1-1

Joint Organization and Chapter 1

Staff Functions

• Introduction 1-2

• Background 1-2

• Organization for National Security 1-3

• Military Departments 1-7

• Evolution of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 1-19

• Organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 1-20

• The Joint Staff 1-25

• Joint Boards, Commissions, and Committees 1-25

• Combatant Commands 1-28

• Unified Command Plan 1-30

• Command Relationships 1-31

• Joint Staffs 1-45

• Joint Specialty Officer (JSO) 1-53

• Multinational Commands 1-54

• Joint Professional Military Education (JPME) 1-55

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Joint Organization and Staff Functions

100. INTRODUCTION

References: Title 10 United States Code (as amended)

DOD Directive 5100.1, “Functions of the Department of Defense and
Its Major Components”
DOD Directive 5158.1, “Organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and
Relationships with the Office of the Secretary of Defense”
Organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Action Officer Orientation
Handbook
Joint Admin Pub 1.1, Organization and Functions of the Joint Staff
Joint Pub 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF)
Unified Command Plan (UCP)
Staff Report to the Committee on Armed Services, United States
Senate, October 16, 1985

Numerous governmental organizations are involved in the implementation of U.S.

national security policy. This chapter focuses primarily on the organizations and agencies
responsible for the planning and execution of joint military operations, their organiza-
tional structures, and their command relationships.

101. BACKGROUND

a. Civilian control of the military. Since the founding of the nation, civilian con-
trol of the military has been an absolute and unquestioned principle. The Constitution
incorporates this principle by giving both the President and Congress the power to ensure
civilian supremacy. The Constitution establishes the President as the Commander-in-
Chief, but gives the Congress the power “to declare war”, to “raise and support Armies –
provide and maintain a Navy – (and) to make Rules for the Government and Regulation
of the land and naval Forces.”

b. Joint Organization before 1900. As established by the Constitution, coordina-

tion between the War Department and Navy Department was effected by the President as
the Commander in Chief. Army and naval forces functioned autonomously with the
President as their only common superior. Despite Service autonomy, early American his-
tory reflects the importance of joint operations. Admiral MacDonough’s naval operations
on Lake Champlain were a vital factor in the ground campaigns of the War of 1812; the
joint teamwork displayed by General Grant and Admiral Porter in the Vicksburg

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Campaign of 1863 stands as a fine early example of joint military planning and execution.
However, instances of confusion, poor inter-Service cooperation and lack of coordi-
nated, joint military action had a negative impact on operations in the Cuban campaign of
the Spanish-American War (1898). By the turn of the century, advances in technology
and the growing international involvement of the United States required greater coopera-
tion between the military departments.

c. Joint history through World War I. As a result of the unimpressive joint

military operations in the Spanish-American War, in 1903; the Secretary of War and the
Secretary of the Navy created the Joint Army and Navy Board charged to address “all
matters calling for cooperation of the two Services.” The Joint Army and Navy Board
was to be a continuing body that could plan for joint operations and resolve problems of
common concern to the two Services. Unfortunately, the Joint Board accomplished little,
because it could not direct implementation of concepts or enforce decisions, being limited
to commenting on problems submitted to it by the secretaries of the two military depart-
ments. It was described as “a planning and deliberative body rather than a center of ex-
ecutive authority.” As a result, it had little or no impact on the conduct of joint opera-
tions during the first World War. Even as late as World War I, questions of seniority and
command relationships between the Chief of Staff of the Army and American Expedi-
tionary Forces in Europe were just being resolved.

d. Joint History through World War II. After World War I, the two Service sec-
retaries agreed to reestablish and revitalize the Joint Board. Membership was expanded
to six: the chiefs of the two Services, their deputies, and the Chief of War Plans Division
for the Army and Director of Plans Division for the Navy. More important, a working
staff (named the Joint Planning Committee) made up of members of the plans divisions
of both Service staffs was authorized. The new Joint Board could initiate recommenda-
tions on its own. Unfortunately, the 1919 board was given no more legal authority or re-
sponsibility than its 1903 predecessor; and, although its 1935 publication, Joint Action
Board of the Army and Navy (JAAN), gave some guidance for the unified operations of
World War II, the board itself was not influential in the war. The board was officially
disbanded in 1947.

102. ORGANIZATION FOR NATIONAL SECURITY. Knowledge of relation-

ships between elements of the national security structure is essential to understanding the
role of joint staff organizations. Figure 1-1 illustrates the principal officials and organi-
zations that make and execute national security decisions.

a. National Command Authorities (NCA)

(1) Constitutionally, the ultimate authority and responsibility for the national de-
fense rests with the President.

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Organization for National Security

NSC
NCA

President Vice
President
NSC
Secretary of Secretary Advisers
Defense of State

DA DON DAF

Chairman, JCS Secretary Secretary Secretary

JCS Army Navy Air Force
Vice Chairman,
JCS Joint
Staff CSA CNO CMC CSAF

USA USN USMC USAF

Combatant
Commander
COCOM

Commander Commander Commander ADCON

Joint Task Subunified Component
Force Command Command

Operational Responsibilities Support Responsibilities

z Combatant Command z Operation Planning z Organize z Maintain
z Directive Authority z Strategic Direction z Train z Assign
z Military Advice z Equip z Support

Figure 1-1

(2) The National Command Authorities (NCA) are the President and Secre-
tary of Defense or persons acting lawfully in their stead. The term NCA is used to signify
constitutional authority to direct the Armed Forces in their execution of military action.
Both movement of troops and execution of military action must be directed by the NCA;
by law, no one else in the chain of command has the authority to take such action except
in self-defense.

(3) Since passage of the National Security Act of 1947, the President has used
his Secretary of Defense as his principal assistant in all matters relating to the Depart-
ment of Defense. The Secretary is responsible for the effective, efficient, and economical
operation of the Department of Defense, and he has statutory authority, direction, and
control over the military departments.

b. National Security Council (NSC). The National Security Council was estab-
lished by the National Security Act of 1947 as the principal forum to consider national
security issues that require Presidential decision. Its membership now includes only four

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statutory members: the President, the Vice President, the Secretary of State, and the
Secretary of Defense. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) and the Director
of Central Intelligence serve as statutory advisers to the NSC. The history of the NSC
and its organization are discussed in Chapter 5.

c. Department of Defense (DOD)

(1) The Joint Board of the Army and Navy was the first attempt to use a regu-
larly constituted agency to coordinate the actions of the Army and the Navy. During the
1920s and 1930s, Congress made several fiscally motivated studies intended to reorgan-
ize the military. In June 1924, a joint Congressional committee recommended that a sin-
gle Department of Defense be formed under one cabinet officer; no action was taken on
the report. In 1932 the House considered a bill that would have permitted the President to
establish a Department of National Defense and, as the President saw fit, subject to ap-
proval of Congress, transfer and consolidate functions of executive departments. The es-
tablishment of a single defense department was eventually rejected by the House. During
the reorganization debates, there was strong opposition to a single defense department
among the military. The Joint Board of the Army and Navy stated in May 1933: “The
Joint Board is unable to recommend an organization for a Department of National De-
fense that would be more efficient or more economical than the present separate depart-
mental organizations. In the opinion of the Board, amalgamation of the two Departments
would be a grave error.”

(2) The evolution of a single executive department responsible for national de-
fense was marked by caution, indecision and, from some circles, open hostility. But
World War II and the new demands placed on the U.S. Armed Forces furnished the nec-
essary impetus for unification of the military departments under a single cabinet-level
secretary. World War II demonstrated that modern warfare required combined and inte-
grated operations by land, sea, and air forces. This, in turn, required not only a unity of
operational command of these forces, but also a coordinated process for achieving the
most effective force mixture and structure. Anticipating the needs of a peacetime military
organization, a comprehensive review by Congressional, executive, and military groups
began even before the end of the war. Overwhelmingly, the studies were influenced by
parochial Service interests reflecting the opinions of experienced wartime military and
civilian leaders with vastly different views of the postwar era. Issues that dominated the
search for a consensus included retention of air power in the Navy, maintenance of a
separate Marine Corps, the form and substance of the new military department of the Air
Force, and the need for military unification.

(3) The National Security Act of 1947 was the resultant monumental legisla-
tion that reflected a compromise of diverse currents and pressures. After almost 50 years
that included wartime lessons beginning with the Spanish-American War, a modern mili-
tary organization had come into existence: unified action of the Services was law, the

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powers of the Secretary of National Defense were identified but subject to broad interpre-
tation, and the roles and missions of the military Services were defined by Executive Or-
der, but would not be Congressionally stated until 1958. The act created the National
Military Establishment (NME) under the leadership of a civilian secretary who was co-
equal with the cabinet-level secretaries of the Army, Navy, and the new Air Force.

(4) It was quickly revealed that the new Secretary of Defense had insufficient
authority to execute the responsibilities of the office. In 1949 the National Security Act
was amended to change the name of the NME to Department of Defense and recognize it
as an executive department with the Secretary of Defense responsible for its general di-
rection. The Reorganization Act of 1958 asserted and enhanced the direction, authority,
and control of the Secretary of Defense over the executive department and clarified the
operational chain of command that runs from the President and Secretary of Defense to
the combatant forces. The DOD Reorganization Act of 1986 further strengthened and
clarified the Secretary of Defense’s position in the operational chain of command.

(5) DOD functions today are outlined in DOD Directive 5100.1 and illustrated
in Figure 1-2.

(6) The role of the Secretary of Defense has significantly changed since the po-
sition was established in 1947. Originally, the secretary had only general authority shared
with the civilian secretaries of the military departments. Subsequent legislation incre-
mentally strengthened the Secretary of Defense’s authority. Today the Secretary of De-
fense is the principal assistant to the President for all matters relating to the Department
of Defense. The Department of Defense is composed of the following:

Functions of the
Department of Defense

As prescribed by the National Security Act of 1947, as

amended, the Department of Defense maintains and
employs the Armed Forces to

• support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all
enemies,foreign and domestic;
• ensure, by timely and effective military action, the security of the United
States, its possessions, and areas vital to its interest; and
• uphold and advance the national policies and interests of the United
States.

Reference: DOD Directive 5100.1 Figure 1-2

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Office of the Secretary Department of Defense field activities (7)

Joint Chiefs of Staff Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force
Joint Staff Combatant commands (9)
Defense agencies (14)

Figure 1-3 illustrates the organization that reports to the Secretary of Defense.

103. MILITARY DEPARTMENTS

a. The chain of command for purposes other than the operational direction of com-
batant commands runs from the President to the Secretary of Defense to the secretaries of
the military departments to the chiefs of the Service forces. The military departments
are separately organized, each under civilian secretaries who are responsible for, and have
the authority to conduct all affairs of their respective departments, including the follow-
ing:

• recruiting • organizing
• supplying • equipping
• training • servicing
• mobilizing • demobilizing
• administering • maintaining
• construction, outfitting, and repairing equipment
• construction, maintenance, and repair of -buildings, structures, and utilities
• acquisition of real property

b. Staff development in the individual Military Services. Today, a number of

functions common to all the Services have developed from the National Security Act of
1947 and its amendments, and most recently from the Department of Defense Reorgani-
zation Act of 1986. Figure 1-4 describes these common functions. The following pages
discuss the evolution of military staffs within each of the Services and the specifics re-
lated to their current functions. These functions are, by law, subject to the authority, di-
rection, and control of the Secretary of Defense and the authority of the combatant com-
mander as specified in Chapter 6, Title 10, U.S. Code. The accompanying illustrations
describe some of the major functions of the individual Services as discussed in DOD Di-
rective 5100.1. Additional information is in CM-44-89 “Report on Roles and Functions
of the Armed Forces,” and CM 1584-93 “Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Report on
the Roles, Missions, and Functions of the Armed Forces of the United States,” 10 Febru-
ary 1993.

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DOD Organization (June 2000)

Secretary
of Defense

Chairman of the
Office of the Secretary of Defense Joint Chiefs of Staff
Deputy Secretary of Defense
Under Secretaries Joint Chiefs of Staff
Assistant Secretaries and
Equivalents
Combatant Commands
(9)

Military Departments
Army
Navy
Air Force
Defense Agencies (14)
Defense Security Cooperation Agency
Defense Contract Audit Agency
Defense Logistics Agency
Defense Information Systems Agency
Defense Threat Reduction Agency
Defense Intelligence Agency
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
Defense Legal Services Agency
Ballistic Missile Defense Organization
Defense Commissary Agency
Defense Finance and Accounting Service
Defense Security Service
National Imagery and Mapping Agency*
National Security Agency/Central Security Service*
*Reports directly to Secretary of Defense

DOD Field Activities (7)

TRICARE Management Activity
Washington Headquarters Services
Office of Economic Adjustment
Dept. of Defense Education Activity
Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Persons Office
Department of Defense Human Resources Activity
American Forces Information Service

Figure 1-3

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c. The U.S. Army

(1) Origin. From its birth in 1775 until the early 1800s, young America’s army
staff patterned itself after the British system: control of the small Regular Army was split
between the Commanding General, who was responsible for military discipline and con-
trol of field forces, and the Secretary of War, who guided administration and support with
a staff bureau system. This bureau system divided authority between the Secretary of
War and the Commanding General of the Army and lacked the mechanism to develop
coordinated, long-range plans. Though suited to the efficient administration of a small
peacetime force, the bureau system was incapable of coping with the demands placed on
the twentieth-century Army, a situation that became clear in the Spanish-American War
(1898).

