Unit I

Module 4: Chemical components of biological membranes

Objectives
The main objectives of this module are to acquaint the students about the:
i) lipid composition of biomembranes ;
ii) three classes of lipids;
iii) protein components of biomembranes;
iv) types of membrane proteins ;and
v) carbohydrates

Introduction
The cell or plasma membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells. The eukaryotic cells also contain subcompartments surrounded by one or more
biomembranes. The biomembranes limit the cell or celluler compartments to form closed
structures. They separate the inside from the outside of the cell or compartment and they also
control the movement of molecules between the inside and the outside of a cell and into and
out of the subcompartmemnts or organelles of eukaryotic cells. All biomembranes have a
similar lipid bilayer structure. In addition, the biomembranes also contain membrane proteins
and carbohydrates (glycoproteins and glycolipids). The composition of a membrane helps in
determining the function of the membrane. The basic chemical components of the
biomembranes are discussed in the following sections:

1. Lipid Composition of Biomembranes

Phospholipids form the main composition of biomembranes and are organised in the form of
sheetlike phospholipid bilayers in cell membranes. The membrane lipids are amphipathic
molecules having a polar (hydrophilic) head group and hydrophobic tail and the bilayers of
membranes consists of a hydrophobic core (about 3–4 nm thick in most biomembranes)
comprised of the hydrocarbon chains of the phospholipids in each layer and the
hydrophilicpolar head groups of phospholipids exposed on the upper and lower sides of the
bilayer structure.

The lipid bilayer gives two important properties to the cell membranes. The first is the
formation of an impermeable barrier by the hydrophobic core that prevents the diffusion of
water-soluble (hydrophilic) solutes across the membrane. This impermeable barrier function
is modulated by the function of membrane proteins that allow the transport of specific
molecules across the otherwise impermeable bilayer making it selectively permeable. The
second property of the bilayer is the stability of the membrane maintained by hydrophobic
and van der Waals interactions between the lipid chains.
A typical biomembrane is made up of three classes of lipids: phosphoglycerides,
sphingolipids, and steroids.
a) Phosphoglycerides: They constitute the most abundant class of lipids in most
biomembranes. They are derivatives of glycerol 3-phosphate and a phosphoglyceride
molecule consists of a hydrophobic tail (composed of two fatty acyl chains esterified
to the two hydroxyl groups in glycerol phosphate) and a polar (hydrophilic) head
group attached to the phosphate group.

The number of carbons atoms in the two fatty acyl chains may differ (commonly 16
or 18) and also the number of double bonds (0, 1, or 2), which gives different degree
of saturation in the two fatty acyl chains. The nature of head group varies in different
phosphoglycerides. The head group in phosphatidylcholines, the most abundant
phospholipids in the plasma membrane, is a positively charged alcohol choline
esterified to the negatively charged phosphate. While the head group in other
phosphoglycerides consist of phosphate group linked to an OH-containing molecule
such as ethanolamine, serine, or the sugar derivative inositol. These negatively
charged phosphate group and the positively charged head groups or the hydroxyl
groups on the head group interact strongly with water. Another common
phosphoglycerides in the biomembranes are the plasmalogens and they contain one
fatty acyl chain, attached to glycerol by an ester linkage, and one long hydrocarbon
chain, attached to glycerol by an ether linkage.
b) Sphingolipids: These are another class of membrane lipids derived from sphingosine,
an amino alcohol with a long hydrocarbon chain. They contain a long-chain fatty acid
attached to the sphingosine amino group. The most abundant sphingolipid is
sphingomyelin, which contain phosphocholine attached to the terminal hydroxyl group of
sphingosine.
Other sphingolipids are in the membranes are represented by amphipathic glycolipids
which contain sugars in their polar head groups. The simplest glycosphingolipid is
glucosylcerebroside, which contain one glucose unit attached to sphingosine. While the
complex glycosphingolipids called gangliosides contain one or two branched sugar chains
containing sialic acid groups attached to sphingosine.
c) Steroids: They constitute another important class of membrane lipids and consist of
cholesterol and its derivatives with a basic four-ring hydrocarbon structure. Cholesterol is
commonly present in the membranes of mammalian cells but is absent from most
prokaryotic cell membranes. In plant plasma membranes, 30–50 percent of the lipids
consist of certain steroids unique to plants cells.

