Of Primary Interest

Teaching Math in the Primary Grades

The Learning Trajectories Approach
Julie Sarama and Douglas H. Clements

Two kindergarten teachers sit down for lunch dur- 2. All children have the potential to learn challenging
ing a professional development workshop. One says, and interesting math.
“I think it’s ridiculous. The children are still babies.
  Primary grade children have an often surprising ability to
They’re trying to teach them too much.” Her friend
do abstract math—that is, math that is done by reasoning
nods. Soon they are joined by a colleague from
mentally, without the need for concrete objects. Listen to
another school, who bubbles, “Isn’t this great? The
the worries of this first-grader.
children are going to know so much more!”
“I find it easier not to do it [simple addition] with my fingers
because sometimes I get into a big muddle with them [and]
Most of us can sympathize with both perspectives. What
I find it much harder to add up because I am not concentrat-
should we be teaching in the early grades? Three research
ing on the sum. I am concentrating on getting my fingers
findings provide some guidance in mathematics instruction.
right . . . It can take longer to work out the sum [with fingers]
1. Learning substantial math is critical for primary than it does to work out the sum in my head.” [In her head,
grade children. Emily imagined dot arrays. Why didn’t she just use those?] “If
we don’t use our fingers, the teacher is going to think, ‘Why
  The early years are especially important for math devel- aren’t they using their fingers . . . they are just sitting there
opment. Children’s knowledge of math in these years thinking’ . . . We are meant to be using our fingers because it is
predicts their math achievement for later years—and easier . . . which it is not.” (Gray & Pitta 1997, 35)
throughout their school career. Furthermore, what they
Should the teacher encourage Emily to use concrete
know in math predicts their later reading achievement as
objects to solve math problems? Or should she encourage
well (Duncan et al. in press). Given that early math learning
children like Emily to use arithmetic reasoning?
predicts later math and reading achievement, math appears
  Primary grade children often know, and can definitely
to be a core component of learning and thinking.
learn, far more challenging and interesting math than they
are taught in most U.S. classrooms. That does not necessar-
Julie Sarama, PhD, is an associate professor of mathematics
ily mean math pushed down from higher grades. It means
education at University of Buffalo, State University of New York. letting children invent their own strategies for solving a
She has published over 100 research articles and books in her variety of types of problems. How can teachers best sup-
areas of interest, the early learning of mathematics and the role port creative thinking in mathematics?
of technology.
Douglas H. Clements, PhD, SUNY Distinguished Professor, was 3. Understanding children’s mathematical develop-
a kindergarten and preschool teacher. He has published over 100 ment helps teachers be knowledgeable and effective in
refereed research studies, 10 books, and 300 additional publica- teaching math.
tions and has directed over 10 projects funded by NSF and IES.
  Children’s thinking follows natural developmental paths
  This article is based on work supported in part by the Institute
in learning math. When teachers understand these paths
of Educational Sciences (U.S. Department of Education, under
the Interagency Educational Research Initiative, or IERI, a and offer activities based on children’s progress along
collaboration of the IES, NSF, and NICHHD) under Grant No. them, they build math learning environments that are
R305K05157 to D.H. Clements, J. Sarama, and J. Lee, “Scaling developmentally appropriate and particularly effective. A
Up TRIAD: Teaching Early Mathematics for Understanding with useful tool in understanding and supporting the develop-
Trajectories and Technologies.”
ment of children’s mathematical reasoning is a math learn-
®
ing trajectory. There are learning trajectories for mathemat-
2, 3 ics at all age levels, from birth throughout the school years,

Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • March 2009 1

and for learning all kinds of content—from specific math The tasks are designed to help children learn the ideas and
concepts such as number and operations to specific sci- practice the skills needed to master that level. Teachers
ence concepts like understanding electricity. use instructional tasks to promote children’s growth from
one level to the next