COMMON FUNCTIONS OF THE

MILITARY DEPARTMENTS
SOME OF THE KEY FUNCTIONS OF THE MILITARY DEPARTMENTS, UNDER THEIR
RESPECTIVE SECRETARIES, ARE TO
• prepare forces and establish reserves of manpower, equipment, and supplies for the effective
prosecution of war and military operations short of war and plan for the expansion of peacetime
components to meet the needs of war;
• maintain in readiness mobile reserve forces, properly organized, trained, and equipped for
employment in emergency;
• recruit, organize, train, and equip interoperable forces for assignment to unified and specified
combatant commands;
• prepare and submit budgets for their respective departments;
• develop, garrison, supply, equip, and maintain bases and other installations;
• assist each other in the accomplishment of their respective functions;
• determine force requirements to meet operational requirements of Combatant Commands;
• recommend to the JCS the assignment and deployment of forces to Combatant Commands;
• furnish logistical support for Service forces

Adapted from DOD Directive 5100.1 Figure 1-4

(2) Development in the twentieth century

(a) In 1899, a civilian lawyer, Elihu Root, was appointed Secretary of War.
At the time, he expanded the Army’s missions to include pacification and administration
of the island territories recently acquired from Spain; in addition, he responded to public
criticism of the logistical and operational confusion that had plagued Army performance
in the Spanish-American War. He undertook reform of the Army command and staff sys-
tem patterned on the British system. In 1903 Congress passed legislation creating a mod-
ern U.S. Army General Staff. The War Department General Staff corps of 44 officers,
who were relieved of all other duties, was functionally organized to prepare plans for the
national defense and mobilization of troops. The legislation also replaced the

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Functions of the
Department of the Army

The Army is responsible for the preparation of land forces

necessary for the effective prosecution of war and military
operations short of war, and, in accordance with integrated
joint mobilization plans, for the expansion of the peacetime
components of the Army to meet the needs of war. The
Army, within the Department of the Army, includes land
combat and service forces and any organic aviation and
water transport assigned.

SOME OF THE MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE ARMY ARE TO

• organize, train, and equip forces for the conduct of prompt and sustained combat
operations on land--specifically, forces to defeat enemy land forces and to seize,
occupy, and defend land areas;
• organize, train, equip, and provide forces for appropriate air and missile defense
and space control operations, and for the support and conduct of special
operations;
• develop airborne doctrine, procedures, and equipment that are of common
interest to Army and Marine Corps;
• organize, equip, and provide Army forces for joint amphibious, airborne, and
space operations and train such forces, in accordance with joint doctrines;
• organize, equip, and provide forces for the support and conduct of special
operations;
• organize, equip, and provide forces for the support and conduct of psychological
operations;
• furnish forces for the occupation of territories abroad;
• conduct the authorized civil works program, including projects for improvement of
navigation, flood control, beach erosion control, and other water resource
developments in the United States.

A collateral function of the Army is to train forces to interdict enemy sea and air
power and communications through operations on or from land.

Adapted from DOD Directive 5100.1 Figure 1-5

ranking military position, Commanding General of the Army, with a War Department
Chief of Staff. The Chief of Staff (COS) supervised all Army forces and the staff de-
partments that had been responsible to the Secretary of War. It was not until 1918,
though, that it was clearly resolved that the Chief of Staff was the ranking member of the
Army when General Pershing, then Commander of the American Expeditionary Force,
was made subordinate to the COS. The Root reforms were the beginning that gave the
Army the basis for a unified command and staff system.

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(b) Today the Army Staff is an executive component of the Department of

the Army. It exists to assist the Secretary of the Army in his/her responsibilities, and in-
cludes the following:

• Chief of Staff
• Vice Chief of Staff
• Deputy Chiefs of Staff for Personnel, Intelligence, Operations and Plans,
and Logistics
• Assistant Chiefs of Staff (positions authorized by law, but not used)
Special Staff: Chief of Engineers; Surgeon General; Judge Advocate General; Chief of
Chaplains; Chief of National Guard Bureau; and Chief of Army Reserves

d. The U.S. Navy

(1) Origin. The Department of the Navy was established in 1798. The early
department was entirely in the hands of civilian appointees, while naval officers served at
sea. Growth in size and complexity of Navy business in the first quarter of the 1800s led
to creation of a Board of Naval Commissioners to give professional advice to the civilian
appointees on constructing, repairing, and equipping ships and superintending shipyards.
It was a bilinear arrangement, since employment of forces and discipline of troops was
retained by the Secretary of the Navy. By 1842 the Navy Department had shifted from a
predominantly personnel service, like its Army counterpart, to a predominantly materiel
service deeply involved in complex and expanding technical problems. Five individual
bureaus under the Secretary of the Navy were created for yards and docks; construction,
equipment, and repairs; provisions and clothing; ordnance and hydrography; and medi-
cine and surgery. The creation of additional bureaus specifically for navigation and
equipment and for recruiting (enlisted personnel matters) was the response to weaknesses
of the bureau system that were discovered during the Civil War. When necessary, special
boards were formed to consider specific technical problems, such as strategy, inventions,
and new vessels. By the close of the nineteenth century, the size and complexity of the
Service, as well as the pressing need to ensure adequate preparation for war, became too
much for control by a single manager. This, compounded by the intra-Service as well as
the inter-Service experiences in the Spanish-American War, furnished motivation for
Congressional and administrative change in the early 1900s.

(2) Development in the twentieth century

(a) In 1909 a General Board of the Navy was established to serve as an ad-
visory body to the secretary on matters of personnel, operations, materiel, and inspec-
tions. Legislation in 1915 created the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) that
was charged with the operation of the fleet and preparation and readiness of war plans. In
the 1920s the responsibilities for operation of the fleet were assigned to the newly created

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Functions of the
Department of the Navy

The Department of the Navy is responsible for the preparation

of the Navy and Marine Corps forces necessary for the
effective prosecution of war and military operations short
of war and, under the integrated joint mobilization plans, for
the expansion of the peacetime component of the Navy and
Marine Corps to meet the needs of war. Within the Depart-
ment of the Navy, the Navy includes naval combat and
service forces and such aviation as may be organic.

SOME OF THE MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE NAVY AND MARINE CORPS ARE TO
• organize, train, equip and furnish Navy and Marine Corps forces for the conduct of
prompt and sustained combat incident to operations at sea, including operations of
sea-based aircraft and land-based naval air components--specifically, forces to seek
out and destroy enemy naval forces and to suppress enemy sea commerce, to gain
and maintain general naval supremacy, to establish and maintain local superiority in
an area of naval operations, to seize and defend advanced naval bases, and to con-
duct such land, air, and space operations as may be essential to the prosecution of
a naval campaign;
• organize, equip, and furnish naval forces, including naval close air support and space
forces, for the conduct of joint amphibious operations;
• organize, train, equip, and provide forces for strategic nuclear warfare to support
strategic deterrence;
• organize, train, equip, and provide forces for reconnaissance, antisubmarine warfare,
protection of shipping, aerial refueling and minelaying, and controlled minefield
operations; furnish the afloat forces for strategic sealift;
• furnish air support essential for naval operations;
• organize, train, equip, and provide forces for appropriate air and missile defense and
space control operations, including forces required for the strategic defense of the
United States, under joint doctrines;
• organize, train, equip, and furnish forces to operate sea lines of communication;
• organize, train, equip, and furnish forces for the support and conduct of special
operations; and
• coordinate with the Department of Transportation for the peacetime maintenance of
the Coast
• Some collateral functions of the Navy and Marine Corps are to
• interdict enemy land power, air power, and communications through operations at
sea;
• furnish close air and naval support for land operations;
• prepare to participate in the overall air and space effort; and
• establish military government pending transfer of this responsibility.

Adapted from DOD Directive 5100.1 Figure 1-6

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position of Commander in Chief of the U.S. Fleet. In March 1942 the positions of Com-
mander in Chief of the U.S. Fleet and CNO were consolidated; once again the total direc-
tion and support of the U.S. Navy operating forces were under a single person. By the
1960s the CNO as military chief had complete responsibility for operations as well as
supporting logistics and administration.

(b) Today the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations within the De-
partment of the Navy assists the Secretary of the Navy in executing his or her responsi-
bilities. This office includes the following:

• Chief of Naval Operations

• Vice Chief of Naval Operations
• Assistant Vice Chief of Naval Operations
• Deputy Chiefs of Naval Operations for Manpower and Personnel (N1);
Policy, Strategy, and Plans (N3/5); Logistics (N4); and Resources, Warfare Requirements
and Assessments (N8)
• Directors: Director of Naval Intelligence (N2); Director, Space and
Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (C4I) Requirements
(N6); Director, Training and Doctrine (N7); Chief of Naval Reserve; Surgeon General;
Chief of Chaplains; and Oceanographer of the Navy

e. The U.S. Marine Corps

(1) Origin. The Marine Corps staff had its origin in 1798 in the Act for the Es-
tablishment and Organization of the Marine Corps. For a time the Commandant was a
one-man staff; his chief duty was recruiting Marines for service with the fleet. As the
number of recruits began to increase, however, the Commandant expanded the staff to
include an adjutant to assist with musters and training, a quartermaster to procure sup-
plies, and a paymaster to pay the troops. An administrative staff of three to five officers
carried the Marine Corps through the nineteenth century.

(2) Staff growth in the twentieth century. The emergence of the United
States as a world power after the Spanish-American War greatly expanded Marine Corps
employment. As additional staff officers were assigned to aid the adjutant, quartermaster,
and paymaster, their offices became known as departments. Change first occurred out-
side the staff departments in what came to be called the “Immediate Office of the Com-
mandant.” The initial step was taken in 1902, when an officer was assigned to headquar-
ters as aide-de-camp to the Commandant. He formed the nucleus for staff expansion in
the Office of the Commandant. The position of Chief of Staff was added in 1911 to assist
the Commandant with matters of training, education, equipping the troops, and organiza-
tion, distribution, and assembly at embarkation for expeditionary duty.

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(3) Between World War I and the 1970s, the Marine Corps headquarters staff
evolved into the staff that is seen today. In the early years of the twentieth century, there
was the strong influence of the American Expeditionary Force and the development of the
Army staff. Through World War II, the headquarters staff retained a line planning staff
and functionally organized staff divisions for administrative, technical, supply, and opera-
tions functions. In the 1950s the staff was reorganized along general staff divisions, G-1
through G-4, and several technical staff divisions. The position of Chief of Staff was re-
defined in 1957 to assist the Commandant in his responsibilities to supervise and coordi-
nate the headquarters staff. Even through the early 1970s, there was a composite staff
arrangement with a distinction in line and staff functions. In 1973 headquarters was reor-
ganized along functional lines with four Deputy Chiefs of Staff: Manpower, Installations
and Logistics, Requirements and Programs, and Plans and Operations. These new direc-
torates replaced the general staff sections. Marine Corps field units continued to use a
combination of a functionally organized general and executive staff and a staff of techni-
cal experts.

Functions of the
Marine Corps

Specific responsibilities of the Department of the Navy

toward the Marine Corps include the maintenance of not
less than three combat divisions and three air wings and
such other land combat, aviation, and other services as
may be organic therein.

SOME OF THE MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE MARINE CORPS ARE TO

• organize, train, and equip Fleet Marine Forces of combined arms, together with
supporting air components, for service with the fleet in the seizure or defense of
advanced naval bases and for the conduct of such land operations as may be
essential to the prosecution of a naval campaign;

• furnish security detachments and organizations for service on naval vessels of

the Navy;

• furnish security detachments for protection of naval property at naval stations

and bases;

• perform other duties as the President may direct; and

• develop landing force doctrines, tactics, techniques, and equipment that are of
common interest to the Army and Marine Corps.

Adapted from DOD Directive 5100.1 Figure 1-7

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(4) The Headquarters, Marine Corps, is in the executive part of the Depart-
ment of the Navy. Its functions are to furnish professional assistance to the Secretary of
the Navy, accomplish all military department support duties that deal with the Marine
Corps, coordinate the action of Marine Corps organizations, prepare instructions for the
execution of approved plans, and investigate and report efficiency of the Marine Corps in
support of combatant commands. Its current organization includes the following:

• Commandant of the Marine Corps

• Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps
• Director Marine Corps Staff
• Deputy Commandant for Aviation; Installation and Logistics; Man-
power and Reserve Affairs; Plans, Policies and Operations; Programs and Resources
• Assistant Commandant for Command, Control, Communications,
Computers, and Intelligence (C4I)

f. The U.S. Air Force

(1) Origin. The earliest staff organization in the Air Force reflected the general
staff organization in the Army in the years before World War II. Before 1935 the War
Department General Staff was responsible for planning, coordinating, and controlling the
Air Corps. In 1935 the General Headquarters Air Force was formed and operated under
the Army Chief of Staff and the War Department. By June 1941 the Army Air Forces
had a recognized Office of the Chief of the Air Force. Reorganization throughout the war
years resulted in experiments with a variety of staff organizational arrangements: the
Army-style general staff organization; a double-deputy staff that produced a two-prong
functional general staff identified as operations and administration; and a tridirectorate
staff that recognized personnel and administration, materiel and logistics, and plans and
operations.

