IMAGE PROCESSING OF SIDESCAN SONAR

The purpose of this project was to create a Graphical User Interface (GUI) that is capable of
decoding and
analyzing sidescan sonar data. The GUI was implemented in MATLAB®
due to its image processing features. The
GUI reads sidescan sonar files in the Marine Sonics MSTIFF data file format, displays the image,
adjusts color,
automatically detected the bottom, and performed slant-range correction. Real-time processing of
stored images is
simulated by reading in image lines at a user-defined pulse repetition frequency.

ABOUT AUTONOMOUS

Unmanned vehicle technology has progressed with incredible speed and increasing capability
within the
last few years. Unmanned vehicles are thus becoming more and more integrated into U.S.
military service. Most
unmanned vehicles, however, still require some level of direct human control in order to complete
missions
traditionally done by people. The goal of this semester’s research was to develop a framework for
a fully
“Autonomous Convoy.” This convoy would require no human control while en route to its
destination. Furthermore,
the convoy would be able to dynamically respond to attacks and ambushes by moving high-value
units away from a
kill-zone while at the same time using armed units to eliminate an enemy threat. All of these
ground units would be
tied to each other and to over-flying Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV’s) through a robust wireless
network. While
this network would enable the dynamic response to an enemy, as well as a more efficient route-
to-target, every unit
in the convoy would maintain the ability to guide itself autonomously if necessary.

INTRODUCTION FOR MOTORS AND DRIVES

The servomotors used in industry today are used in a closed-loop servo system. To understand
how the servomotor is used in the system, it is first necessary to review the entire system.

A reference input (typically called a velocity input) is sent to the servo amplifier, which controls the
speed of the servomotor. Directly mounted to the machine (or to the servomotor) is a feedback
device (either an encoder or resolver). This device changes mechanical motion into electrical
signals and is used as a feedback loop. This feedback loop is then sent to the error detector,
which compares the actual operation with that of the reference input. If there is an error, that error
is fed directly to the amplifier, which makes the necessary corrections.
In many servo systems, both velocity and position are monitored. (Note: In servo systems, the
word "velocity" is often used to describe speed control. Velocity indicates a rate of change of
position, with respect to time. It also indicates a rate of motion in a particular direction, with
respect to time.) The velocity loop control may take its command from the velocity loop feedback
device-a resolver or tachometer mounted directly to the motor. The position loop control may take
its command from the position feedback device-an encoder. Depending on the system, both
devices may be mounted to the actual machine or controlled device.

The stability of the entire system is dependent upon the tuning of the components in the system
and how well those components are matched. Tuning the system involves working with a PID
(proportional integral derivative) control. This type of closed loop control is standard on all
highaccuracy systems. The main factors in this closed loop system are the gain, integration time,
and derivative time of the loop.

The amplifier gain must be set satisfactorily. The gain sets how responsive the amplifier will be
during changes in error signal. A high gain will cause the motor to overshoot the intended speed
target. Too low of a gain may mean that the target is reached late in the cycle, or possibly not at
all.

The integration time allows the amplifier to respond to changes in the error signal, mostly at zero
speed. The zero speed error signal is multiplied by the gain setting, and results in increased
motor responsiveness (stiffness) and accuracy.

The derivative function is the most difficult to accurately adjust. This controls the dampening or
oscillations of the system. This function basically dictates the amount of correction given per unit
of error. The error signal can be corrected immediately (in milliseconds), or throughout a longer
period of time (seconds).

If there is a difficult part to the tuning task, it would be during the derivative setup. The gain and
integration time is interactive. One setting affects the other. Proper setup of the derivative function
involves multiplying the position error by the position error rate (how much correction should take
place per unit of time). If the system components are not matched, oscillations, overshoot, or
undershoot of velocity can result, which means unstable operation.

Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that operate in precise degrees of rotation.
This type of motor quickly responds to positive or negative signals from a servo amplifier. Fast
and accurate speed, torque, and direction control are the mark of a servomotor's characteristics.
Very high starting torque must be obtained from the servomotor. The standard AC induction
motor's torque is measured in pound-feet. By contrast, the servomotor's torque is measured in
inch-pounds.

In today's servo systems, three basic types of servomotors are used: AC, DC, and AC brushless.
As one might expect, the AC design is based on AC induction motor characteristics. The DC
design is based on the design of a DC motor. The brushless DC design is based on that of a
synchronous motor. The basic principles of the DC and brushless DC servomotor have already
been reviewed. We will therefore review the general characteristics of the AC servomotor. Linear
devices will also be reviewed, since most of the position systems operate on linear technology.
BASIC OF SERVOMOTOR CONTROL
This report explains the difference between a servomotor and a stepper motor when connected to
a servo driver. It covers the terms used in controlling the pulse train supplied to servomotors by a
PCL series controller.
- The difference between a stepper motor and a servomotor configuration is given below. The
design and construction of the motors are also different.
- Stepper motor operation is synchronized by command pulse signals output from the PCL or a
pulse generator (strictly speaking it follows the pulses). In contrast, servomotor operation lags
behind the command pulses……….