Learning trajectories
Teaching challenging and interesting math
  Math learning trajectories have three parts: a mathemati-
cal goal, a developmental path along which children’s   The three research findings—the importance of math
math knowledge grows to reach that goal, and a set of learning in the primary grades, all children’s potential to
instructional tasks, or activities, for each level of children’s learn math, and teachers’ need to understand children’s
understanding along that path to help them become profi- learning development—have implications for teaching pri-
cient in that level before moving on to the next level. Let’s mary grade math well. We suggest the following approach:
examine each of these three parts. • Know and use learning trajectories.
• Include a wide variety of instructional activities. The
  Goal. The first part of a learning trajectory is the goal. learning trajectories provide a guide as to which activities
Goals should include the big ideas of math, such as “num- are likely to challenge children to invent new strategies and
bers can be used to tell us how many, describe order, and build new knowledge.
measure” and “geometry can be used to understand and
• Use a combination of teaching strategies. One effective
to represent the objects, directions, and locations in our
approach is to (a) discuss a problem with a group, (b) fol-
world, and the relationship between them” (Clements,
low up by having children work in pairs, and then (c) have
Sarama, & DiBiase 2004). In this article, we look at the goal
the children share solution strategies back with the group.
of knowing how to solve a variety of addition and subtrac-
Discuss strategies with children in pairs and individually.
tion problems.
Differentiate instruction by giving groups or individual
children different problem types.
  Developmental path. The second part of a learning trajec-
tory consists of levels of thinking, each more sophisticated   Alexander and Entwisle state that “the early grades may be
than the last, leading to achieving the mathematical goal. precisely the time that schools have their strongest effects”
That is, the developmental path describes a typical learn- (1988, 114). Math is so important to children’s success in
ing route children follow in developing understanding of school, in the primary grades and in future learning, that it is
and skill in a particular mathematics topic. critical to give children motivating, substantive educational
  Learning trajectories are important because young experiences. Learning trajectories are a powerful tool to
children’s ideas and their interpretations of situations are engage all children in creating and understanding math.
different from those of adults. Teachers must interpret
what the child is doing and thinking and attempt to see
the situation from the child’s viewpoint. Knowledge of References
developmental paths enhances teachers’ understanding of
Alexander, K.L., & D.R. Entwisle. 1988. Achievement in the first two
children’s thinking, helping teachers assess children’s level years of school: Patterns and processes. Monographs of the Society for
of understanding and offer instructional activities at that Research in Child Development, vol. 53, no. 2, serial no. 157.
level. Similarly, effective teachers consider the instructional Clements, D.H., J. Sarama, & A.-M. DiBiase. 2004. Engaging young children
in mathematics: Standards for early childhood mathematics education.
tasks from the child’s perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Clements, D.H., & J. Sarama. 2009. Learning and teaching early math: The
  Instructional tasks. The third part of a learning trajectory learning trajectories approach. New York: Routledge.
Duncan, G.J., C.J. Dowsett, A. Claessens, K. Magnuson, A.C. Huston, P.
consists of sets of instructional tasks or activities matched Klebanov, et al. In press. School readiness and later achievement.
to each level of thinking in a developmental progression. Developmental Psychology.
Gray, E.M., & D. Pitta. 1997. Number processing: Qualitative differences
in thinking and the role of imagery. In Proceedings of the 20th Annual
Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Austral-
The National Association of Early Childhood Specialists asia, vol. 3, 35–42, eds. L. Puig & A.Gutiérrez. Rotorua, New Zealand:
in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE) works The Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia.
to improve instruction, curriculum, and administration in Sarama, J., & D.H. Clements. 2009. Early childhood mathematics edu-
education programs for young children and their families. Of cation research: Learning trajectories for young children. New York:
Primary Interest is written by members of NAECS/SDE for Routledge.
kindergarten and primary teachers. The column appears in
March, July, and November issues of Young Children and
Beyond the Journal (online at www.journal.naeyc.org/btj). Copyright © 2009 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. See
Permissions and Reprints online at www.journal.naeyc.org/about/permissions.asp.