(2) Growth since 1947. With the passage of the National Security Act of 1947,
the U.S. Air Force was created as a separate military Service and a coequal partner in the
National Military Establishment. At first, the U.S. Air Force retained the multiple direc-
torate organization used when it was the Army Air Corps. The first Secretary of the Air
Force was sworn in on 18 September 1947. The Secretary, along with the first several
Chiefs of Staff, developed what was to become the foundation of today’s headquarters
staff. The current organization is a multiple directorate staff: the traditional personal and
specialist staff subdivisions plus a coordinating staff of personnel, comptroller, opera-
tions, and materiel.

(3) Since its inception, the U.S. Air Force has been organized along functional
rather than area lines. The Chief of Staff is the military head of the Air Force. The Dep-
uty Chiefs of Staff may speak for the Chief of Staff at any time on any subject within their
functional areas, according to the authority delegated by the Chief of Staff. Each

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Functions of the
Department of the Air Force

The Department of the Air Force is responsible for the preparation

of the air forces necessary for the effective prosecution of war and
military operations short of war and, under integrated joint mobilization
plans, for the expansion of the peacetime component of the Air Force
to meet the needs of war. Within the Department of the Air Force,
the Air Force includes combat and service aviation forces.

SOME OF THE MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE AIR FORCE ARE TO

• organize, train, equip, and provide forces for the conduct of prompt and sustained combat
operations in the air--specifically, forces to defend the United States against air attack, gain
and maintain general air supremacy, defeat enemy air forces, conduct space operations,
control vital air areas, and establish local air superiority;
• organize, train, equip, and provide forces for appropriate air and missile defense and space
control operations, including forces for the strategic defense of the United States, in
accordance with joint doctrines;
• organize, train, equip, and provide forces for strategic air and missile warfare; organize,
equip, and provide forces for joint amphibious, space, and airborne operations;
• organize, train, equip, and provide forces for close air support and air logistic support to the
Army and other forces, including airlift, air support, resupply of airborne operations, aerial
photography, tactical air reconnaissance, and air interdiction of enemy land forces and
communications;
• organize, train, equip, and provide forces for air transport for the Armed Forces;
• develop doctrines, procedures, and equipment for air defense from land areas;
• furnish launch and space support for the Department of Defense;
• organize, train, equip, and furnish land-based tanker forces for the in-flight refueling
support of strategic operations and deployments of aircraft of the Armed Forces and Air
Force tactical operations;
• organize, train, equip, and furnish forces to operate air lines of communications; and
• organize, train, equip, and furnish forces for the support and conduct of special operations.
Collateral functions of the Air Force include
• surface sea surveillance and antisurface ship warfare through air operations,
• antisubmarine warfare and antiair warfare operations to protect sea lines of
communications,
• aerial minelaying operations, and
• air-to-air refueling in support of naval campaigns.

Adapted from DOD Directive 5100.1 Figure 1-8

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deputy in turn presides over a family of directorates, and each directorate is functionally
oriented. In the Air Staff, decisions are made at the lowest level that has access to suffi-
cient information and the requisite delegated authority.

(4) The Air Staff is an executive part of the Department of the Air Force. It
serves to assist the Secretary of the Air Force in carrying out his responsibilities and is
organized as follows:

• Chief of Staff of the Air Force

• Vice Chief of Staff
• Deputy Chiefs of Staff for Personnel; Installations and Logistics; Plans
and Programs; Air and Space Operations; and Director of Headquarters, Communications
and Information
• Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence
• Special Staff: Surgeon General; Judge Advocate General; Chief of
Chaplains; Chief of National Guard Bureau; Chief of Safety; Director of Manpower and
Organization; Chief of Security Police; Director of Programs and Evaluation; Director of
Test and Evaluation; Civil Engineer; Chief of Air Force Reserve; Director of Morale,
Welfare, Recreation and Services; Air Force Historian

g. The U.S. Coast Guard

(1) Origin. The Coast Guard, the nation’s oldest continuing seagoing Service,
was established in 1790 as “a system of cutters” in the Treasury Department. First called
the Revenue Marine and later the Revenue Cutter Service, the Coast Guard was primarily
a law enforcement agency responsible for collecting customs duties from ships entering
U.S. waters, enforcing embargoes, hunting pirates, and enforcing quarantines. However,
by 1797 the strength of the Treasury Department’s cutters had been increased to “defend
the sea coast and repel any hostility to vessels and commerce”; Congressional authoriza-
tion established the role of the Coast Guard in national defense.

(2) Expansion of responsibility. In 1915 the U.S. Lifesaving Service, an or-

ganization of local stations scattered along U.S. coasts, merged with the Revenue Cutter
Service to form the U.S. Coast Guard, and with that was born its traditional image, the
“lifesavers.” During World War I responsibilities were added for port safety and security,
commercial vessel safety, icebreaking, and marine environment protection. Joined in
1939 by the Lighthouse Service, the Service assumed responsibility for establishing and
maintaining aids to navigation. In 1967 the Coast Guard became part of the newly
formed Department of Transportation. A comprehensive review of wartime missions was
performed in 1981 by the Navy and Coast Guard Board. In a 1984 Memorandum of Un-
derstanding between the Secretaries of Navy and Transportation, Coast Guard area com-
manders were assigned as commanders of the newly formed U.S. Maritime Defense

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Functions of the
Coast Guard

The Coast Guard is a military Service and a branch of the

Armed Forces of the United States at all times. It is a Service
in the Department of Transportation except when operating as
part of the Navy on declaration of war or when the President
directs.

SOME OF THE MAJOR PEACETIME FUNCTIONS OF THE COAST GUARD ARE TO

• enforce or assist in enforcement of the law with power to arrest, search, and seize
persons and property suspected of violations of Federal law, including drug interdiction;
• administer laws and enforce regulations for the promotion of safety of life and property
on and under the high seas and waters subject to U.S. jurisdiction;
• coordinate marine environmental protection response;
• enforce port safety and security;
• enforce commercial vessel safety standards and regulations;
• regulate and control ship movement and anchorage;
• acquire, maintain, and repair short-range aids to navigation;
• establish, operate, and maintain radio navigation;
• develop, establish, maintain, and operate polar and U.S. icebreaking facilities;
• organize, equip, and furnish forces for maritime search and rescue;
• engage in oceanographic research; and
• maintain a state of readiness to function as a specialized Service in the Navy.
SOME OF THE MAJOR WARTIME FUNCTIONS OF THE COAST GUARD ARE TO
• continue peacetime missions;
• plan and coordinate U.S. coastal defense for the Fleet Commanders through
assignment as commanders of U.S. Maritime Defense Zone Atlantic and Pacific; and
• perform naval wartime missions of inshore undersea warfare, mine countermeasures,
harbor defense, ocean escort, etc., occurring in the U.S. littoral sea.

Adapted from Figure 1-9

Titles 10 and 14 U.S. Code and
Navy and Coast Guard Board, Review of Coast Guard Wartime Taskings, dated 19 March 1981

Zones (MDZ). These commanders are responsible to the Atlantic and Pacific Fleet com-
manders for planning and coordinating U.S. coastal defense, preparing operation plans,
conducting exercises, and training reserve forces. MDZs will be activated when needed
as a deterrent option to ensure port safety and the initial safety of seaborne deployments.

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(3) Organization. The command and control structure of the Coast Guard is
based on nine autonomous districts and two Maintenance and Logistics Commands
(MLCs) that report to the Atlantic and Pacific area commanders. The Commandant of the
Coast Guard reports directly to the Secretary of Transportation in peacetime. On declara-
tion of war, or when directed by the President, the Coast Guard becomes a Service within
the Navy with the Commandant reporting to the Secretary of the Navy; he or she reports
to the CNO for military functions concerning organization, training, and readiness of op-
erational forces assigned to the Navy.

(4) The Headquarters, U.S. Coast Guard, under the Commandant reports in
peacetime to the Secretary of Transportation. The Commandant is assisted in the direc-
tion of policy, legislation, and administration by a functional organization headed by
Chiefs of Offices:

• Chiefs of Offices: Acquisition; Chief Counsel; Civil Rights; Command,

Control, and Communications; Resource Director/Comptroller; Engineering; Health Ser-
vices; Marine Safety, Security, and Environmental Protection; Navigation; Operations;
Personnel; and Readiness and Reserves

104. EVOLUTION OF THE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF

a. Soon after the Pearl Harbor attack, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister
Churchill met with their military advisers at the Arcadia Conference in Washington to
plan a coordinated effort against the Axis powers. At that time, the two Allied leaders
established the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) as the supreme military body for strate-
gic direction of the Anglo-American war effort. British representation for the new or-
ganization consisted of the Chiefs of Staff Committee composed of the heads of the Brit-
ish armed services who had been giving effective administrative coordination, tactical
coordination, and strategic direction to British forces for almost 20 years. The British
committee served as a “corporate” body for giving military advice to the War Cabinet and
the Prime Minister. The collective responsibility of the British committee was set by the
Prime Minister in 1924 and given to each new member as a directive:

In addition to the functions of the Chiefs of Staff as advisers on ques-

tions of sea, land or air . . . each of the three Chiefs of Staff will have
an individual and collective responsibility for advising on defense pol-
icy as a whole, the three constituting, as it were, a Super-Chief of a
War Staff in Commission.

b. But the United States in 1941 had no established agency to furnish U.S. input to
a Combined Chiefs of Staff committee. Consequently, the U.S. officers whose positions
and duties matched those of the British Chiefs of Staff committee formed the U.S. posi-

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tion of the CCS; that group became known as the Joint U.S. Chiefs of Staff. This first
Joint Chiefs of Staff worked throughout the war without legislative sanction or even for-
mal Presidential definition, a role that President Roosevelt believed preserved the
flexibility required to meet the needs of the war. The initial members of the Joint U.S.
Chiefs of Staff were Admiral William D. Leahy, President Roosevelt’s special military
adviser, with a title of Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy;
General George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff of the Army; Admiral Ernest J. King, Chief of
Naval Operations and Commander in Chief of the U.S. Fleet; and General Henry H.
Arnold, Deputy Army Chief of Staff for Air and Chief of the Army Air Corps.

c. Under President Roosevelt’s leadership, this new U.S. military body steadily
grew in influence and became the primary agent in coordinating and giving strategic di-
rection to the Army and Navy. In combination with the British Chiefs of Staff, it mapped
and executed a broad strategic direction for both nations.

d. At the end of World War II, the continued need for a formal structure of joint
command was apparent; the wartime Joint Chiefs of Staff offered an effective workable
example. The first legislative step was the passage of the National Security Act of 1947,
which formally established the Joint Chiefs of Staff and laid the foundation for the series
of legislative and executive changes that produced today’s defense organization. How-
ever, the road to a unified command organization was difficult and controversial. The
vigorous debate over the 1986 DOD Reorganization Act illustrated that the controversy
was alive even in more modern times. As seen in Figure 1-10, significant legislative
changes and executive decisions have altered and refined the influence and position of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff since 1947.

105. ORGANIZATION OF THE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF

a. Composition and Functions. The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) consist of the
Chairman, the Vice Chairman, the Chief of Staff of the Army, the Chief of Naval Opera-
tions, the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, and the Commandant of the Marine Corps. The
collective body of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is headed by the Chairman (or the Vice
Chairman in the Chairman’s absence), who sets the agenda and presides over JCS meet-
ings. The Joint Chiefs of Staff, assisted by the Joint Staff, constitute the immediate staff
of the Secretary of Defense. Responsibilities as members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff take
precedence over duties as the chiefs of military Services.

b. Executive authority. The executive authority of the Joint Chiefs of Staff has
been changed as different organizational approaches have been implemented.

