lacks empirical support and offers no testable or

Assignment tenable hypotheses, so it is not science. The leading

1. Creationist Theory proponents of ID are associated with the Discovery
Creationism is the religious belief that nature, and Institute, a fundamentalist Christian and politically
aspects such as the universe, Earth, life, conservative think tank based in the United States.
and humans, originated with supernaturalacts Though the phrase "intelligent design" had featured
of divine creation. In its broadest sense, creationism previously in theological discussions of the argument
includes a continuum of religious views, which vary in from design, the first publication of the term intelligent
their acceptance or rejection of scientific design in its present use as an alternative term for
explanations such as evolution that describe the creationism was in Of Pandas and People, a 1989
origin and development of natural phenomena. creationist textbook intended for high school biology
The term creationism most often refers to belief classes. The term was substituted into drafts of the
in special creation; the claim that the universe and book, directly replacing references to creation
lifeforms were created as they exist today by divine science and creationism, after the 1987 United States
action, and that the only true explanations are those Supreme Court's Edwards v. Aguillard decision, which
which are compatible with a Christian barred the teaching of creation science in public
fundamentalist literalinterpretation of the creation schools on constitutional grounds.From the mid-
myths found in the Bible's Genesis creation 1990s, the intelligent design movement (IDM),
narrative.[7] Since the 1970s, the commonest form of supported by the Discovery Institute, advocated
this has been young Earth creationism which posits inclusion of intelligent design in public school biology
special creation of the universe and lifeforms within curricula.This led to the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area
the last 10,000 years on the basis of Flood geology, School District trial in which U.S. District Judge John
and promotes pseudoscientific creation science. From E. Jones III found that intelligent design was not
the 18th century onwards, old Earth science, that it "cannot uncouple itself from its
creationism accepted geological time harmonized with creationist, and thus religious, antecedents," and that
Genesis through gap or day-age theory, while the school district's promotion of it therefore violated
supporting anti-evolution. Modern old-Earth the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to
creationists support progressive creationism and the United States Constitution.
continue to reject evolutionary ID presents two main arguments against evolutionary
explanations. Following political controversy, creation explanations: irreducible complexity and specified
science was reformulated as intelligent complexity. These arguments assert that certain
design and neo-creationism. features (biological and informational, respectively)
Mainline Protestants and the Catholic are too complex to be the result of natural processes.
Church reconcile modern science with their faith in As a positive argument against evolution, ID proposes
Creation through forms of theistic evolutionwhich hold an analogy between natural systems and human
that God purposefully created through the laws of artifacts, a version of the theological argument from
nature, and accept evolution. Some groups call their design for the existence of God ID proponents then
belief evolutionary creationism conclude by analogy that the complex features, as
Less prominently, there are also members of defined by ID, are evidence of design.
the Islamic, Hindu and American Indian faiths who are Detailed scientific examination has rebutted the
creationists. claims that evolutionary explanations are inadequate,
Use of the term "creationist" in this context dates back and this premise of intelligent design—that evidence
to Charles Darwin's unpublished 1842 sketch draft for against evolution constitutes evidence for design—is
what became On the Origin of Species and he used a false dichotomy. It is asserted that ID challenges
the term later in letters to colleagues. Asa the methodological naturalism inherent in modern
Gray published a 1873 article in The Nation saying a science though proponents concede that they have
"special creationist" maintaining that species "were yet to produce a scientific theory.
supernaturally originated just as they are, by the very
terms of his doctrine places them out of the reach of 3. The holographic principle is a tenet of string
scientific explanation. theories and a supposed property of quantum
gravity that states that the description of a volume
2.Intelligent design (ID) is of space can be thought of as encoded on a lower-
a pseudoscientific argument for the existence of God, dimensional boundary to the region—such as a light-
presented by its proponents as "an evidence- like boundary like a gravitational horizon. First
based scientific theory about life's proposed by Gerard 't Hooft, it was given a precise
origins". Proponents claim that "certain features of the string-theory interpretation by Leonard Susskind who
universe and of living things are best explained by an combined his ideas with previous ones of 't Hooft
intelligent cause, not an undirected process such and Charles Thorn. As pointed out by Raphael
as natural selection."ID is a form of creationism that Bousso, Thorn observed in 1978 that string theory
admits a lower-dimensional description in which Big Bang. Physicists are undecided whether this
gravity emerges from it in what would now be called a means the universe began from a singularity, or that
holographic way. The prime example of holography is current knowledge is insufficient to describe the
the AdS/CFT correspondence. universe at that time. Detailed measurements of the
expansion rate of the universe place the Big Bang at
The holographic principle was inspired by black hole
around 13.8 billion years ago, which is thus
thermodynamics, which conjectures that the
considered the age of the universe. After its initial
maximal entropy in any region scales with the
expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow
radius squared, and not cubed as might be expected.
