNA
strand according to the rules of base pairing. The two new double-

stranded chains then twist into two separate double helixes. In this way two
identical DNA molecules are formed.

a. Lay your DNA model flat on the table. Starting at one end of the model,
cut the pieces of tape that connect the nitrogen bases on five of the rungs.
Be careful not to cut the symbols. The effect is something like unzipping
a zipper. Lay the unzipped model aside.

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b. Then prepare 20 more

nucleotides as you did in
Part II. Be sure to use the
pattern to assemble the
nucleotides at the proper
angles.
c. Matching C with G and A
with T, attach new
nucleotides to both strands
of your DNA model, using
short pieces of tape.
d. Cut apart more rungs as
you work along your
model. Continue to add
new nucleotides to each
strand until all the rungs
have been cut and new
nucleotides attached.
e. Compare the sequences of
the two new segments of
DNA that you constructed.
1. Are the two
segments alike?
2. How do their
sequences compare
with the sequences
shown in figure 7?

Conclusion:
Thus one can prepare the model of DNA, for better understanding of its
Structure, molecular arrangement and the way it functions.

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Medicinal plants and their uses:

 Embelia gladulifera
 Justicia paniculata Burm. f.
 Aloe indica Royle

Syn : Embelia glandulifera Wight, Samara ribes Kurz

English names: Embelia, Embelia fruit.
Sanskrit names: Jantughna, Krimighna, Krimiripu, Vella, Vidanga.
Vernacular names:  Kan : Vayuvilanga; Mar: Vaivarang, Vavadinga;
Mal: Vizhal; Pun: Baburung; Tam and Tel: Vayuvilanga.

VIJACINTAMANITANTRA: consumption of powdered fruit along

with fruits of Emblica officinalis, honey and sesame-oil improves quality
of sperms; BHAVAPRAKASHA: it is pungent, removes morbidity,
improves blood circulation,
stimulates appetite, acts against
phlegm, makes the body light,
kills worms of all types;
RAJANIGHANTU: it is
pungent, hot, light, enhances
balance between wind and
phlegm, beneficial in anorexia
and improves digestive power.

AYURVEDA : (a) Root: acrid,

astringent, useful in colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, odontalgia, stomach
pain and increases exothermic metabolism; (b) Leaf: astringent,
demulcent, depurative, thermogenic, useful in skin diseases including
leprosy; (c) Fruit: acrid, alexeteric, alterant, anodyne, anthelmintic,
astringent, bitter, brain tonic,
carminative, contraceptive, depurative,
digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative,
rejuvenating, stimulant, tonic, vulnerary,
and useful in amnetia, asthma, colic,
constipation, cardiopathy, dental caries,
dyspepsia, dyspnoea, fever, flatulence,
general debility, hemicramia, odontalgia,
psychopathy, respiratory troubles and
ringworms; (d) Seed: a constituent of
Vidangadi Yoga, an antifertility drug.

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SIDDHA : dried fruits are used to prepare the drug Vaivitankam.

Modern use : Plant: cures abdominal tumours, and aenemeas, cystic
tumours, pyorrhoea, useful against tape- worms; EtOH extract of plant:
slightly active against Ecoli; one of the constituents of 'Gasex', and some
oral contraceptives; Fruit: cures dental, oral, throat troubles except
cancer of lips and ptyslism, constituent of some quick aboriticide;
Aqueous extract of fruit: pronounced antifertility activity, anthelmintic
against earthworms; Fruit-powder: expels tapeworms within 6-24 hours,
if taken with curd in empty stomach, effective against giardia; Seed:
antibiotic, anthelmintic, antituberculosis, alterative and stimulative.
Phytography : Large scandent shrub; branches long, slender, flexible,
bark with many lenticels; leaves simple, alternate, petioles ±0.8 cm,
lamina elliptic, leathery, glabrous, shining above, silvery beneath,
glandular pits present on the lower surface near the midrib; racemes
axillary and terminal, laxly panicled; flowers white, may be greenish,
±0.2 cm long; berries dull red to black, globular, small, 1- or 2-seeded;
seeds globose, hollowed at the base, white spotted, albuminous.
Phenology: Flowering: peak in March-April; Fruiting: August.
Distribution: Throughout India up to 1750 m in hilly regions; common in
lower hills; Sri Lanka, Malaya.
Ecology and cultivation: Grows in shola border, thickets; wild.
Chemical contents: Fruit: embelin.
Remark: Ethnic communities of Cannanore (Kerala) make bowstring
with the bark..