(1) In World War II, the Joint U.S. Chiefs of Staff were executive agents for
theater and area commanders. The original National Security Act of 1947 saw the Joint

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LEGISLATIVE CHANGES TO THE JCS

LEGISLATION PROVISIONS

• Designated Secretary of National Defense to exercise general

1947 authority, direction, and control
National • Created the National Military Establishment
Security Act • Established U.S. Air Force
• Established CIA and NSC
• Established JCS as permanent agency
• JCS became principal military advisers to President and
Secretary of Defense
• Established a legal basis for unified and specified commands

1948 • Established JCS as executive agents for unified and speci-

Key West fied commands
Agreement • Service roles and missions defined

1949 • Military department Secretaries reduced from cabinet rank and

Amendment removed from NSC
• Renamed NME the Department of Defense
• Created office of Chairman

1952 • Gave Commandant of the Marine Corps (CMC) co-equal

Amendment status on JCS on Marine Corps issues

1953 • Removed JCS from executive agent status, i.e., handling

Plan day-to-day communications and supervision over unified
commands
• Established military departments as executive agents for
unified commands

1958 • Gave Chairman a vote

Amendment • Removed military departments as executive agents
• Joint Staff has no executive authority, but assists the Secre-
tary of Defense in exercising direction over unified commands

1978 • Made CMC a full member of JCS

Amendment

1986 • Designated Chairman principal military adviser

Amendment • Transferred duties of corporate JCS to Chairman
• Created position of Vice Chairman
• Specified chain of command to run from President to Secre-
tary of Defense to unified and specified combatant command-
ers
References: National Security Act of 1947, as amended; Figure 1-10
Reorganization of the National Security Organization,
Report of the CNO Select Panel, dated March 1985

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Chiefs of Staff as planners and advisers, not as commanders of combatant commands.

Nevertheless, the 1948 Key West Agreement confirmed the then-current practice under
which the Joint Chiefs of Staff served as executive agents for unified commands. Presi-
dent Eisenhower ended this practice in his 1953 Reorganization Plan by establishing the
Secretaries of the military departments instead of the Joint Chiefs as his executive agents.

(2) Today, the Joint Chiefs of Staff have no executive authority to command
combatant forces. The issue of executive authority for JCS and Service secretaries was
further addressed in the 1958 Reorganization Act and clearly resolved by the Goldwater-
Nichols DOD Reorganization Act of 1986. Title 10 USC 162 requires the secretaries of
the military departments to assign all forces under their jurisdiction to the combatant
commands or the U.S. Element, NORAD, except those forces assigned to carry out the
statutory functions of a secretary of a military department, or forces assigned to multina-
tional peacekeeping organizations. The chain of command to these combatant commands
runs from the President to the Secretary of Defense directly to the commander of the
combatant command.

c. Military advice. Today, by law, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is the
principal military adviser to the President, National Security Council, and Secretary of
Defense. JCS members may submit to the Chairman advice on an opinion in disagree-
ment with or in addition to the advice presented by the Chairman. However, all JCS
members are also, by law, military advisers, and they may respond with advice or opin-
ions on a particular matter when the President, NSC, or Secretary of Defense requests
such advice.

d. Immediate military staff. DOD Directive 5100.1 assigns the Joint Chiefs of
Staff, supported by the Joint Staff, as the immediate military staff of the Secretary of De-
fense. This designation is not found in “Title 10, United States Code,” but the directive is
a clear statement that the Secretary of Defense will turn to the Joint Chiefs of Staff for
staff support on military matters.

e. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS)

(1) The Goldwater-Nichols DOD Reorganization Act of 1986 identified the

CJCS as the head of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the senior ranking member of the
Armed Forces. By law, CJCS is now the principal military adviser to the President. As
appropriate, the CJCS may seek the advice of and consult with the other JCS members
and combatant commanders. When CJCS presents advice, he presents the advice or opin-
ions of other JCS members and, as he considers appropriate, the range of military advice
and opinions he has received.

(2) The Goldwater-Nichols Act also transferred to CJCS the functions and re-
sponsibilities previously assigned to the corporate body of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The

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broad functions of CJCS are set forth in 10 USC 153 and detailed in DOD Directive
5100.1 and Joint Pub 0-2. They are summarized in Figure 1-11.

(3) CJCS “functions within the chain of command by transmitting commu-

nications to the commanders of the combatant commands from the President and Secre-
tary of Defense.” That position is now clearly stated in DOD Directive 5100.1. CJCS
does not exercise military command over any combatant forces.

Functions of the Chairman

of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
J O I NT
I

The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is the principal military

adviser to the President, Secretary of Defense, and National
Security Council. Subject to the authority, direction, and control H

F
C

F
I E FS OF S T A
of the President and Secretary of Defense, the Chairman is
responsible for the principal functions listed below:

• STRATEGIC DIRECTION
assist the NCA to provide strategic direction of the Armed Forces
• STRATEGIC PLANNING
prepare strategic plans
prepare joint logistic and mobility plans to support those strategic plans
perform net assessments of the capabilities of the U.S. Armed Forces, and its
allies as compared to potential allies
• CONTINGENCY PLANNING
provide for preparation and review of contingency plans
advise on critical deficiencies and strengths in force capabilities
• REQUIREMENTS, PROGRAMS, AND BUDGET
advise on the priorities of requirements
advise on program recommendations and budget proposals
assess military requirements for defense acquisition programs
• DOCTRINE, TRAINING, AND EDUCATION
develop doctrine for joint employment
formulate policies for joint training
formulate policies for coordinating military education and training
• OTHER MATTERS
• exercise exclusive direction of the Joint Staff
• as directed by the President, attend and participate in meetings of the NSC
• advise and assist the NCA on establishing combatant commands
• transmit communications between the NCA and combatant commands
• review plans and programs to determine adequacy and feasibility
• as the Chairman considers appropriate, consult with and seek the advice of
the Joint Chiefs of Staff and combatant commanders
• provide U.S. representation on the Military Staff Committee of the United
Nations

References: DOD Reorganization Act of 1986 Figure 1-11

DOD Directive 5100.1

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f. Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (VCJCS). The DOD Reorganiza-
tion Act of 1986 created the position of Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who
performs such duties as the CJCS may prescribe. By law, VCJCS is the second ranking
member of the armed forces. In the absence or disability of CJCS, the Vice Chairman acts
as, and performs the duties of, the Chairman. Though not originally included as a mem-
ber of the JCS, VJCS was vested by Section 911 of the National Defense Authorization
Act of 1993 as a full voting member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Vice Chairman also
acts as the Chairman of the Joint Requirements Oversight Council, the Vice Chairman of
the Defense Acquisition Board, and a member of the Senior Readiness Oversight Coun-
cil.

g. Military Service chiefs. The military Service chiefs “wear two hats.” As the
chiefs of the military Services, they perform their duties under the authority, direction,
and control of the secretaries of the military departments and are directly responsible to
their Service secretaries. As members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, they offer advice to
the President, Secretary of Defense, and NSC. By custom, the vice chiefs of the Services
are delegated authority to act for their chiefs in most matters having to do with day-to-day
operation of the Services.

h. Operations Deputies and Deputy Operations Deputies of the Joint Chiefs of

Staff. There are subsidiary bodies that are not part of the Joint Staff that assist the Joint
Chiefs of Staff in the execution of their duties.

(1) Each Chief of Service appoints an operations deputy who works with the Di-
rector of the Joint Staff to form the subsidiary body known as the Operations Deputies
of the Joint Chiefs of Staff or the OPSDEPs. The OPSDEPs are generally the three-star
chiefs of operations for the Services: Army Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) for Operations
and Plans; Navy Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (DCNO) for Plans, Policy, and
Operations; Air Force DCS for Plans and Programs; and Marine Corps DCOS for Plans,
Policy, and Operations. They meet in sessions chaired by the Director of the Joint Staff
to consider issues within the cognizance of the Joint Chiefs of Staff or to screen major
issues before they reach the Joint Chiefs of Staff. This arrangement enables the Joint
Chiefs of Staff to devote their time to matters that demand their personal attention.

(2) Similarly, there is a subsidiary body known as the Deputy Operations

Deputies, JCS (DEPOPSDEPs), composed of a chairman, who is the Vice Director of
the Joint Staff, and a two-star flag or general officer appointed by each Service chief. The
DEPOPSDEPs are currently the Service directors of plans: Army Assistant Deputy COS
(ADCOS) for Operations and Plans for Joint Affairs; Navy ADCNO for Plans, Policy,
and Operations; Air Force Director of Plans and Programs; and Marine Corps Director of
Plans. Issues come before the DEPOPSDEPs to be either settled at their level or for-
warded to the OPSDEPs.

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(3) Matters come before these bodies under policies prescribed in Chairman of
the Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction (CJCSI) 5711.01. The Director of the Joint Staff is
authorized to review and approve issues when there is no dispute between the Services,
when the issue does not warrant JCS attention, when the proposed action is in confor-
mance with CJCS policy, or when the issue has not been requested by a member of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff.

106. THE JOINT STAFF

a. The National Security Act of 1947 provided for a Joint Staff not exceeding 100
officers operating under a director appointed by and responsible to the corporate Joint
Chiefs of Staff. Since that act was passed numerous legislative changes have been made
to the size and composition of the staff. The 1986 reorganization act removed the nu-
merical officer limitation on the Joint Staff and placed it, and its director, under the
Chairman. The act also gave the Chairman authority to select or suspend any member of
the Joint Staff.

b. Today, the Joint Staff is under the exclusive direction of CJCS. The Joint Staff
performs duties prescribed by the Chairman and does so under procedures established by
the Chairman. The staff assists CJCS with unified strategic direction of the combatant
forces; unified operation of the combatant commands; and the integration of land, na-
val, and air forces. Subject to the Chairman’s authority, direction, and control, the Joint
Staff assists other members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in carrying out their responsibili-
ties.

c. Joint Admin Pub 1-1, Organization and Functions of the Joint Staff, contains de-
tailed information on the mission and functions of the Joint Staff. The organization of the
Joint Staff is illustrated in Figure 1-12.

107. JOINT BOARDS, COMMISSIONS, AND COMMITTEES

a. Organizations reporting to CJCS. The diversity of offices within the Joint

Staff and other organizations of the Joint Chiefs of Staff illustrates a wide range of func-
tions and responsibilities. Among organizations reporting to CJCS are the CJCS repre-
sentatives to international negotiations, e.g., Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions
(MBFR), Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START), and activities involved with poli-
tico-military affairs and defense in the Western Hemisphere, e.g., U.S. representation to
the United Nations Military Staff Committee, and the Military Committee of NATO.
Other activities include the National Defense University, the Joint Materiel Priorities and
Allocations Board, and the Joint Transportation Board. Figure 1-13 illustrates the or-
ganizations that report to CJCS.

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The Joint Staff

Chairman of the JCS
Vice Chairman of the JCS*

Chairman of the JCS

* Vice Chairman acts Vice Chairman of the JCS
in the absence of the Chief of Staff, Army
Chairman Chief of Naval Operations
Chief of Staff, Air Force
Commandant, Marine Corps

Director, Joint Staff

Operations Deputies

Vice Director, Joint Staff

Deputy Operations Deputies

Inspector DJS Agencies &

General VDJS Reps of CJCS

Directorate
Joint of
Secretariat Management

J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5

Directorate Joint Staff Directorate Directorate Directorate
for Intelligence for for for Strategic
Manpower & Directorate Operations Logistics Plans &
Personnel Policy

J-6 J-7 J-8

Directorate for Directorate for Directorate for
Command, Control, Operational Plans Force Structure,
Communications, & & Force Resources and
Computer Systems Development Assessment

Reference: Joint Admin Pub 1.1, Organization and Functions of the Joint Staff Figure 1-12

b. Organizations reporting to the Secretary of Defense through CJCS. Sev-

eral defense agencies that report to the Secretary of Defense also support CJCS. CJCS
has operational responsibilities for the Defense Information Systems Agency, the Defense
Nuclear Agency, the Defense Logistics Agency, the Defense Intelligence Agency, and the
National Imagery and Mapping Agency; and CJCS gives policy guidance and direction to
other supporting organizations, including the Joint Tactical Command, Control, and
Communications Agency; the Electromagnetic Compatibility Analysis Center; and the
Military Communications-Electronics Board.

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Organizations Reporting to
the Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff

Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff

U.S. Delegation, U.S. Representative CJCS

U.N. Military Staff to the NATO Representatives for
Joint Staff
Committee Military Committee Negotiations (OSCE, CD)

National Joint Materiel Joint U.S. Representative,

Defense Priorities and Transportation Canada-U.S. Regional
University Allocations Board Board Planning Group

Military Adviser for Mapping,

Communications and Charting and
Electronics Board Geodesy

U.S. U.S. Section, Joint U.S. Military U.S. Section

Delegation, Mexican-U.S. Representative, Canada-U.S
Inter-American Defense Permanent Joint Military
Defense Board Commission Board on Defense, Cooperation
Canada-U.S. Committee

Reference: Joint Admin Pub 1.1 Figure 1-13

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108. COMBATANT COMMANDS

a. History

(1) The history of the current combatant command arrangement begins with the
lessons learned in the Cuban campaign of the Spanish-American War. Between 1903 and
1942, the Joint Army and Navy Board sought cooperation between the Army and Navy,
but accomplished little in the way of improving joint command. Decisions on joint mat-
ters in dispute between the Services went to the commander in chief. The President was
the single “commander” who had a view of the entire military theater and authority over
both the Army and Navy on-site commanders. Interestingly, one product of the Joint
Board, an agreement on “mutual cooperation” in joint operations, was in effect at the time
of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The Army and Navy com-
manders at Pearl Harbor were personally committed to the system of military coordina-
tion by mutual cooperation. But cooperation failed. The congressional Report on the
Pearl Harbor Attack concluded that there was a “complete inadequacy of command by
mutual cooperation” and that the conduct of operations was in a “state of joint oblivion.”
Early in World War II, the Joint Chiefs of Staff realized that the complexity of modern
warfare required a unified command structure.