2. Protein Components of Biomembranes: Different membranes contain proteins at

varying amount depending on cell type and subcellular location (For example, 76 percent
in the inner mitochondrial membrane and 18 percent in the myelin membrane).
Membrane proteins are of three types: Integral proteins or transmembrane proteins,
Peripheral proteins and Lipid anchored proteins.
a) Integral proteins or transmembrane proteins: Some proteins are present within the
lipid bilayer and are called integral proteins or transmembrane proteins. They span the
 membrane and have a hydrophilic cytosolic domain (which interacts with internal
molecules), a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain (that anchors it within the cell
membrane), and a hydrophilic extracellular domain (that interacts with external
molecules). The hydrophobic domain consists of one, multiple, or a combination of α-
helices and β sheet protein motifs. Examples of integral proteins include Ion
channels, proton pumps, G protein-coupled receptor, etc.
b) Peripheral proteins: Other proteins that are present on the surface of the exoplasmic
or cytosolic surface of bilayer are called peripheral membrane proteins. They are
usually present attached to the integral membrane proteins proteins or in association
with the peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer, e.g., some enzymes and some
hormones. Such proteins commonly have temporary interactions with biological the
membranes and generally dissociates in the cytoplasm after reacting with specific
molecules.
c) Lipid anchored proteins: These include membrane proteins that are anchored in the
membrane by a covalently attached lipid group, e.g., G proteins.

3. Carbohydrates: The plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates and

glycosylation occurs generally on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. The
membrane carbohydrates are mostly glycoproteins along with some glycolipids
(cerebrosides and gangliosides).
The membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids form important feature of the glycocalyx
and enable cell-cell recognition.
a) Glycoproteins: Glycoproteins are membrane proteins that are covalently linked to
oligosaccharides called glycans. Glycoproteins are common on secreted proteins and
membrane proteins but are rare in the cytosol. The oligosaccharides in glycoproteins are
branched glycoside-linked sugars with an average of about 15 sugar residues and they are
typically linked via the hydroxyl group on serine or threonine on the proteins. Sometimes,
they may also link to modified amino acids like hydroxylysine or hydroxyproline (O-
glycosylation), and occasionally they may link via the amide nitrogen on asparagines (N-
glycosylation). The oligosaccharide domains of glycoproteins play important roles in
membrane protein function. The glycoproteins form important components of the
glycocalyx along with glycolipids and the extracellular polar domains of integral and
peripheral proteins. The oligosaccharides are initially synthesized in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) as the core glycoside, which is then enzymatically linked to
one of several amino acids of a membrane protein. More sugars are then added to the core
glycoside as these proteins travel through the golgi vesicles by a process called terminal
glycosylation. Examples of glycoproteins playing roles in cell-cell recognition includes
red blood cell surface antigens for blood groups, white blood cell surface antibodies that
recognize foreign substances (antigens) and cell surface molecules of the major
histocompatibility complex (MHC).

b) Glycolipids: Glycolipids are phospholipids attached to oligosaccharides. They are found

only on the extracellular surface and forms part of the glycocalyx. Glycolipids are also
synthesized in a similar way as glycoproteins and their synthesis is catalyzed by specific
enzymes. In addition to their role in cell-cell recognition, glycolipids also play a role in
formation of tissues. The glycans on the surfaces of one cell recognize and bind to lectins
 (carbohydrate receptors) on adjacent cells and results in cell-cell attachment as well as
intracellular responses in the interacting cells.
Conclusion
The cell or plasma membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells have similar basic compositions. The main components of biological membranes are the
phospholipids, proteins, glycoproteins and glycolipids. The composition of a membrane helps
in determining the function of the membrane. the phospholipids form the basic bilayer of the
bimembranes and the transmembrane proteins form channels and pores for transporting
molecules in and out of cells while the proteins on the extracellular surface or in the cytosolic
face of the plasma membrane bind to signaling molecules including proteins, ions, and small
metabolites and serve different functions, including anchoring cytoskeletal proteins and
triggering signaling pathways, etc. The glycoproteins and glycolipids in the membranes play
important role in cell-cell recognition and attachment.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

1. What are the main functions of biomembranes?

Ans: The main functions of biomembranes are:

a) They limit the cell or celluler compartments to form closed structures.

b) They separate the inside from the outside of the cell or compartment

c) They control the movement of molecules between the inside and the outside of a cell

and into and out of the sub compartments or organelles of eukaryotic cells

d) They play important role in cell-cell recognition and attachment.

2. What are the two properties imparted by proteins to cell membranes?

Ans: The two important properties to the cell membranes imparted by proteins are:
a) The formation of an impermeable barrier by the hydrophobic core that prevents
the diffusion of water-soluble (hydrophilic) solutes across the membrane.
b) The maintenance of the stability of the membrane by hydrophobic and van der
Waals interactions between the lipid chains.
3. Describe the three classes of lipids present in cell membrane.