Justicia paniculata Burm.

f.
English names: The great
king of bitters, the creat.
Sanskrit names:
Bhunimba, Kirata.
Vernacular namesKan:
Nelabaru; Mar:
Olikiryata; Tam and Tel:
Nelavemu.
Trade names: Kalmegh,
Kirayat.
Traditional use: Plant:.
febrifuge, alterative,
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anthelmintic, anodyne, useful in debility, diabetes, consumption,

influenza, bronchitis, itches and piles; in Bengal, household medicine
known as 'Kalmegh', made from leaves, is given to the children
suffering from stomach complaints.

HOEMOEPATHY: used for treatment of different ailments of head,

mind, eyes, nose, mouth, tongue, throat, abdomen, stool, urine, fever
and other modalities.
Modern use: Drug constitute stem, leaf and inflorescence: as a tonic
and in the treatment of fevers, worms, dysentery and also beneficial to
liver and digestive ailments; it is reported that it has some antityphoid
and antibiotic activity; Decoction: used for sluggishness of liver and in
jaundice.
Phytography : An erect herb with square stem, glabrous below,
glandular hairy above; leaves linear, lanceolate, glabrous and distinctly
pedicelled; flowers white or pale
purple; capsules compressed
transversely; seeds bony.
Phenology: Flowering and Fruiting:
September-May.
Distribution: Throughout India in the
plains and hills; Bangladesh, Pakistan,
all South East Asian and SAARC
countries.
Ecology and cultivation: Common in
stony lines in forests and in wastelands.
Cultivated as an ornament. Chemical
contents: Plant: kalmeghin, bitter
principle andrographolide; bitterness is due to nonbasic principle.
Adulterants: It is used as adulterants for Chirata, and is a substitute for
quinine.
Remark: Whole plant is bitter.

Aloe indica Royle, A.

English names: Barbados aloe, Curacas aloe, Indian aloe, Jafarabad

aloe.
Sanskrit name: Ghritakumari.
Vernacular names: Kan : Lolesara; Kon : Kantikkor, Katkunvor; Mal:
Kattarvazha kumariTam: Alagai, Chirukuttali, Kuttilai; Tel:
Chinnakata banda, Kala banda, Kittanara.
Trade names: Ghritakumari, Ghee kunvar.

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Traditional use:
TRIBAL: Leaf-
pulp: in liver
troubles, jaundice,
fever, gonorrhoea,
spleen disorder,
rheumatism, piles,
dysmenorrhoea,
sterility in women;
Leaf-mucilage:
mild laxative, to
cure hardening of
breast tissues, in
insect stings.
AYURVEDA:
alternative, bitter,
cooling, purgative, sweet, tonic, anthelmintic, useful in eye diseases,
tumours, enlargement of spleen, liver troubles, vomiting, skin diseases,
biliousness, asthma, leprosy, jaundice, strangury, ulcer; Flowers:
anthelmintic.

UNANI: Gheekawar is useful in inflammation of spleen, lumbago,

muscular pain, ophthalmia, digestive, purgative; Leaves good for piles
and biliousness.
Modern use: Aloe: in menstrual diseases, stomach pain, tonic after
pregnancy, uterine disorders, high fever; Pulp: menstrual suppressions,
nervous imbalance; Aloe compound: in treatment of women sterility;
Mucilage: painful inflammation; Root: colic pain; Aloe mixture with
other plant extracts: for treating obstruction of lymphatic system.
Phytography : A coarse-looking plant with a short (30-60 cm high)
stem; leaves succulent, green, large (37 cm long, 10 cm broad, 2 cm
thick), densely crowded; flowers in racemes, bright yellow, tubular,
stamens frequently projected beyond the perianth tube.
Phenology: Flowering: September-December; Fruiting: scarce.
Distribution: A native of North Africa, Canary Islands and Spain;
naturalised in India; many varieties are found in a semi-wild state in all
parts of India; also cultivated in pots and gardens.
Ecology and cultivation: Xerophyte; propagated by suckers.
Chemical contents: Plant: aloin, aloe-emodin and resins.
Adulterant: Aloe candelabrum Berger is used as substitute for Aloe
barbadensis Miller.