(2) Following the experiences of global warfare, the Services recognized the
importance of unity of military effort achieved through the unified command of U.S.
forces. In 1946 an “Outline Command Plan,” the first version of the Unified Command
Plan was approved by President Truman. Then, quite unlike today, the unified com-
manders reported to their executive agents on the Joint U.S. Chiefs of Staff. The execu-
tive agents have alternately been the military chiefs of Services (World War II and 1948)
and the civilian secretaries of the military departments (1953-1958). Understanding ex-
actly what role Service chiefs had in the operational direction of military forces was fre-
quently confusing.

(3) As discussed earlier, the National Security Act (NSA) of 1947 was the first
definitive legislative statement “to provide for the effective strategic direction of the
armed forces and for their operation under unified control and for their integration into an
efficient team of land, naval, and air forces.” The act went on to say that it was the re-
sponsibility of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to “establish unified commands in strategic areas
when such unified commands are in the interest of national security,” and the President
would establish unified and specified combatant commands to perform military missions.
The military departments would assign forces to the combatant commands; the responsi-
bility for their support and administration would be assigned by the Secretary of Defense
to a military department. Forces not assigned would remain under the authority of the
military department.

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(4) Unified and specified combatant commands were first described in the NSA
of 1947 and the statutory definition of the combatant commands has not changed since
then.

(a) Unified Combatant Command. A military command which has a

broad, continuing mission under a single commander and which is composed of forces
from two or more military departments.

(b) Specified Combatant Command. A military command which has a

broad, continuing mission and which is normally composed of forces from one military
department. There are currently no specified commands but the option to create such a
command still exists.

(c) The term combatant command means a unified or specified command.

The commander of a combatant command is designated commander in chief (CINC).

b. Chain of command. An objective of the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 was to

clarify the command line to the combatant commanders and to preserve civilian control
of the military. The act stated that the operational chain of command runs from the
President to the Secretary of Defense to the combatant commanders. The act also
stated that the President “may direct” that communications between the President or the
Secretary of Defense and combatant commanders be transmitted through CJCS. In the
Unified Command Plan, the President executed this option and directed that communica-
tions between the NCA and the combatant commander will be transmitted through CJCS.
Further, by statute, the Secretary of Defense is permitted wide latitude to assign oversight
responsibilities to CJCS in the Secretary’s control and coordination of the combatant
commanders. This authority has been exercised in DOD Directive 5100.1 and other di-
rectives.

(1) The commanders of combatant commands exercise combatant command

(command authority) (COCOM) of assigned forces and are directly responsible to the
NCA for the performance of assigned missions and the preparedness of their commands.
Combatant commanders prescribe the chain of command within their commands and des-
ignate the appropriate level of command authority to be exercised by subordinate com-
manders.

(2) The military departments operate under the authority, direction, and control
of the Secretary of Defense. This branch of the chain includes all military forces within
the respective Services not specifically assigned to commanders of combatant commands.

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109. UNIFIED COMMAND PLAN

a. The Unified Command Plan (UCP) is the document that sets forth basic guid-
ance to all combatant commanders. The UCP establishes combatant command missions,
responsibilities, and force structure; delineates geographic areas of responsibility for geo-
graphic combatant commanders; and specifies functional responsibilities for functional
combatant commanders. The unified command structure generated by the UCP is flexi-
ble, and changes as required to accommodate evolving U.S. national security needs. Title
10 USC 161 tasks CJCS to conduct a review of the UCP “not less often than every two
years” and submit recommended changes to the President, through the Secretary of De-
fense. Figure 1-14 illustrates the current combatant command structure.

(1) Five combatant commanders have geographic area responsibilities. These

combatant commanders are each assigned an area of responsibility (AOR) by the Unified
Command Plan (UCP) and are responsible for all operations within their designated ar-
eas: U.S. Joint Forces Command, U.S. Central Command, U.S. European Command,
U.S. Pacific Command, and U.S. Southern Command.

Combatant Commands
NCA

PRESIDENT

SECDEF

Communications Chairman of the

Joint Chiefs of Staff

U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Special U.S.

Southern European Joint Forces Operations Transportation
Command Command Command Command Command
SOUTHCOM EUCOM JFCOM SOCOM TRANSCOM

U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S.

Central Pacific Space Strategic
Command Command Command Command
CENTCOM PACOM SPACECOM STRATCOM

Regional Responsibilities Functional Responsibilities

Unified Commands
* Defense Agencies have a functional
relationship with CJCS

Reference: Adapted from Joint Admin Pub 1.1 Figure 1-14

JFSC PUB 1
 1-31

(2) There are four combatant commanders assigned worldwide functional re-
sponsibilities not bounded by geography: U.S. Space Command, U.S. Special Opera-
tions Command, U.S. Strategic Command, and U.S. Transportation Command.

b. Charts of the command organization of the combatant commands and selected

multinational commands are shown on the following pages. The combatant command
charts show major subordinate organizations and, where applicable, indicate formal asso-
ciations with multinational or bi-national commands. All CINC positions are nominative
(i.e., they can be held by an officer from any Service), although most are typically affili-
ated with one or two Services.

110. COMMAND RELATIONSHIPS

a. The effective use of the nation’s armed forces requires a unity of effort in the di-
rection and operation of diverse military resources. It also requires coordination among
government departments and agencies within the executive branch, between the executive
and legislative branches and non-governmental organizations, and among nations in any
alliance or coalition. The President, as advised by the National Security Council, is re-
sponsible for the national strategic unity of effort. The Secretary of Defense, supported
by the combatant commanders, the secretaries of the military departments, the Chiefs of
Staff of the Services and CJCS, are responsible to the President for the national military
unity of effort for creating, supporting, and employing military capabilities.

b. The Goldwater-Nichols Act reinforced the combatant commanders’ accountabil-

ity to the NCA for performing their assigned missions. With this accountability came the
assignment of all authority, direction, and control that Congress considered necessary to
execute the responsibilities of the combatant commanders. The act defined the command
authority of the combatant commander as the authority to

• give authoritative direction to subordinate commands, including all

aspects of military operations, joint training, and logistics;
• prescribe the chain of command within the command;
• organize commands and forces to carry out assigned missions;
• employ forces necessary to carry out assigned missions;
• assign command functions to subordinate commanders;
• coordinate and approve administration, support, and discipline; and
• exercise authority to select subordinate commanders and combatant
command staff.

JFSC PUB 1
1-32

Command Relationships: NCA

U.S. Joint Forces Command NORTH
ATLANTIC
PRESIDENT COUNCIL

SECDEF DEFENSE
PLANNING
COMMITTEE

MILITARY
COMMITTEE
(NATO)
CJCS
(NOMINATIVE)

USJFCOM SACLANT
(UNIFIED COMMAND)

(USA) (USA) (USA) (USN)

JTF Six FORSCOM SOCJFCOM

LANTFLT CINCWESTLANT

(USAF) (USAF)

ACC USFORAZORES

(USMC) (USN)

MARFORLANT ICEDEFOR

(USA)

JTF-CS

Figure 1-15

(1) This authority is termed “combatant command” and, subject to the direction
of the President and the Secretary of Defense, resides only in the combatant commander.
Combatant command (COCOM) is fully defined in Joint Pub 0-2, Unified Action
Armed Forces (UNAAF), which basically says the following:

• COCOM is the command authority over assigned forces vested only in

the commanders of combatant commands by title 10, U.S. Code, Section 164, or as di-
rected by the President in the Unified Command Plan (UCP), and cannot be delegated or
transferred.

JFSC PUB 1
 1-33

Command Relationships:
U.S. Central Command NCA

PRESIDENT

SECDEF

CHAIRMAN OF THE
JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF

(NOMINATIVE)

USCENTCOM
(UNIFIED
COMMAND)

(USA) (USAF) (USN) (USMC) (USA)

ARCENT CENTAF NAVCENT MARFORCENT SOCCENT

Figure 1-16

COCOM is the authority of a combatant commander to perform those

•
functions of command over assigned forces involving organizing and employing com-
mands and forces, assigning tasks, designating objectives, and giving authoritative direc-
tion over all aspects of military operations, joint training (or in the case of USSOCOM,
training of assigned forces), and logistics necessary to accomplish the missions assigned
to the command.

• COCOM should be exercised through the commanders of subordinate or-

ganizations. Normally, this authority is exercised through component commanders.

• COCOM provides full authority to organize and employ commands and

forces as the combatant commander considers necessary to accomplish assigned missions.

JFSC PUB 1
1-34

Command Relationships: NORTH

U.S. European Command NCA
ATLANTIC
COUNCIL
PRESIDENT
DEFENSE
SECDEF PLANNING
COMMITTEE

MILITARY
CHAIRMAN COMMITTEE
(NATO)
OF THE
JOINT CHIEFS
OF STAFF
(NOMINATIVE)

USEUCOM ACE
(UNIFIED COMMAND) (ALLIED COMMAND)
(NOMINATIVE)

(USN)
DCINCEUR
USNAVEUR AFSOUTH

(USA)

USAREUR JSRC-C*

SOCEUR (USAF)

USAFE AIRNORTH

(USMC) (USA) *Joint Sub-Regional Command-Centre

MARFOREUR Rotates Command with Germany

SOCEUR

Figure 1-17

(2) COCOM includes directive authority for logistics, which supports the
combatant commander’s responsibility to effectively execute operational plans, main-
tain effectiveness and economy of operation, and prevent or eliminate unnecessary
duplication of facilities and overlapping functions among Service component com-
mands. COCOM gives the supported or supporting CINC the statutory authority, whether
over assigned forces or forces designated by the Secretary of Defense, to direct all aspects
of logistics necessary to accomplish a mission. Normally this authority is exercised
through subordinate joint force commanders and Service component commanders.

• Unless otherwise directed by the Secretary of Defense, and subject to the

authority of the combatant commander, military departments are still responsible for lo-
gistics and administrative support of forces assigned or attached to the combatant com-
mands.

JFSC PUB 1
 1-35

Command Relationships:
U.S. Pacific Command NCA
ROK PRESIDENT
PRESIDENT

SECDEF
ROK/U.S. ROK MINISTER
MILITARY OF NATIONAL
COMMITTEE DEFENSE

CHAIRMAN OF
THE JOINT CHIEFS
OF STAFF
(NOMINATIVE)

USPACOM
(UNIFIED
COMMAND)

(USA)

ARPAC
(USA)

USFK UNC CFC

(USAF) (USAF)
(UNIFIED COMMAND) (COMBINED COMMAND) (COMBINED COMMAND)
PACFLT USFJ

(USAF) (USAF)

PACAF ALCOM

(USMC) (USCG)

MARFORPAC JIATF West

(USA/USAF)

SOCPAC

Figure 1-18

• Under peacetime conditions, the scope of the logistic and administrative

authority exercised by a CINC will be consistent with the peacetime limitations imposed
by legislation, DOD policy and regulations, budgetary considerations, and local condi-
tions. Disputes are referred to the military department for consideration; failure to receive
timely resolution there allows the CINC to forward the matter through CJCS to the Secre-
tary of Defense for resolution.

• During crisis action, wartime conditions or where critical situations

make diversion of the normal logistic process necessary, the logistic and administrative
authority of CINCs enable them to use of all facilities and supplies of all forces under
their command as necessary for accomplishing their missions. Joint logistics doctrine
and policy developed by CJCS establishes wartime logistics support guidance to assist
CINCs in conducting operations.

JFSC PUB 1
1-36

Command Relationships:
U.S. Southern Command NCA

PRESIDENT

SECDEF

CHAIRMAN OF THE
JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF

(NOMINATIVE)
USSOUTHCOM
(UNIFIED
COMMAND)

(USA) (USAF) (USN) (USMC) (USA)

ARSO SOUTHAF NAVSO MARFORSOUTH SOCSOUTH

(NOMINATIVE) (USA) (USA)

JIATF EAST JTF BRAVO JSS ROC

Figure 1-19

• The CINCs have approval authority over Service logistics programs that
will have significant effects on operational capability or sustainability. Disputes in this
area may be settled by the Secretary of Defense through CJCS.

c. Operational control (OPCON) is a level of command authority used frequently

in the execution of joint military operations. OPCON is defined in UNAAF as follows:

• OPCON is the command authority which may be exercised by command-

ers at any echelon at or below the level of combatant command and can be delegated or
transferred.

• OPCON is inherent in COCOM and is the authority to perform those

functions of command over subordinate forces involving organizing and employing
commands and forces, assigning tasks, designating objectives, and giving authoritative
direction necessary to accomplish the mission.