Beyond the Journal • Young Children on the Web • March 2009 2

 Learning Trajectory for Addition and Subtraction: Sample Levels of the
Developmental Path and Examples of Instructional Tasks
This chart gives simple labels and a sampling of levels in the developmental learning progressions for ages
5 through 7 years. The ages in the first column are not exact indications—children in challenging educational
environments often create strategies that are surprisingly sophisticated. The second column describes four
main levels of thinking in the addition and subtraction learning trajectory. These levels are samples—there are
many levels in between them (for full learning trajectories, see Clements & Sarama 2009 and Sarama &
Clements 2009). The third column briefly describes examples of instructional tasks.

Age Developmental path— Instructional tasks

Sample levels
5 Find Change. Children find the missing Word Problems. For example, say to the children, “You have 5 balls and
addend (5 + _ = 7) by adding on objects. then get some more. Now you have 7 balls in all. How many more balls
did you get?” Children use balls in 2 colors to solve such problems.

5½ Counting Strategies. Children find sums for How Many Now? Problems. For example, have the children count
joining problems (“You have 8 apples and get objects as you place them in a box. Ask, “How many are in the box now?”
3 more . . .”) and part-part-whole problems Add 1, repeating the question, then check the children’s responses by
(“6 girls and 5 boys . . .”) with finger patterns counting all the objects. Repeat, checking occasionally. When children
[counting using fingers and quickly recogniz- are ready, sometimes add 2, and eventually more, objects.
ing the quantity] and/or by counting on.
Counting On. The teacher asks, “How much
is 4 and 3 more?” A child replies, “4 . . . 5, 6,
7 [uses a rhythmic or finger pattern to keep
track]. 7!”
Counting Up. A child may solve a missing Double Compare. Children compare sums
addend (3 + _ = 7) or compare problems by of 2 cards to determine which sum is greater.
counting up; for example, the child counts Encourage the children to use more sophisticated
“4, 5, 6, 7” while putting up fingers, and then strategies, such as counting on.
counts or recognizes the 4 fingers raised.
  Or the teacher asks, “You have 6 balls.
How many more do you need to have 8
Bright Idea. Using a numeral and a frame with
balls?” The child says, “6, 7 [puts up a fin-
dots, children count on from the numeral to identify
ger], 8 [puts up a second finger]. 2!”
the total amount. They then move forward a corre-
sponding number of spaces on a game board.

Part-Whole. The child has an initial part-

6 whole understanding and can solve all the Hidden Objects. Hide 4 counters under a dark cloth and show children
preceding problem types using flexible strat- 7 counters. Tell them that 4 counters are hidden and challenge them to
egies (may use some known combinations, tell you how many counters there are in all. Or tell the children there are
such as “5 + 5 is 10”). 11 counters in all, and ask how many are hidden.
Have the children discuss their solution strategies.
Repeat with different sums.
Barkley’s Bones. Children determine the missing
addend in problems such as 4 + _ = 7.
Deriver. The child uses flexible strategies
7 and derived combinations (“7 + 7 is 14, so 7 Twenty-one. Play this card game, whose object is
+ 8 is 15”) to solve all types of problems. to have the sum of one’s cards be 21 or as close
as possible without exceeding 21. An ace is worth either 1 or 11, and
cards for 2 through 10 are worth their face value. A child deals everyone 2
cards, including herself.
Adapted from D.H. Clements and J. Sarama, Learning and • In each round, if a player’s sum is less than 21, the player can
Teaching Early Math: The Learning Trajectories Approach (New request another card or stand pat, saying, “Hold.”
York: Routledge, 2009), and J. Sarama and D.H. Clements,
Early Childhood Mathematics Education Research: Learning • If the new card makes the player’s sum greater than 21, the player is out.
Trajectories for Young Children (New York: Routledge, 2009).
• Play continues until everyone holds. The player whose sum is closest
Activity images from D.H. Clements and J. Sarama, Building to 21 wins.
Blocks [Computer software] (Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw-
Hill, 2007). Used with permission from SRA/McGraw-Hill. Multidigit Addition and Subtraction. “What’s 28 + 35?”
 Learning Trajectory
Developmental Levels for “Counting”
The ability to count with confidence develops over the course of several years. Beginning in infancy, children
show signs of understanding number. With instruction and number experience, most children can count
fluently by age 8, with much progress in counting occurring in kindergarten and first grade. Most children follow
a natural developmental progression in learning to count with recognizable stages or levels. This
developmental path can be described as part of a learning trajectory.