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Zoology
Table of Content:
S.No Content
1. CT scan
2. Blood Smear

CT Scan

Blood Smear:

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Computed Tomography Scan

X-ray computed tomography

Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method employing

tomography created by computer processing.[1] Digital geometry processing is
used to generate a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object from a
large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of
rotation.[2]

CT produces a volume of data which can be manipulated, through a process

known as "windowing", in order to demonstrate various bodily structures based
on their ability to block the X-ray beam. Although historically the images
generated were in the axial or
transverse plane, orthogonal to
the long axis of the body,
modern scanners allow this
volume of data to be reformatted
in various planes or even as
volumetric (3D) representations
of structures. Although most
common in medicine, CT is also
used in other fields, such as
nondestructive materials testing.
Another example is
archaeological uses such as imaging the contents of sarcophagi or the
DigiMorph project at the University of Texas at Austin which uses a CT scanner
to study biological and paleontological specimens.

Terminology

The word "tomography" is derived from the Greek tomos (slice) and graphein
(to write). Computed tomography was originally known as the "EMI scan" as it
was developed at a research branch of EMI, a company best known today for its
music and recording business. It was later known as computed axial tomography
(CAT or CT scan) and body section röntgenography.

Although the term "computed tomography" could be used to describe positron

emission tomography and single photon emission computed tomography, in

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practice it usually refers to the computation of tomography from X-ray images,

especially in older medical literature and smaller medical facilities.

History

In the early 1900s, the Italian radiologist Alessandro Vallebona proposed a

method to represent a single slice of the body on the radiographic film. This
method was known as tomography. The idea is based on simple principles of
projective geometry: moving synchronously and in opposite directions the X-ray
tube and the film, which are connected together by a rod whose pivot point is
the focus; the image created by the points on the focal plane appears sharper,
while the images of the other points annihilate as noise. This is only marginally
effective, as blurring occurs only in the "x" plane. There are also more complex
devices which can move in more than one plane and perform more effective
blurring.

Tomography had been one of the pillars of radiologic diagnostics until the late
1970s, when the availability of minicomputers and of the transverse axial
scanning method, this last due to the work of Godfrey Hounsfield and South
African-born Allan McLeod Cormack, gradually supplanted it as the modality
of CT

The first commercially viable CT scanner was invented by Sir Godfrey

Hounsfield in Hayes, United Kingdom at EMI Central Research Laboratories
using X-rays. Hounsfield conceived his idea in 1967.[6] The first EMI-Scanner
was installed in Atkinson Morley Hospital in Wimbledon, England, and the first
patient brain-scan was done on 1 October 1971[7]. It was publicly announced in
1972.

The first commercially viable CT scanner was invented by Sir Godfrey

Hounsfield in Hayes, United Kingdom at EMI Central Research Laboratories
using X-rays. Hounsfield conceived his idea in 1967.[6] The first EMI-Scanner
was installed in Atkinson Morley Hospital in Wimbledon, England, and the first
patient brain-scan was done on 1 October 1971[7]. It was publicly announced in
1997

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It has been claimed that thanks to the success of The Beatles, EMI could fund
research and build early models for medical use.[8] The first production X-ray
CT machine (in fact called the "EMI-Scanner") was limited to making
tomographic sections of the brain, but acquired the image data in about 4
minutes (scanning two adjacent slices), and the computation time (using a Data
General Nova minicomputer) was about 7 minutes per picture. This scanner
required the use of a water-filled Perspex tank with a pre-shaped rubber "head-
cap" at the front, which enclosed the patient's head. The water-tank was used to
reduce the dynamic range of the radiation reaching the detectors (between
scanning outside the head compared with scanning through the bone of the
skull). The images were relatively low resolution, being composed of a matrix
of only 80 x 80 pixels.