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEPPER

MOTORS AND SERVOMOTORS

STEPPER MOTOR

ADVANTAGES

(1) Since stepper motor operation is synchronized with the command pulse signals from a pulse
generator such as the PCL, they are suitable for precise control of their rotation.
(2) Lower cost.

DISADVANTAGES
(1) Basically, the current flow from a driver to the motor coil cannot be increased or decreased
during
operation. Therefore, if the motor is loaded with a heavier load than the motor's designed torque
characteristic, it will get out of step with the pulses.
(2) Stepper motors produce more noise and vibration than servomotors.
(3) Stepper motors are not suitable for high-speed rotation.

SERVOMOTOR
ADVANTAGES

(1) If a heavy load is placed on the motor, the driver will increase the current to the motor coil as
it
attempts to rotate the motor. Basically, there is no out-of-step condition. (However, too heavy a
load
may cause an error.)
(2) High-speed operation is possible.
 DISADVANTAGES
(1) Since the servomotor tries to rotate according to the command pulses, but lags behind, it is
not
suitable for precision control of rotation.
(2) Higher cost.
(3) When stopped, the motor’s rotor continues to move back and forth one pulse, so that it is not
suitable if you need to prevent vibration.

Both motors have advantages and disadvantages. The selection of which type to use requires
careful
consideration of the application’s specifications.
Below is a summary of the comparison of stepper motors and servomotors

Stepper motor Servomotor

Drive circuit Simple. The user can fabricate it. Since the design is very complicated, it is
(The customer just purchases a motor, creates not possible to fabricate your own driving
a control circuit and starts the motor rotating.) circuit. (Therefore the motor and driver
are
sold as a set.)
Noise and Significant Very little
vibration
Speed Slow (1000 to 2000 rpm maximum) Faster (3000 to 5000 rpm maximum)
Out-of-step Possible (will not run if too heavy a load is Not possible (will rotate even if a heavier
condition applied)0 load is applied)
Control method Open loop (no encoder) Closed loop (uses an encoder)
Price of motor Cheap (100 to 200 US$ per set) Expensive (more than 400 US$)
and driver (If you produce your own driver, the cost will be
only a few 10 US$)
Resolution 2-phase PM model: 7.5° (48 ppr) Depends on the encoder's resolution.
(single-step 2-phase HB model: 1.8° (200 ppr) or 0.9° (400 Generally speaking, 0.36° (1,000 ppr) to
angle) ppr) 0.036° (10,000 ppr)
5-phase HB model: 0.72° (500 ppr) or 0.36°
(1,000 ppr)

ABOUT SERVO MOTOR

A servo mechanism or servo is an automatic device that uses error sensing feedback to
correct the performance of a mechanism. The term correctly applies only to systems where the
feedback or error correction signals help control mechanical position or other parameters. For
example, an automotive power window control is not a servomechanism, as there is no
automatic feedback which controls position the operator does this by observation. By contrast
the car's cruise control uses closed loop feedback, which classifies it as a servomechanism.
A servomechanism is unique from other control systems because it controls a
parameter by commanding the time based derivative of that parameter. For example a
servomechanism controlling position must be capable of changing the velocity of the system
because the time-based derivative (rate change) of position is velocity. A hydraulic actuator
controlled by a spool valve and a position sensor is a good example because the velocity of
the actuator is proportional to the error signal of the position sensor. A common type of servo
provides position control. Servos are commonly electrical or
partially electronic in nature, using an electric motor as the primary means of creating
mechanical force. Other types of servos use hydraulics, pneumatics, or magnetic principles.
Usually, servos operate on the principle of negative feedback, where the control input is
compared to the actual position of the mechanical system as measured by some sort
of transducer at the output. Any difference between the actual and wanted values (an "error
signal") is amplified and used to drive the system in the direction necessary to reduce or
eliminate the error. An entire science known as control theory has been developed on this type
of system.
Today servomechanisms are used in automatic machine tools, satellite-tracking
antennas, remote control airplanes, automatic navigation systems on boats and planes,
and antiaircraft-gun control systems. Other examples are fly-by-wire systems in aircraft which
use servos to actuate the aircraft's control surfaces, and radio-controlled models which use RC
servos for the same purpose. Many autofocus cameras also use a servomechanism to
accurately move the lens, and thus adjust the focus. A modern hard disk drive has a magnetic
servo system with sub-micrometer positioning accuracy.