the formation of subatomic particles, and later
In the case of a black hole, the insight was that the
simple atoms. Giant clouds of these primordial
informational content of all the objects that have fallen
elements (mostly hydrogen, with
into the hole might be entirely contained in surface
some helium and lithium) later coalesced
fluctuations of the event horizon. The holographic
through gravity, eventually forming
principle resolves the black hole information
early stars and galaxies, the descendants of which
paradox within the framework of string
are visible today. Astronomers also observe the
theory. However, there exist classical solutions to the
gravitational effects of dark matter surrounding
Einstein equations that allow values of the entropy
galaxies. Though most of the mass in the universe
larger than those allowed by an area law, hence in
seems to be in the form of dark matter, Big Bang
principle larger than those of a black hole. These are
theory and various observations seem to indicate that
the so-called "Wheeler's bags of gold". The existence
it is not made out of conventional baryonic
of such solutions conflicts with the holographic
matter (protons, neutrons, and electrons) but it is
interpretation, and their effects in a quantum theory of
unclear exactly what it ismade out of.
gravity including the holographic principle are not yet
fully understood. Since Georges Lemaître first noted in 1927 that an
expanding universe could be traced back in time to an
4. Always existed theory originating single point, scientists have built on his
There’s a wealth of evidence that the Universe began idea of cosmic expansion. The scientific community
in a Big Bang around 14 billion years ago. We can was once divided between supporters of two different
see distant galaxies racing away from each other, and theories, the Big Bang and the Steady State theory,
the space around them is filled with cosmic radiation but a wide range of empirical evidence has strongly
whose intensity and spread are consistent with that favored the Big Bang which is now universally
expected from the aftermath of the Big Bang. But accepted.] In 1929, from analysis of
none of this rules out the possibility that there was galactic redshifts, Edwin Hubble concluded that
another universe before ours. galaxies are drifting apart; this is important
According to some theorists, when Einstein’s theory observational evidence consistent with the hypothesis
of gravity is combined with quantum theory, the Big of an expanding universe. In 1964, the cosmic
Bang could really be part of a Big Bounce, in which microwave background radiation was discovered,
the collapse of a previous, and perhaps very different, which was crucial evidence in favor of the Big Bang
universe is followed by the creation of our own. While model, since that theory predicted the existence of
speculative, these theories do at least resolve the background radiation throughout the universe before
otherwise tricky question of what existed before the it was discovered. More recently, measurements of
Big Bang. the redshifts of supernovae indicate that
the expansion of the universe is accelerating, an
5. The Big Bang theory is the observation attributed to dark energy's existence. The
prevailing cosmological model for the observable known physical laws of nature can be used to
universe from the earliest known periods through its calculate the characteristics of the universe in detail
subsequent large-scale evolution The model back in time to an initial state of
describes how the universe expanded from a very extreme density and temperature.
high-density and high-temperature state and offers a
comprehensive explanation for a broad range of 6. The Big Crunch is one of the theoretical scenarios
phenomena, including the abundance of light for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the
elements, the cosmic microwave metric expansion of space eventually reverses and
background (CMB), large scale the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the
structure and Hubble's law (the farther away galaxies cosmic scale factor to reach zero or causing a
are, the faster they are moving away from Earth) If the reformation of the universe starting with another Big
observed conditions are extrapolated backwards in Bang.