JFSC PUB 1
 1-37

Command Relationships:
U.S. Space Command
NCA
CANADIAN PERM JT BD
ON DEFENSE PRESIDENT
GOVT

SECDEF

DEFENSE
MINISTER

CHIEF OF DEF MIL. COOP

CJCS
STAFF COMMITTEE

(NOMINATIVE)
NOTE 1
DOD MGR MANNED
CINCNORAD USCINCSPACE
SPACE FLIGHT
(BI-LATERAL COMMAND) (UNIFIED COMMAND)
SUPPORT OPNS

(USAF) (USAF) (USA) (USN) (USAF)

CANADIAN ALASKAN CONUS ARMY NAVAL

SPACEAF
NORAD NORAD NORAD SPACE SPACE
(14 AF)
REGION REGION REGION COMMAND COMMAND

COMMANDER
COMMANDER COMMANDER
1st CAN Note 1: CINCSPACE also serves as commander:
11th AF 1st AF
Air Div - US ELEMENT NORAD
- Air Force Space Command (AFSPC-USAF-MAJCOM)
- and is normally designated CINCNORAD.

Figure 1-20

• OPCON includes authoritative direction over all aspects of military op-

erations and joint training necessary to accomplish missions assigned to the command. It
should be exercised through the commanders of subordinate organizations; normally, this
authority is exercised through subordinate joint force commanders and Service and/or
functional component commanders.

• OPCON does not, in and of itself, include authoritative direction for lo-
gistics or matters of administration, discipline, internal organization, or unit training.
These elements of COCOM must be specifically delegated by the combatant commander.
OPCON does include the authority to delineate functional responsibilities and geo-
graphic joint operations areas of subordinate joint force commanders.

d. Tactical control (TACON) is the command authority over assigned or attached

forces or commands, or military capability or forces made available for tasking, that is
limited to the detailed and usually local direction and control of movements or maneuvers
necessary to accomplish assigned missions or tasks. TACON may be delegated to and
exercised by commanders at any echelon at or below the level of combatant command.
TACON is inherent in OPCON.

JFSC PUB 1
1-38

Command Relationships:
U.S. Special Operations Command
NCA

PRESIDENT

SECDEF

CHAIRMAN OF THE
JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF

(NOMINATIVE)

USSOCOM
(UNIFIED
COMMAND)

(USAF) (USA) (USA) (USN)

JSOC
AFSOC ASOC (JOINT TASK NAVSPECWARCOM
FORCE)

Figure 1-21

e. Support is a command authority. A support relationship is established by a su-

perior commander between subordinate commands when one organization should aid,
protect, complement, or sustain another force. Support may be exercised by commanders
at any echelon at or below the level of combatant command. This includes the NCA des-
ignating a support relationship between combatant commanders as well as within a com-
batant command. The designation of supporting relationships is important as it conveys
priorities to commanders and staffs who are planning or executing joint operations. The
support command relationship is, by design, a somewhat vague but very flexible ar-
rangement. The establishing authority (the common superior commander) is responsible
for ensuring that both the supported and supporting commander understand the degree of
authority the supported commander is granted.

f. Other authorities. Other authorities outside the command relations delineated

above are described below.

JFSC PUB 1
 1-39

Command Relationships:
U.S. Strategic Command NCA
PRESIDENT
NCA
SCDEF

CHAIRMAN OF THE
JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF
(USAF/USN)

USSTRATCOM
(UNIFIED
COMMAND)

(USAF) (USAF) (USN) (USN) (USAF)

SPACEAF ACC LANTFLT PACFLT AMC

OPCON OPCON OPCON OPCON OPCON

20th 8th 12th SUBLANT SUBPAC STRATWING 15th

AIR FORCE AIR FORCE AIR FORCE ONE AIR FORCE
(ICBMs) (BOMBERs) (BATTLE MGMT) (SSBNs) (SSBNs) (TACAMO) (TANKERS)

Figure 1-22

(1) Administrative control (ADCON) is the direction or exercise of authority

over subordinate or other organizations in respect to administration and support, includ-
ing organization of Service forces, control of resources and equipment, personnel man-
agement, unit logistics, individual and unit training, readiness, mobilization, demobiliza
tion, and discipline and other matters not included in the operational missions of the sub-
ordinate or other organizations. ADCON is synonymous with administration and support
responsibilities identified in Title 10 USC. This is the authority necessary to fulfill
military department statutory responsibilities for administration and support.
ADCON may be delegated to and exercised by commanders of Service forces assigned to
a combatant commander at any echelon at or below the level of Service component com-
mand. ADCON is subject to the command authority of combatant commanders.

(2) Coordinating Authority. Coordinating authority may be exercised by

commanders or individuals at any echelon at or below the level of combatant command.
Coordinating authority is the authority delegated to a commander or individual for coor-
dinating specific functions and activities involving forces of two or more military de-
partments or two or more forces of the same Service. The commander or individual has
the authority to require consultation between the agencies involved but does not have the

JFSC PUB 1
1-40

Command Relationships:
U.S. Transportation Command
NCA
PRESIDENT

SECDEF

CHAIRMAN OF THE
JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF

(NOMINATIVE)

USTRANSCOM
(UNIFIED
COMMAND)

(USA) (USN) (USAF)

MTMC MSC AMC

Figure 1-23

authority to compel agreement. The common task to be coordinated will be specified in

the establishing directive without disturbing the normal organizational relationships in
other matters. Coordinating authority is a consultation relationship between commanders,
not an authority by which command may be exercised. It is more applicable to planning
and similar activities than to operations. Coordinating authority is not in any way tied to
force assignment. Assignment of coordinating authority is based on the missions and ca-
pabilities of the commands or organizations involved.

(3) Direct Liaison Authorized. DIRLAUTH is authority granted by a com-

mander (any level) to a subordinate to directly consult or coordinate an action with a
command or agency within or outside of the granting command. DIRLAUTH is more
applicable to planning than operations and always carries with it the requirement of keep-
ing the commander granting DIRLAUTH informed. DIRLAUTH is a coordination rela-
tionship, not an authority through which command may be exercised.

JFSC PUB 1
 1-41

Command Relationships:
NATO

Military Committee (MC)

International Military
Staff (IMS)

(US) (US)
Canada-US
Supreme Allied Regional Supreme Allied
Commander Atlantic Planning Group Commander Europe
(SACLANT) (CUSRPG) (SACEUR)

(US) (US) (POR) (GE/UK) (US)

Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief

West Atlantic East Atlantic South Atlantic Allied Forces Allied Forces
(WESTLANT) (EASTLANT) (SOUTHLANT) North Europe South Europe
(CINCNORTH) (CINCSOUTH)

(US) (US)

Commander Commander
Submarines Allied Striking Fleet Allied Air Forces North Allied Air Forces SOUTH
Command Atlantic Atlantic (COMAIRNORTH) (US) (COMAIRSOUTH) (US)
(SUBACLANT) (STRIKFLTLANT)
Allied Naval Forces North Allied Naval Forces SOUTH
(COMNAVNORTH) (UK) (COMNAVSOUTH) (IT)

Joint Command Centre Joint Command SOUTH

(COMJCCENT) (GE/US) (COMJCSOUTH) (IT)

Joint Command Northeast Joint Command SOUTHCENTRE

(COMJCNORTHEAST) (DA) (COMJCSOUTHCENT) (GR)

Joint Command North Joint Command SOUTHEAST

(COMJCNORTH) (NO) (COMJCSOUTHEAST) (TU)
Joint Command SOUTHWEST
(COMJCSOUTHWEST) (SP)

Figure 1-24

g. Role of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The role of CJCS in the
chain of command of the combatant commands is threefold.

(1) As stated, communications between the NCA and the combatant com-
manders pass through CJCS. With this communications responsibility come the myriad
duties associated with assisting and advising the President and Secretary of Defense in the
direction and control of the combatant commands.

(2) Oversight of the activities of combatant commands in matters dealing with

the statutory responsibility of the Secretary of Defense falls to CJCS. This includes rec-
ommending changes in assignment of functions, roles, and missions to achieve maximum
effectiveness of the armed forces.

JFSC PUB 1
1-42

Command Relationships:
United Nations Command (UNC)
and
ROK-US Combined Forces Command (CFC)

US (NOTE 1)
CINC CINC
United ROK-US
Nations Combined Forces
Command Command
(CC) (CFCC)

UNC CFC
US ROK
UNC Deputy Deputy
Liaison CINC CINC
Group (DC) (CFDC)
(LG)
Australia
Canada
France ROK US US ROK
New Zealand Ground Air Naval Combined
Philippines Component Component Component Marine Forces
Thailand Command Command Command Command
United Kingdom (GCC) (ACC) (NCC) (CMFC)
United States

CFC
Staff
UNC
Headquarters Military
UNC
UNC (Rear) Armistice
Staff
Japan Commission
(UNCMAC-SM)

ROK UNCMAC Command

Advisory Advisory
Group Group Coordination

UNCMAC UNC
UNCMAC
Special Security
Secretariat
Advisor Battalion

NOTE 1: Also commands USFK (See Figure 1-18)

Figure 1-25

(3) CJCS is the spokesman for the combatant commanders, including com-
ments on the summary and analysis of requirements, programs, and budget.

h. Assignment and Transfer of Forces. Title 10 USC 162 requires the secretaries
of the military departments to assign all forces under their jurisdiction to the combatant
commands or U.S. Element NORAD except (unless otherwise directed by the Secretary
of Defense) those forces required to conduct service functions as noted in 10 USC 162.

JFSC PUB 1
 1-43

Command Relationships:
NORAD CANADIAN
PERM . JT.
BD. ON DEFENCE
DEFENSE MINISTER
GOVT.
NCA

CANADIAN PERM . JT.

GOVT.
BD. ON PRESIDENT
DEFENSE

DEFENCE SECDEF
MINISTER

CHIEF OF DEF. MIL. COOP.

CJCS (COMM)
STAFF COMMITTEE

(NOMINATIVE)

CINCNORAD
(NOTE 1)

CANADIAN ALASKAN CONUS

NORAD NORAD NORAD
REGION REGION REGION
COMMANDER
COMMANDER COMMANDER
CANADIAN
11 AF 1 AF
FIGHTER GP

NOTE 1: CINCNORAD is also USCINCSPACE.

NOTE 2: J-1, J-2, J-4 and J-6 staff directorates are
shared between NORAD and
USSPACECOM. Each command has its own
J-3 and J-5.

CINC

DCINC NORAD

NORAD

J-1 J-4
MANPOWER & LOGISTICS
J-5 PERSONNEL
PLANS
J-2 J-6
INTELLIGENCE COMMAND AND
J-3 CONTROL
OPERATIONS SYSTEMS

NORAD - USSPACECOM SHARED STAFF

(NOTE 2)

NORAD COMBINED STAFF ORGANIZATION

Figure 1-26

JFSC PUB 1
1-44

The assignment of forces is accomplished by the Secretary of Defense “Forces for Uni-
fied Commands” memorandum. Forces assigned or attached to a combatant command
may be transferred from that command only as directed by the Secretary of Defense and
under procedures prescribed by the Secretary of Defense and approved by the President.
Establishing authorities for subordinate unified commands and joint task forces may di-
rect the assignment or attachment of their forces to those subordinate commands as ap-
propriate.

(1) Forces, not command relationships, are transferred between commands.

When forces are transferred, the command relationship the gaining commander will exer-
cise (and the losing commander will relinquish) over those forces must be specified.

(2) The combatant commander exercises combatant command (command au-

thority) (COCOM) over forces assigned or reassigned by the NCA. Subordinate joint
force commanders (JFCs) will exercise OPCON over assigned or reassigned forces.
Forces are assigned or reassigned when the transfer of forces will be permanent or for an
unknown period of time, or when the broadest level of command and control is required
or desired. OPCON of assigned forces is inherent in COCOM and may be delegated
within the combatant command by the CINC or between combatant commands by the
Secretary of Defense.

(3) The combatant commander normally exercises OPCON over forces attached
by the NCA. Forces are attached when the transfer of forces will be temporary. Estab-
lishing authorities for subordinate unified commands and joint task forces will normally
direct the delegation of OPCON over forces attached to those subordinate commands.

(4) In accordance with the “Forces for Unified Commands” document and the
Unified Command Plan, all forces operating within the geographic areas assigned to a
combatant command will be assigned or attached to and under the command of the com-
mander of that command, except as otherwise directed by the President or the Secretary
of Defense. Forces directed by the President or the Secretary of Defense may conduct op-
erations from or within any geographic areas as required for accomplishing assigned
tasks, as mutually agreed by the commanders concerned or as directed by the President or
Secretary of Defense. Transient forces do not come under the chain of command of the
area commander solely by their movement across area of responsibility (AOR)/joint op-
erations area (JOA) boundaries.

i. Combatant command structure. Combatant commands can adopt six doc-

trinal organization options to organize subordinate forces: (1) subordinate unified com-
mand, (2) joint task force, (3) functional component, (4) service component, (5) single
service component, or (6) specific operational forces that must, because of the situation,
remain immediately responsive to the CINC. These options are not meant to be restric-
tive and do not in any way limit the CINCs’ authority to organize their forces as they see

JFSC PUB 1
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fit. Figures 1-27 and 1-28 summarize the basic organizational differences found in
UNAAF between combatant commands and their subordinates.