SELECTION OF SERVO MOTORS AND DRIVES

The choice of motor and drive as well as mechanical transducer is a very important step in servo
system design, because non-optimal selection leads to poor system performance and increased
installation and maintenance costs. It is still an iterative process with skill in choice dependant on
obtaining correct specifications and safety margins. Fundamental principles and procedures in
selecting proper size motors and amplifiers are explained, and an example illustrating load
analysis and motor/drive selection is included. It also describes methods of selecting other
associated components such as power supplies, transformers etc.

I. LOAD ANALYSIS
In order to select a motor of an appropriate size, speed and torque requirements have to be
known first. Servo motors should have just enough speed, peak torque and rms torque
capabilities, along with optimal gearing arrangement, to meet the load requirement as well as the
cost objective. Equally important is selecting the type and size of the drive and power supply to
meet the system requirements. Unfortunately, there is no simple straight forward procedure in
servo system component selection due to complexity and variety of motor types, power
transmission devices and other peripheral components available in the market. Nevertheless, a
basic principle of analyzing the load and selecting a motor is presented here. It is assumed that
the type of motor (brushed DC, PM synchronous motor, etc.) is already chosen. Refer to
discussions on various motor types and their relative merits and demerits in previous discussion.
To simplify equations, SI metric units are used throughout the article. The load in motion control
systems may be either rotational or linear. The load requirement must be converted to the
equivalent load of the motor shaft in order to calculate the total torque requirement for the motor.
If you have freedom in choosing gearing ratio, one desirable choice would be to convert the
maximum load speed into the maximum motor speed. Since the maximum speed of the motor
can only be known after the final selection, and for most motors available torque at maximum
speed is smaller than the stall torque, an iterative process has to be taken. One may start with
motor data selected from a rough estimation, verify the result, and then repeat the procedure with
another motor. As a rule of thumb, one may start with a gear ratio that converts the maximum
load speed into to half of the maximum motor speed. With this selection, nearly continuous stall
torque is available at the maximum speed and the motor operates reliably at this speed without
requiring frequent maintenance or bearing life. Some other mechanical constraint may govern the
gearing ratio. It is very important that the shaft resonance frequency [1,2] has to be considered
during early part of the design to eliminate unexpected servo performance.
Once your gear ratio is determined, the next step is to determine peak and rms load torque seen
from the motor shaft.

II. SELECTION OF A MOTOR AND DRIVE

Now, on the torque-speed curve of the selected motor, one can map calculated peak and rms
torques can determine if the motor is suitable. If not, one can select a different size motor or the
same motor with different winding for repeated procedure. Since motor performance is affected
by the drive, it is best to work with system torque-speed curve. If system curve is not available,
one may use motor curve to select the motor first, and then select a drive. When selecting a
drive, it should be able to supply enough current and voltage to the motor to meet both peak and
rms torque requirements. As a minimum, drive should supply peak and rms currents desired for
the system calculated by
I = T / Kt, (2.1)
where Kt is the torque constant of the motor. Furthermore, the drive should be able to supply the
voltage of
V = R I + Ke ωm, (2.2)
where Ke is the electrical (back emf) constant of the motor, R is the motor resistance, I is the
required motor peak current obtained from Eq. 2.1, and ωm is the maximum speed of the system.
Due to the variation of the load and possible overcurrent trip, often it is desirable use maximum
motor speed and peak and rms torques of the motor rating instead of calculated requirement of
the system.
Servo motors often require modifications necessary to meet the complex requirements of a
machine.
Standard options for the various models of servo motors include but are not limited to: fail-safe
brakes; environmental sealing; feedback devices including tachometers, resolvers, and encoders;
and connectors. Special options include modifications to the shaft and mounting surfaces, special
windings and fan cooling provisions to mention a few. See specific product literature or contact
manufacturer for availabilities. Operation in ambient environment other than that for which the
motor is rated may require special consideration. Operation in ambient environment less than the
rated temperature will result in a greater continuous torque rating but excessively cold
ambient environment may require a different bearing lubrication. Operation in ambient
environment above the rated temperature results in a derating of the motor continuous torque.
The derating will be a factor of the motor design and its ultimate temperature rating. Some
manufacturers offer gearheads as standard options on many motor models. They provide the
convenience of having motor and gearhead sourced and tested from a single supplier.
Gearmotors offer the following advantages to a servo application :
- The ability to operate the motor over its optimum speed range
- Minimize motor size by multiplying torque
- Minimize reflected inertia for maximum acceleration
- Provide maximum torsional stiffness
When selecting a servo drive, its interface with your controller must be checked. Traditionally,
analog velocity command has been very popular. Recently, other forms of interface are available.
Pulse type interface (either A-B pulse format or Pulse & direction format) is now popular. Some
drives features position control (either programmable or non-programmable) function integrated
into the amplifier. Considerations for type and resolution of the feedback device, I/O and other
product features must be made. Another important consideration in the selection of brushless
motor amplifiers is the decision for analog or digital technology. Analog technology has been a
standard for brush and brushless motor amplifiers. With analog amplifiers a voltage reference
command results in speed or torque, depending on the mode of operation, proportional to the
command. As well, compensation (tuning) of the amplifier is done by analog circuitry
requiring potentiometer/switch and, or compensation "comp" board changes for different system
configurations (mode of operation and motor & load variations). Digital electronics on the other
hand, enhance drive features and minimize set-up concerns. The command reference for digital
drives can be done by either analog or digital inputs. Digital
input options are typically in a pulse format or through an RS 232 or 485 interface. Typically,
better regulation of the system can be obtained by the digital command format. Digital drives also
have the feature of tuning through a digital interface. This greatly benefits the issue of load
compensation relative to inertia, friction and compliant factors which are often difficult and time
consuming to simulate under lab conditions. Another benefit of digital technology is the
diagnostics enhancements it offers. Monitoring of internal functions of the drive such as
following error or current can be easily done. Fault diagnostics are typically more detailed than
those with analog drives and fault histories are maintained through power loss.