time using the known laws of physics, the prediction is Some experimental evidence casts doubt on this
that just before a period of very high density there theory and suggests that the expansion of the
was a singularity which is typically associated with the universe is accelerating, rather than being slowed
down by gravity. However, more recent research has 9. The Oscillating Universe Theory is a
called this conclusion into question. cosmological model that combines both the Big Bang
and the Big Crunch as part of a cyclical event. That is,
7. Steady State Theory: if this theory holds true, then the Universe in which we
The steady-state theory is a view that the universe is live in exists between a Big Bang and a Big Crunch.
always expanding but maintaining a constant average In other words, our universe can be the first of a
density, matter being continuously created to form possible series of universes or it can be the nth
new stars and galaxies at the same rate that old ones universe in the series.
become unobservable as a consequence of their 10. Inflationary Theory In physical cosmology,
increasing distance and velocity of recession. A cosmic inflation, cosmological inflation, or just
steady-state universe has no beginning or end in inflation, is a theory of exponential expansion of
time; and from any point within it the view on the space in the early universe. The inflationary epoch
grand scale--i.e., the average density and lasted from 10−36 seconds after the conjectured Big
arrangement of galaxies--is the same. Galaxies of all Bang singularity to some time between 10−33 and
possible ages are intermingled. 10−32 seconds after the singularity. Following the
In cosmology, the steady state model is an alternative inflationary period, the universe continues to expand,
to the Big Bang theory of the evolution of the but at a less rapid rate.
universe. In the steady state model, the density of Inflation theory was first developed in 1979 by
matter in the expanding universe remains unchanged theoretical physicist Alan Guth at Cornell University. It
due to a continuous creation of matter, thus adhering was developed further in the early 1980s. It explains
to the perfect cosmological principle, a principle that the origin of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.
asserts that the observable universe is basically the Quantum fluctuations in the microscopic inflationary
same at any time as well as at any place. region, magnified to cosmic size, become the seeds
While the steady state model enjoyed some minority for the growth of structure in the Universe (see galaxy
support in the scientific mainstream until the mid-20th formation and evolution and structure formation).
century, it is now rejected by the vast majority of Many physicists also believe that inflation explains
cosmologists, astrophysicists and astronomers, as the why the universe appears to be the same in all
observational evidence points to a hot Big Bang directions (isotropic), why the cosmic microwave
cosmology with a finite age of the universe, which the background radiation is distributed evenly, why the
steady state model does not predict. universe is flat, and why no magnetic monopoles
have been observed.
8. The Pulsating Universe Theory says that the The detailed particle physics mechanism responsible
universe follows infinite self-sustaining cycles such as for inflation is unknown. The basic inflationary
expanding and contrasting. paradigm is accepted by most physicists, as a
Redshift happens when light seen coming from an number of inflation model predictions have been
object that is moving away is proportionally increased confirmed by observation however, a substantial
in wavelength. (corresponding points of the same minority of scientists dissent from this position. The
phase). hypothetical field thought to be responsible for
The theory also states that the universe is "living" inflation is called the inflaton.
and keeps pulsating in and out. In 2002, three of the original architects of the theory
Evidence were recognized for their major contributions;
The "crunch" is when the universe kind of pulls in to physicists Alan Guth of M.I.T., Andrei Linde of
itself because when the universe expands, it has to Stanford, and Paul Steinhardt of Princeton shared the
expand with gravity and inertia and eventually inertia prestigious Dirac Prize "for development of the
will run out nad gravity will be stuck by itslef. When concept of inflation in cosmology".[8] In 2012, Alan
gravity stuck by itself it will cause the universe to pull Guth and Andrei Linde were awarded the
in to itself and will creat this massive "crunch" at a Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for their
rapid rate. The problem is that there is not enough invention and development of inflationary cosmology
mass in the universe to create the "crunch". There are
two things that support this theory: CMBR (Cosmic 11. The multiverse, also known as an omniverse or
Microwave Background Radiation) and Redshift. meta-universe, is a hypothetical group of multiple
The theory also says that after the universe has been universes. Together, these universes comprise
contracted to a certain size, explosion occurs and the everything that exists: the entirety of space, time,
universe will start expanding. matter, energy, and the physical laws and constants
Universe Problems CMBR is radiation left over from that describe them. The different universes within the
an early stage in the development of the universe. multiverse are called "parallel universes", "other
Summary Universe universes", or "alternate universes"