111. JOINT STAFFs

Reference: Joint Pub 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF)

a. Introduction. Joint force commanders are furnished staffs to assist them in the
decisionmaking and execution process. The joint staff is an extension of the JFC; its sole
function is command support, and its only authority is that which is delegated to it by
the commander.

b. Definition. A joint staff is defined in Joint Pub 1-02 as the staff of a com-
mander of a unified or specified command, subordinate unified command, joint task
force, or subordinate functional component (when a functional component command will
employ forces from more than one military department), which includes members from
the several Services comprising the force. These members should be assigned in such a
manner as to ensure that the commander understands the tactics, techniques, capabilities,
needs, and limitations of the component parts of the force. Positions on the staff should
be divided so that Service representation and influence generally reflect the Service com-
position of the force.

c. Principles. Joint Pub 0-2 outlines the principles and basic doctrine that govern
the organization, activities, and performance of a joint force staff.

(1) A joint force commander (JFC) is authorized to organize the staff as deemed
necessary to ensure unity of effort and accomplishment of assigned missions.

(2) Members of the joint staff are responsible to the joint force commander.

(3) The joint force commander should ensure that the recommendations of any
member of the staff receive consideration.

(4) Authority to act in the name of the commander must be specifically pre-
scribed by the commander.

(5) Orders and directives to subordinate units are issued in the name of the
commander and, generally, to the next subordinate command, rather than directly to ele-
ments of that subordinate command.

JFSC PUB 1
1-46

SUMMARY OF JOINT ORGANIZATIONS

Unified Subordinate
Combatant Command Unified Command

Establishing President through the Secretary of Defense with ad- Unified commander, when
Authority vice & assistance of CJCS authorized by CJCS

Any combination of the following, with significant • Conduct operations on a con-

Mission forces of two or more military departments involved: tinuing basis per criteria of a
Criteria • A large-scale operation requiring positive control of unified command
tactical execution by a large and complex force
• A large geographic or functional area requiring single
responsibility for effective coordination of the opera-
tions therein
• Common utilization of limited logistic means
• Plan and conduct military operations in response to • Responsibilities similar to the
crises, including the security of the command and unified commander’s
protection of the United States, its possessions and
Commander’s bases against attack or hostile incursion
Responsibilities • Maintain the preparedness of the command to carry
out missions assigned to the command
• Carry out assigned missions, tasks, responsibilities
• Assign tasks to, and direct coordination among, the
subordinate commands to ensure unity of effort in
the accomplishment of the assigned missions
• Communicate directly with the Chiefs of the Ser-
vices, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the
Secretary of Defense, and subordinate elements
• Keep the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
promptly advised of significant events and incidents
that occur in the functional or geographic area of re-
sponsibility, particularly incidents that could create
national or international repercussions

Forces • Significant forces of two or more military depart- • Significant assigned or at-
ments tached forces of two or more
Services

Combatant command (command authority), i.e., • Similar to unified command

• Authoritative direction for logistics/joint training within the assigned area of re-
Authority • Prescribe chain of command; select commanders & sponsibility, except authorized
of the staff only operational control
Commander • Organize commands/forces; employ forces
• Assign command functions
• Coordinate/approve admin & support
• In the event of a major emergency in the AOR
requiring the use of all available forces, may assume
temporary OPCON of all forces in the assigned AOR
• In an unusual situation, may exercise COCOM di-
rectly of subordinate elements

• Combatant command (command authority) through Exercises Operational Control

components, subordinate unified commands, joint through
Notes task forces, attaching elements of one force to an- - components
other, and directly to specific operational forces - joint task forces
• Commander’s staff: key staff positions represented - attaching elements of
by Services assigned, balanced by composition of one force to another
forces & character of operations - directly to specific
operational forces

Reference: Joint Pub 0-2, UNAAF Figure 1-27

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SUMMARY OF JOINT ORGANIZATIONS (cont’d.)

Combatant
Commander’s Service Functional
Component Command Joint Task Force
Component Command

Establishing Combatant commander, and • Secretary of Defense

Authority commanders of subunified • Combatant commander
commands and JTFs • Subordinate unified com-
mand
• Existing JTF

• Specific limited objective

Mission • Does not require central-
Criteria ized control of logistics
• Requires close integration
of effort
• Requires coordination of
local defense of subordi-
nate area

• Recommend proper employ- • Recommend proper em- • Recommend proper em-

ment of forces ployment of forces ployment of assigned
• Accomplish operational mis- • Accomplish assigned op- forces
Commander’s sions erational missions • Accomplish assigned
Responsibilities • Select units for assignment to • Conduct joint training operational missions
subordinate forces • Jointly train assigned
• Conduct joint training forces
• Inform CINC of proposed
changes in logistics support
• Under crisis action or war-
time, implement CINC’s logis-
tics directives
• Develop program and budget
requests that comply with
CINC’s guidance
• Inform CINC of program and
budget decisions that affect
planning
• General functions: internal
administration and discipline,
training, logistics functions,
intelligence
• Furnish force data to support
assigned missions

• All Service forces, such as • Normally, but not necessar- • Assigned forces of two or
Forces individuals, units, detach- ily, forces of two or more more military departments
ments, organization, and in- military departments on a significant scale
stallations under the com- • Assigned by establishing
mand assigned to the unified authority
command

• Internal administration and • As determined by the des- • Exercises OPCON over

Authority discipline ignating commander assigned & normally over
of the • Training of Service forces attached forces
Commander • Logistics, except as other-
wise directed by the CINC
• Service intelligence matters

• Commander is senior officer • Performs operational mis- • JTF is dissolved when

Notes of Service assigned to a sions of long or short dura- purpose has been
combatant command and tion achieved
qualified for command • Commander designated by • Commander may be a
establishing authority may component commander
be Service component selected with concurrence
commander with concur- of CINC
rence of JFC

Reference: Joint Pub 0-2, UNAAF Figure 1-28

JFSC PUB 1
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(6) Authorization is generally given to communicate directly between appropri-

ate staff officers of other commands to expedite execution of orders and directives and to
promote teamwork between commands.

(7) Each staff division must coordinate its action and planning with the other
staff divisions.

(8) The staff channel is the term used to describe the channel by which com-
manders interact with staffs. It also describes the channel by which staff officers contact
their counterparts at higher, adjacent, and subordinate headquarters. These staff-to-staff
contacts are for coordination and cooperation only.

d. Staffing. The establishing authority of a joint organization provides for the fur-
nishing of necessary staff personnel. As on any staff, the number of people should be
kept to the minimum and matched to the assigned task. Staff members should be detailed
for sufficiently long periods to gain and use the required experience. The officers on the
joint staff must be competent to advise the commander in areas concerning their respec-
tive Services.

e. Organization. Figure 1-29 illustrates the broad functional subdivisions of a

typical joint staff organization that are outlined in Joint Pub 0-2. The commander’s staff
is broadly categorized into personal staff, special staff, and general or joint staff divisions.

(1) The chief of staff (COS) is the principal staff officer, assistant, and ad-
viser to the JFC. The COS coordinates and directs the work of the staff divisions. For
internal administrative matters, the COS may be assisted by a secretary of the joint staff.
In addition, some staffs have deputy chiefs of staff to assist the COS.

(2) The personal staff group is directly responsible to the commander. It in-
cludes any assistants needed to handle matters requiring close personal control by the
commander. The commander’s aide or aide-de-camp, legal advisor, public affairs ad-
viser, inspector general, and political adviser are generally on the commander’s personal
staff.

(3) The special staff group assists the commander and the joint staff with tech-
nical, administrative, or tactical matters, e.g., comptroller, facility engineering, medical,
weather, quartermaster, and transportation affairs. The special staff is usually small, with
experts found on the component command staffs or within the joint staff divisions.

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A Joint Staff Organization

Commander
Deputy Commander

Personal
Staff Aide Political Public Legal Inspector Command Office of the
Adviser Affairs Advisor General Representative Chaplain

Chief of Staff
Principal
Staff Officer Deputy Chief of Staff

Secretary, Joint Staff

Special Medical/
Comptroller Engineer Transportation
Staff Cmd Surgeon

J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4

Personnel Intelligence Operations Logistics
Directorate Directorate Directorate Directorate

J-5 J-6
Joint Staff Plans & Policy Command, Control,
Directorate Communications, &
Computer Systems
Directorate

Figure 1-29

(4) The principal functional divisions or directorates of the JFC’s staff are
known as the joint staff group. The function of the joint staff is to execute the responsi-
bilities of the commander, e.g., developing policy, preparing and coordinating plans, and
overseeing all functions assigned to the commander. Depending on the staff, the staff
subdivision may be headed by an assistant chief of staff or director. Joint force com-
manders have the authority and latitude to establish the staff organization required to ful-
fill the command’s responsibilities.

• Manpower and personnel division (J-1). This division manages per-

sonnel and administration, develops personnel policies, administers military and civilian
personnel within the command, and administers prisoners of war.

• Intelligence division (J-2). The J-2 division’s function is to ensure the

availability of reliable intelligence and timely indications and warnings on the character-
istics of the area of operations and the location, activities, and capabilities of the enemy.

JFSC PUB 1
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J-2 emphasis is on the enemy. Activities may include HUMINT and counterintelligence,
target identification and selection, and electronic intelligence gathering and analysis.

• Operations division (J-3). The operations division assists the JFC in

the direction and control of operations. Its work begins with the initial planning and ex-
tends through the integration and coordination of joint operations.

• Logistics division (J-4). The division develops logistics plans and coor-
dinates and supervises supply, maintenance, repair, evacuation, transportation, construc-
tion, and related logistics activities. Responsibilities may include weapons surety, civil
engineering support, transportation management, etc. Because logistics support is
primarily a Service responsibility, the thrust of joint logistics operations may be to coordi-
nate Service programs and integrate them with the joint commander’s concept of support.
Knowledge of Service policies and doctrine is essential.

• Plans and policy division (J-5). This division does the long-range
planning. It prepares campaign, concept, and operation plans, and the associated Com-
mander’s Estimate of the Situation. Often, the J-5 is responsible for special weapons
planning. In commands without a separate J-5 division, the function is performed by the
operations division.

• Command, control, communications, and computer systems division

(J-6). This division may be found with a variety of names and designators: Command,
Control, Communications Systems; Communications-Electronics and Automated Sys-
tems Division; Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence Divi-
sion; etc. It uses organizational codes such as J-6, C3, C4, C4I, C3S, etc. The functions
of the division include handling command responsibilities for communications and fre-
quency control, tactical communications planning and execution, and management and
development of electronics and automatic information systems.

A more detailed description of the basic functions of the principal joint staff divisions is
shown in Figure 1-30.

Nontraditional divisions are also found in many commands.

• Security assistance division. The mission of supporting military and

economic aid to countries within a joint commander’s area of operations is complex and
vitally important to U.S. foreign policy. This function may be found in a separate divi-
sion or as a part of the logistics division.

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FUNCTIONS OF JOINT STAFF DIVISIONS

DIRECTORATE OR RESPONSIBILITIES
DIVISION

Manpower and • Manage manpower

Personnel • Formulate personnel policies
(J-1) • Supervise administration of personnel, including civilians
and prisoners of war

Intelligence • Ensure availability of sound intelligence on area and en-

(J-2) emy locations, activities, and capabilities
• Direct intelligence efforts on proper enemy items of in-
terest
• Ensure adequate intelligence coverage and response
• Disclose enemy capabilities and intentions

Operations • Assist in direction and control of operations

(J-3) • Plan, coordinate, and integrate operations

Logistics • Formulate logistics plans

(J-4) • Coordinate and supervise supply, maintenance, repair,
evacuation, transportation, construction, and related lo-
gistics matters
• Ensure effective logistics support for all forces in the
command

Plans and Policy • Assist commander in long-range or future planning

(J-5) • Prepare campaign and operation plans
• Prepare estimates of the situation
• Functions may be included in operations directorate

Command, Control, • Assist commander with responsibilities for communica-

Communications, and tions-electronics and automated data systems
Computers • Prepare communications and data systems plans to
or support operational and strategic concepts
Communications- • Furnish communications to exercise command in mis-
Electronics and Automated sion execution
Systems (J-6) • Functions may be included in operations directorate or
in the special staff

Special Staff • Give technical, administrative, and tactical advice

• Prepare parts of plans, estimates, and orders
• Coordinate and supervise staff activities
• Special staff may be included as branches of director-
ates

Personal Staff • Responsible directly to the commander

• Special matters over which the commander chooses to
exercise close personal control
• Usually includes the political adviser

Reference: Joint Pub 0-2, UNAAF Figure 1-30

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• Interoperability division. The responsibility for joint planning, plans

evaluation and analysis, development of joint doctrine, coordinating joint education and
training, and the conduct of joint training exercises may be separate from the other divi-
sions.
• Force structure, resources, and assessment division. The Reorganiza-
tion Act of 1986 brought added responsibility to combatant commanders for critical in-
volvement in the Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System. The specialized nature
of this work and the coordination required with component commands has created a need
for dedicated staff support.

f. Variations in joint staff divisions. The commander may organize the staff as
necessary to carry out duties and responsibilities. Many combatant commands have taken
advantage of this flexibility. For example, EUCOM, CENTCOM, and PACOM have
consolidated the security assistance function with J-4; TRANSCOM and STRATCOM
have consolidated the J-3 and J-4 functions.

g. Terminology. Joint Pub 1-02, The Dictionary of Military and Associated

Terms, uses the term “general staff” to describe the divisions explained above. While
there is consistency in the functional subdivisions of a staff into personnel, intelligence,
operations, logistics, planning, etc., the staff designations vary between Services and with
the size of organization supported. The Army and Marine Corps may use G-1, G-2, G-3,
G-4 to identify personnel, intelligence, operations, and logistics staff divisions; the Navy
may use N-1, N-2, N-3, etc.; and the Air Force uses letter designations. Figure 1-31 il-
lustrates just some of the possible staff designations.

h. History. Joint staffs are organized on the conventional staff model. The advent
of extensive joint operations during World War II and the institution of the unified com-
mand structure after the war posed the question of which type of staff organization would
be best suited to such commands. For a variety of reasons, the general staff organization
adapted by General Pershing from the French in World War I and developed by the Army
and Marine Corps evolved as the model for the U.S. joint staff. This is reasonable, be-
cause joint operations nearly always include ground forces, and a majority of the joint
staff will be familiar with the concept. The term joint staff or conventional staff is used
in lieu of general staff to avoid confusion with the General Staff, a unique organizational
concept. The General Staff is a senior, professional military staff with command author-
ity used in some foreign military organizations. Such an arrangement was expressly for-
bidden in the creation of the U.S. military establishment in 1947 and has been excluded in
every legislative change since.