Level Level Name Description Notes

A child names some number words in no
1 Pre-Counter
apparent order and without meaning.
A child sing-songs numbers often in some
2 Chanter order, but it is a song and without meaning of
quantity or counting.
A child verbally recites number names as
3 Reciter separate words with the intention to count, but
does not necessarily recite the correct order.
A child verbally counts to 10 with some
correspondence with objects. The child may
4 Reciter (10)
point to objects to count a few items but then
often loses track.
A child can keep one-to-one correspondence
between counting words and objects—at least
5 Corresponder for small groups of objects laid in a line. When
asked “how many,” the child often recounts the
objects starting over with one each time.

Counter A child begins to count meaningfully. The child

(Small accurately counts a given set of objects to 5
6 Numbers) and answers the “how many” question with the
last number counted without needing to recount
the objects.
Producer— When asked to show a specific number of
Counter To objects, a child can accurately produce or make
7
(Small a set of objects up to 5.
Numbers)
A child accurately counts structured
arrangements of objects to 10. He or she may
be able to draw representations for quantities
8 Counter (10)
up to 10. The child can also find the number just
after or just before another number, but only by
counting up from 1.
Child accurately counts and produces sets to 10
Counter and and beyond to 30, keeping track of objects that
Producer have and have not been counted. Child draws
9 Counter to representations to 10, then to 20 and 30, and
(10+) can find the next number to 20 or 30. Child
recognizes errors in others’ counting and can
eliminate most errors in one’s own counting.

 Counter
10 Backward The child is able to count backwards from 10.
from 1
The child begins to count on from numbers
Counter from other than one, either in verbal counts or with
11 N (N+1, N-1) objects. The child can determine the number
just before or just after another number quickly
without having to start counting back at one.

Skip-
12 Counting by The child can count by tens to 100.
10s to 100
The child can count by ones through 100,
Counter to including knowing the decade transitions from
13
100 39 to 40, 49 to 50, and so on, starting at any
number.

Counter on The child keeps track of counting acts by using

14 using numerical patterns or movements, such as
patterns tapping as he or she counts.

The child can count by five and twos with

15 Skip Counter
understanding.
Counter of
The child can count mental images of hidden
16 Imagined
objects.
Items

Counter On The child can keep track of counting acts

17 Keeping numerically with the ability to count on (one to
Track four counts) from a given number.

The child can count unusual units such as

Counter of “wholes” when shown combinations of wholes
18 Quantitative and parts. For example when shown three
Units whole plastic eggs and four halves, a child at
this level will say there are five whole eggs.

The child counts accurately to 200 and beyond,

Counter to recognizing the patterns of ones, tens, and
19
200 hundreds.

The child demonstrates the ability to conserve

number. She or he understands that a number
is unchanged even if a group of objects is
Number
20 rearranged. For example, if there is a row of ten
Conserver
buttons, the child understands there are still ten
without recounting, even if they are rearranged
in a long row or a circle.

Source: Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2009). Early childhood mathematics education research: Learning
trajectories for young children. Routledge.

 http://mathpickle.com/

http://mathpickle.com/counting/
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these puzzles are
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 Racing Bears
Materials

Racing Bears Game board

dot cube (dice)
four teddy bear counters (or another type of counter)
4 counters (any objects-pennies, chips, etc.)

Object

Play is over when players together collect 10 counters

To Play

1. Place a teddy bear at the beginning of each of the four tracks and a counter
in the circle at the end of each track

2. Take turns rolling the dot cube and moving any of the bears that number of
spaces.

3. The object is to work together to get a bear to the tenth space on any track.
When a bear lands exactly on the tenth space, the players take the counter
off.

4. Continue playing until all counters have been collected.

The game can be played individually, a group of two, or with the whole family.
Name Date
How Many Do You Have?

Racing Bears Gameboard

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
© Pearson Education K

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M8 Unit 6 Sessions 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 2.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6