The first CT system that could make images of any part of the body and did not
require the "water tank" was the ACTA
(Automatic Computerized Transverse
Axial) scanner designed by Robert S.
Ledley, DDS, at Georgetown
University. This machine had 30
photomultiplier tubes as detectors and
completed a scan in only 9
translate/rotate cycles, much faster than
the EMI-scanner. It used a DEC
PDP11/34 minicomputer both to
operate the servo-mechanisms and to
acquire and process the images. The
Pfizer drug company acquired the
prototype from the university, along with rights to manufacture it. Pfizer then
began making copies of the prototype, calling it the "200FS" (FS meaning Fast
Scan), which were selling as fast as they could make them. This unit produced
images in a 256×256 matrix, with much better definition than the EMI-Scanner's
80×80.

Process:

X-ray slice data is generated using an X-ray source that rotates around the
object; X-ray sensors are positioned on the opposite side of the circle from the
X-ray source. The earliest sensors were scintillation detectors, with
photomultiplier tubes excited by (typically) cesium iodide crystals. Cesium
iodide was replaced during the 1980s by ion chambers containing high pressure
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Xenon gas. These systems were in turn replaced by scintillation systems based
on photo diodes instead of photomultipliers and modern scintillation materials
with more desirable characteristics. Many data scans are progressively taken as
the object is gradually passed through the gantry.

Newer machines with faster computer systems and newer software strategies
can process not only individual cross sections but continuously changing cross
sections as the gantry, with the object to be imaged, is slowly and smoothly slid
through the X-ray circle. These are called helical or spiral CT machines. Their
computer systems integrate the data of the moving individual slices to generate
three dimensional volumetric information (3D-CT scan), in turn viewable from
multiple different perspectives on attached CT workstation monitors. This type
of data acquisition requires enormous processing power, as the data are arriving
in a continuous stream and must be processed in real-time.

In conventional CT machines, an X-ray tube and detector are physically rotated

behind a circular shroud (see the image
above right); in the electron beam
tomography (EBT) the tube is far larger
and higher power to support the high
temporal resolution. The electron beam is
deflected in a hollow funnel-shaped
vacuum chamber. X-rays are generated
when the beam hits the stationary target.
The detector is also stationary. This
arrangement can result in very fast scans,
but is extremely expensive.

CT is used in medicine as a diagnostic tool and as a guide for interventional

procedures. Sometimes contrast materials such as intravenous iodinated
contrast are used. This is useful to highlight structures such as blood vessels
that otherwise would be difficult to delineate from their surroundings. Using
contrast material can also help to obtain functional information about tissues.

Once the scan data has been acquired, the data must be processed using a form
of tomographic reconstruction, which produces a series of cross-sectional
images. The most common technique in general use is filtered back projection,
which is straight-forward to implement and can be computed rapidly. However,
this is not the only technique available: the original EMI scanner solved the
tomographic reconstruction problem by linear algebra, but this approach was
limited by its high computational complexity, especially given the computer

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technology available at the time.

More recently, manufacturers have
developed iterative physical model-
based expectation-maximization
techniques. These techniques are
advantageous because they use an
internal model of the scanner's
physical properties and of the
physical laws of X-ray interactions.
By contrast, earlier methods have
assumed a perfect scanner and highly simplified physics, which leads to a
number of artefacts and
reduced resolution - the
result is images with
improved resolution,
reduced noise and fewer
artefacts, as well as the
ability to greatly reduce
the radiation dose in
certain circumstances.
The disadvantage is a
very high computational
requirement, which is at
the limits of practicality
for current scan
protocols.