Ans: The three classes of lipids of cell membranes are:

a) Phosphoglycerides: Most abundant class of lipids in most biomembranes that are
derivatives of glycerol 3-phosphate and a phosphoglyceride molecule. It consists of a
hydrophobic tail (composed of two fatty acyl chains esterified to the two hydroxyl
 groups in glycerol phosphate) and a polar (hydrophilic) head group attached to the
phosphate group.
b) Sphingolipids: The membrane lipids derived from sphingosine, an amino alcohol
with a long hydrocarbon chain. They contain a long-chain fatty acid attached to the
sphingosine amino group. The most abundant sphingolipid is sphingomyelin, which
contain phosphocholine attached to the terminal hydroxyl group of sphingosine.
c) Steroids: Membrane lipids that consist of cholesterol and its derivatives with a basic
four-ring hydrocarbon structure.

4. What are the three types of membrane protein?

Ans: The three types of proteins are :
i) Integral proteins or transmembrane proteins: Proteins that are present within the lipid
bilayer are called integral proteins or transmembrane proteins.
Examples : Ion channels, proton pumps, G protein-coupled receptor, etc.
ii)Peripheral proteins: Proteins that are present on the surface of the exoplasmic or
cytosolic surface of bilayer are called peripheral membrane proteins.
Examples : some enzymes and some hormones.
iii) Lipid anchored proteins: These include membrane proteins that are anchored
in the membrane by a covalently attached lipid group
Examples : G proteins
5. Explain the different composition of the biomembranes.

Ans: The biomembrane is made up of lipid bilayers alongwith proteins and carbohydrate

as its main components.

They are as follows:

i) Lipid: The main composition of biomembranes is phospholipid that are organised in

the form of sheetlike phospholipid bilayers in cell membranes. The membrane lipids are
amphipathic molecules having a hydrophilic head group and hydrophobic tail. It provides
the impermeable nature to the membrane except to specific molecules.
ii) Protein: Depending on cell type and subcellular location the amount of protein contents
vary in the biomembranes. the protein may be present in form of integral proteins
peripheral proteins or lipid anchored proteins.
iii) Carbohydrate: In the membranes carbohydrates present are mostly in form of
glycoproteins along with some glycolipids (cerebrosides and gangliosides). The
glycosylation occurs generally on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane.
Q6. What are phosphoglycerides?
Ans: They constitute the most abundant class of lipids in most biomembranes. They are
derivatives of glycerol 3-phosphate and a phosphoglyceride molecule consists of a
hydrophobic tail (composed of two fatty acyl chains esterified to the two hydroxyl groups in
glycerol phosphate) and a polar (hydrophilic) head group attached to the phosphate group.
Q7. What are Shingolipids?
Ans: These are another class of membrane lipids derived from sphingosine, an amino alcohol
with a long hydrocarbon chain. They contain a long-chain fatty acid attached to the
sphingosine amino group. The most abundant sphingolipid is sphingomyelin, which contain
phosphocholine attached to the terminal hydroxyl group of sphingosine.
Q8. What are steroids?
Ans: They constitute another important class of membrane lipids and consist of cholesterol
and its derivatives with a basic four-ring hydrocarbon structure. Cholesterol is commonly
present in the membranes of mammalian cells but is absent from most prokaryotic cell
membranes. In plant plasma membranes, 30-50 percent of the lipids consist of certain
steroids unique to plants cells.
Q9. What are glycoproteins ?
Ans: Glycoproteins are membrane proteins that are covalently linked to oligosaccharides
called glycans. Glycoproteins are common on secreted proteins and membrane proteins but
are rare in the cytosol.
Q10. What are glycolipids?
Ans: Glycolipids are phospholipids attached to oligosaccharides. They are found only on the
extracellular surface and forms part of the glycocalyx. Glycolipids are also synthesized in a
similar way as glycoproteins and their synthesis is catalyzed by specific enzymes.

References
1. Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., et al., 2002: Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th
edition, Garland Science, New York, Membrane Proteins, Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26878/.
2. Berg, J.M., Tymoczko, J.L., Stryer, L.,2002: Biochemistry, 5th edition, W.H.
Freeman, New York, Section 11.3, Carbohydrates Can Be Attached to Proteins to
Form Glycoproteins. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22521/
3. Brooker, Robert, J., et al., 2007: Biology (First Edition), (McGraw-Hill, New York),
p. 79 ISBN 0-07-326807-0.
4. Cooper, G.M., 2000: The Cell: A Molecular Approach, 2nd edition, Sunderland
(MA): Sinauer Associates, Structure of the Plasma Membrane, Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9898/.
5. Heide, N., Schulz-Vogt., 2006: "Vacuoles", Inclusions in Prokaryotes, Microbiology
Monographs, 1. pp. 295–298, doi:10.1007/3-540-33774-1_10. ISBN 978-3-540-
26205-3.
6. Lodish, H., Berk, A., Zipursky, S.L., et al., 2000: Molecular Cell Biology, 4th edition,
W. H. Freeman, New York, Section 3.4, Membrane Proteins, Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21570/.
Links
https://en.wikipedia.org
http://physiologyplus.com/membrane-carbohydrates-the-cell-glycocalyx/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_glycoproteins