III. SELECTION OF OTHER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The power supply in a servo system fundamentally delivers DC power to a servo amplifier. This
is done by the rectification and filtering of AC power delivered from a 1∅ or 3∅ main. Depending
on the specific servo amplifier chosen, the power supply may be internal to the drive, for which no
selection process is required, or external, thus requiring selection decisions. In addition to the
basic power sizing requirement, typical DC supplies for servo amplifiers include shunt
regeneration circuitry, which dissipates regenerative energy from the load when the motor is
decelerated rapidly. The following information gives general guidelines for power supply and
regeneration selection. The power output rating of a power supply must exceed or equal to the
combined average power of all servo drives operating simultaneously. The average power of an
individual servo drive is based on the power calculation of rms torque and speed. Taking into
account motor and drive losses, as a general rule, for permanent magnet servos (DC brush or
brushless), 1 kW of input power is needed for every 750 watts (approximately 1 HP)
of output power. In addition, power supplies often supply the logic power for the servo amplifier.
The voltage ratings and ampacity of this power supply must also be appropriate for the amplifiers
being supplied. Consideration should be made for the motor thermal time constant if the on time
at a peak torque value is for any substantial period. Typical complementary amplifiers, having a 2
times peak current rating for 2 to 8 seconds, do not present a problem even for small motors
having a short thermal time constant. Problems may occur however if an amplifier is "oversized"
for the motor meaning that the drive continuous current is greater than the motor continuous
rating. In these cases, other evaluation methods can be used taking into account this motor
time constant. Regeneration is the process whereby kinetic energy of a motor and load is
converted into electrical energy during deceleration by a four quadrant servo controller.
Regeneration also occurs if motor rotation is opposite to that of the commanded torque as in an
unwind web application. Dissipation of this electrical energy can be done by one of two methods.
These are line regeneration and shunt (resistive) regeneration. Line regeneration is a more
costly approach, which involves the conversion of DC power into AC power, synchronous with the
AC source. (In battery operated systems, regeneration into the battery (recharging) will occur
without the need for additional electronics.) Shunt regeneration is accomplished by the shunting
(short circuiting) of the DC bus through a power resistor. This technique is more common and can
handle higher transient loads than line regeneration. Shunt regeneration is a feature of most low
power servo systems as part of the power supply. For decelerating loads, the amount of
regeneration required is a function of the sum of simultaneously decelerating inertial loads where
multiple amplifiers are being operated from a common supply. The loads need to be defined in
terms of the system inertia (load plus motor inertia), maximum speed, and the deceleration time
from maximum speed. These parameters define the kinetic energy that must be either stored or
dissipated. The power supply has some capacity to store some of this energy, and some energy
will be dissipated in the motor windings and amplifier circuitry. Any remaining energy will need to
be dissipated in an appropriately sized regeneration system. Transformers serve two basic
purposes in a servo system: voltage matching and isolation from the line. Voltage matching is
fundamental and required for many systems where standard AC line voltages like 115, 1∅ and
230 or 208, 3∅ are not appropriate. Line isolation is required for some products or can benefit
other applications by the reduction of PWM noise for sensitive environments.