Pixels in an image
obtained by CT scanning
are displayed in terms of
relative radiodensity. The
pixel itself is displayed
according to the mean
attenuation of the
tissue(s) that it corresponds to on a scale from +3071 (most attenuating) to
-1024 (least attenuating) on the Hounsfield scale. Pixel is a two dimensional unit
based on the matrix size and the field of view. When the CT slice thickness is
also factored in, the unit is known as a Voxel, which is a three dimensional unit.
The phenomenon that one part of the detector cannot differentiate between
different tissues is called the "Partial Volume Effect". That means that a big
amount of cartilage and a thin layer of compact bone can cause the same
attenuation in a voxel as hyperdense cartilage alone. Water has an attenuation of
0 Hounsfield units (HU) while air is -1000 HU, cancellous bone is typically

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+400 HU, cranial bone can reach 2000 HU or more (os temporale) and can
cause artifacts. The attenuation of metallic implants depends on atomic number
of the element used: Titanium usually has an amount of +1000 HU, iron steel
can completely extinguish the X-ray and is therefore responsible for well-known
line-artifacts in computed tomograms. Artifacts are caused by abrupt transitions
between low- and high-density materials, which results in data values that
exceed the dynamic range of the processing electronics.

Advantages over traditional radiography

There are several advantages that CT has over traditional 2D medical

radiography. First, CT completely eliminates the superimposition of images of
structures outside the area of interest. Second, because of the inherent high-
contrast resolution of CT, differences between tissues that differ in physical
density by less than 1% can be distinguished. Finally, data from a single CT
imaging procedure consisting of either multiple contiguous or one helical scan
can be viewed as images in the axial, coronal, or sagittal planes, depending on
the diagnostic task. This is referred to as multiplanar reformatted imaging.

CT is regarded as a moderate to high radiation diagnostic technique. While

technical advances have improved radiation efficiency, there has been
simultaneous pressure to obtain higher-resolution imaging and use more
complex scan techniques, both of which require higher doses of radiation. The
improved resolution of CT has permitted the development of new investigations,
which may have advantages; compared to conventional angiography for
example, CT angiography avoids the invasive insertion of an arterial catheter
and guidewire; CT colonography (also known as virtual colonoscopy or VC for
short) may be as useful as a barium enema for detection of tumors, but may use
a lower radiation dose. CT VC is increasingly being used in the UK as a
diagnostic test for bowel cancer and can negate the need for a colonoscopy.

The greatly increased availability of CT, together with its value for an
increasing number of conditions, has been responsible for a large rise in
popularity. So large has been this rise that, in the most recent comprehensive
survey in the United Kingdom, CT scans constituted 7% of all radiologic
examinations, but contributed 47% of the total collective dose from medical X-
ray examinations in 2000/2001. Increased CT usage has led to an overall rise in
the total amount of medical radiation used, despite reductions in other areas. In
the United States and Japan for example, there were 26 and 64 CT scanners per

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1 million population in 1996. In the U.S., there were about 3 million CT scans
performed in 1980, compared to an estimated 62 million scans in 2006.

Blood Smear:
A blood film or peripheral blood smear is a microscope slide made from a drop
written by zamir blood, that allows the cells to be examined microscopically.
Blood films are usually done to investigate hematological problems (disorders
of the blood) and, occasionally, to look for parasites within the blood such as
malaria and filaria.

Preparation

Blood films are made by placing a drop of blood on one end of a slide, and
using a spreader slide to disperse the blood over the slide's length. The aim is to
get a region where the cells are spaced far enough apart to be counted and
differentiated.

The slide is left to air dry, after which the blood is fixed to the slide by
immersing it briefly in methanol. The fixative is essential for good staining and
presentation of cellular detail. After fixation, the slide is stained to distinguish
the cells from each other.

Common blood film staining methods

Wright's stain:

Wright's stain is a histologic stain that facilitates the differentiation of blood cell
types. It is used primarily to stain peripheral blood smears and bone marrow
aspirates which are examined under a light microscope. In cytogenetics it is
used to stain chromosomes to facilitate diagnosis of syndromes and diseases.

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It is named for James Homer Wright, who devised the stain, a modification of
the Romanowsky stain, in 1902. Because it distinguishes easily between blood
cells, it became widely used for performing differential white blood cell counts,
which are routinely ordered when infections are expected.

There are related stains known as the buffered Wright stain, the Wright-Giemsa
stain, and the buffered Wright-Giemsa stain, and specific instructions depend on
the solutions being used, which may include Eosin Y, Azure B, and Methylene
Blue (some commercial preparations combine solutions to simplify staining).
The May-Grünwald stain, which produces a more intense coloration, also takes
a longer time to perform.

basophil

lymphocyte

Some images of Blood smears.

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