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U.S. STAFF DESIGNATIONS

PERSONNEL INTELLIGENCE OPERATIONS LOGISTICS PLANNING COMMUNICATIONS

ARMY DCS DCS DCS DCS DCS

COMPONENT Personnel Intelligence Operations Logistics Communications-
HQ and DCS Electronics
Plans Engineer
DCS DCS
Resource Systems
Management Automation

ARMY ACOS ACOS ACOS ACOS

DIVISION HQ Personnel Intelligence Operations Logistics
(G1) (G2) (G3) (G4)

AIR FORCE DCS DCS DCS DCS DCS DCS

COMPONENT Personnel Intelligence Operations Logistics Plans Communications
HQ (DP) (IN) (DO) (LG) (XP) Systems (SC)

AIR FORCE included in included in Operations Logistics included in Communications

WING Support Group OPG as Group (OPG) Group (LG) DO and LG Group (CG)
(SPTGP) OSS/IN as or
as DOX & LGX included in
MSSG/MSF AMC SPTGP as CS
XP in ACC
OG as
OSS/DOX &
LG as
LGS/LGX

NAVY ACOS ACOS ACOS ACOS ACOS ACOS

COMPONENT Administration Intelligence Operations Logistics Plans Communications
HQ (N1) (N2) (N3) (N4) (N5) (N6)

ABBREVIATIONS: DCS - DEPUTY CHIEF OF STAFF Figure 1-31

ACOS - ASSISTANT CHIEF OF STAFF
References: ARMY FM 101-5, Staff Organization and Operations
AIR FORCE Publication 53-21, USAF Staff Organization Chartbook
NAVY NWP 11, Naval Operational Planning Figure 1-30

112. THE JOINT SPECIALTY OFFICER (JSO)

a. The Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 re-

quires the Secretary of Defense to establish policies, procedures, and practices for the ef-
fective management of officers of the military Services who are particularly educated,
trained in, and oriented toward, joint matters. “Joint matters” are defined in the law as
“the integrated employment of land, sea, and air forces,” and this includes national mili-
tary strategy, strategic and contingency planning, and command and control of combat
operations under unified command. There are no restrictions on the number of officers
who may hold the joint specialty; however, sufficient numbers must be designated to
meet Joint Duty Assignment (JDA) requirements. Approximately 9,000 billets are cur-
rently designated as JDAs.

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b. The Secretary of Defense designates as JSOs officers who are educated in and
experienced in the employment, deployment, and support of unified and combined forces
to achieve national security objectives. To qualify as a JSO, an officer must complete an
approved program of Joint Professional Military Education (JPME) and a full JDA. JSO
designation boards are convened by the secretaries of the military departments to consider
officers for recommendation to the Secretary of Defense for designation as JSOs. The
Secretary of Defense can waive some of the JSO requirements on a case-by-case basis.

c. Both Service PME and JPME contribute essential qualities to the educational
development of a JSO nominee. The military departments are responsible for designating
officers as JSO nominees. Officers may be designated as JSO nominees when they have
successfully completed a program of Joint Professional Military Education or have a
Critical Occupational Specialty. Designation of an officer as a JSO nominee identifies
the officer as a potential candidate for JSO, but does not, in itself, constitute recommen-
dation for award of the Joint Specialty.

d. A JDA is a designated position in a multi-Service or multinational command or

activity that is involved in the integrated employment or support of the land, sea, and air
forces of at least two of the three military departments. Such involvement includes mat-
ters relating to national military strategy, joint doctrine and policy, strategic planning,
contingency planning, and command and control of combat operations under a unified
command. At least 800 JDAs are designated by the Secretary of Defense as critical posi-
tions. Current law requires that critical positions be filled with JSOs unless CJCS ap-
proves an exception.

e. For further information on the JSO program, see JCS Admin Pub 1.2 (Joint Offi-
cer Management) and the Officer Professional Military Education Policy (CJCSI
1800.01, 1 March 1996) (CM-344-90, 1 May 1990).

113. MULTINATIONAL COMMANDS

a. A combined command is a force under a single commander that is composed of

sizable assigned or attached elements of two or more allied nations.

b. The organizational principles already discussed have equal validity when applied
to combined commands. The concepts of command authority and the responsibilities of
combatant commanders are generally applicable to combined commanders. However,
since combined commands are binational or multinational, their missions and responsi-
bilities (including command responsibilities) must be established and assigned to con-
form to binational or multinational agreements. Organizational questions about com-
bined commands are often more difficult to answer than national organizational ques-
tions. The primary source of difficulty is the lack of precedent and an absence of com-

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bined doctrine. Normally, a combined command operates under the terms of a treaty, al-
liance, or bilateral agreement between or among the nations concerned. The North
American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), Combined Forces Command Korea
(CFC), and Allied Command Europe (ACE) are examples of multinational commands.

c. Nature of Multinational Command Staff Duty. The normal types of staff

problems are magnified on a combined staff. There are psychological and sociological
problems created by differences in customs, religions, and standards of living. These fac-
tors point to the need for a different mental approach to combined staff duty. Just after
the Allied Forces Southern Europe had been formally established in August 1951, Admi-
ral Carney as CINCSOUTH wrote the following memorandum to his staff:

“To those of you who have only worked in the framework of your own particu-
lar Service, and thus have not been exposed to the necessary give and take of unifi-
cation, much that you see will appear to be lacking in order and logic; to those of
you who have not had previous experience in inter-Allied dealings, the modus oper-
andi may appear even more obscure. Working within the framework of one’s own
Service is a simple matter because the Service procedures have been long established
and all of one’s colleagues speak the same language and are guided by the same in-
doctrination. Joint efforts, be they on the staff or in the field, invariably require
mutual adjustments; these adjustments may be radical but with people of good will
and good spirit the Services can truly work as a team.
When inter-Allied factors are superimposed, the effects are frequently unpre-
dictable. Politics are politics the world over and many times we encounter difficul-
ties and objections which are illogical from the military standpoint but which stem
from political factors that are very real to the officeholders, the voters, and the tax-
payers of the countries concerned. It is to be expected that we will frequently en-
counter problems of obscure and puzzling origin, and an awareness of the probabil-
ity should help to foster the patience and flexibility necessary.”

This memorandum, written more than four decades ago, demonstrates the timelessness of
certain principles relating to the human element of organizations. The advice is as good
today as it was then.

114. JOINT PROFESSIONAL MILITARY EDUCATION (JPME)

a. Major organizational changes in the late 1800s and early 1900s laid the founda-
tion for a modern staff system in the U.S. Armed Forces. The continuing professional
education of military officers was an important element and included Service staff and
war colleges. European experience had shown that, without a sound and vital school sys-
tem, the staffs themselves could not function properly. The Naval War College was

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established in 1884 and the Army War College in 1901. The Air War College was estab-
lished in 1946.

b. World War I led to the creation of a widespread system of field staffs in the
Army and a growth of staff consciousness in the other Services. Soon after the war, the
U.S. military Services began to evolve the functional staff patterns that remain in use to-
day. The Service colleges reached officers destined for Service leadership, educating
them in the fundamentals of staff practice and enlarging on the body of knowledge that
was to become Service doctrine.

c. By the 1920s the U.S. Armed Forces had a distinctively American staff system
that had been drawn from elements of Prussian, British, and French military organiza-
tions. For example, contrary to some European practices, the United States did not adopt
the concept of a permanent staff corps. Rather, officers constituting U.S. staffs are mem-
bers of their own Service and are assigned to staff duty only periodically throughout their
careers.

d. After World War II command and staff education for field-grade officers was
further developed. While command and staff courses for company and field-grade offi-
cers in the Army (1901), Marine Corps (1920), and Navy (1923) had long been in exis-
tence, the schools now emphasized education in staff subjects and field application. At-
tendance at the Services’ schools rose to a level not possible during the war. The Air
Command and Staff College began at Maxwell AFB, Alabama, in 1946.

e. Joint and combined schools. The school system that accompanied the early
twentieth-century military reforms was reconstituted and enlarged to meet post-World
War II requirements. Shortly after the war, three joint Service colleges were established:
the Army Industrial College, redesignated the Industrial College of the Armed Forces
(ICAF) in April 1946, and the National War College (NWC) in August 1946, both at Ft.
McNair in Washington, D.C.; and the Armed Forces Staff College (AFSC) in August
1946 in Norfolk, Virginia. All colleges were incorporated under the National Defense
University (NDU), NWC and ICAF in 1976, and AFSC in August 1981. Today NDU
also includes the Information Resources Management College (IRMC), the Institute for
National Strategic Studies (INSS), and the Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies
(CHDS). NDU is assigned the task of preparing selected military officers and civilian
officials for command, management, and staff responsibilities. The senior colleges em-
phasize national security formulation, military strategy development, mobilization, man-
agement of resources for national security, and planning for joint and combined opera-
tions. Effective July 1990, the Armed Forces Staff College became the single point for
completion of Joint Professional Military Education Phase II (JPME II) for prospective
Joint Specialty Officer nominees. As mandated by Congress, the Service intermediate
and senior schools teach the first phase of a joint track. Presently, the Joint Forces Staff
College teaches the follow-on phase at the application level with a curriculum and envi-
ronment specifically designed to nurture a joint perspective. For further information on

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JPME, see Appendix VI, Joint Admin Pub 1.2 (Joint Officer Management) and JCS
Memo SM-73-89, Implementation of the JCS Program for Joint Professional Military
Education (JPME).

Obligations of Joint and

Combined Staff Duty
The nature of joint and combined staff duty gives rise to some
obligations that should be observed. Lieutenant General D.M.
Schlatter, USAF, former Commandant of the Joint Forces Staff
College (July 1954 to July 1957), and an experienced officer in
joint and combined commands, used to advise future joint and
combined staff officers as follows:

The first obligation I’m going to give you sounds like a cliché. It isn’t when you really examine
it. Be objective, avoid bias and prejudice. None of us can avoid bias and prejudice one
hundred percent. We can’t possibly do it, no matter how hard we try. Each of us has a varying
background of knowledge, education, beliefs; and there’s a certain inherent bias we can never
get rid of completely; but we must keep on trying, even though we realize that we can’t get rid
of it entirely.

Second, avoid emotion. Emotion tends to clog up the thinking processes.

Third, stick to facts whenever possible. This is not always possible. In many cases you
must rely on opinion or judgment and a vague thing called common sense. In these cases, you
should listen to other competent judges. You should avoid extremes. Above all, don’t express
your opinion unless you know what you are talking about.
Fourth, stick to the subject at hand. This is a very hard thing to do in a group discussion.
Sometimes, of course, it’s downright dull and it suggests that old anecdote about never letting
facts interfere with a good story. But if you want to reach a decision, you should stick to the
subject at hand.
Fifth, avoid personalities. Like emotion, personalities clog up the thinking apparatus. If you
can’t be complimentary, at least don’t say too much. You can always damn a man, you know,
by faint praise. Someone has said the best treatment for a man with a chip on his shoulder is
to pat him on the back until the chip falls off.
Sixth, and probably the most important obligation of a staff officer, be honest and accurate.
There is an essential requirement for rugged honesty, particularly in combat effectiveness
reporting. To shade the truth in any way in this vital subject is, to my mind, the cardinal military
sin. There are two kinds of enthusiasm. A commander with enthusiasm will fire a military unit
up to the point it can do more than it ever thought was possible. This is very necessary, but it is
a different kind of an enthusiasm from the second kind. This second kind is usually a detriment,
for it can induce unjustified optimism. You can get so enthusiastic and proud of your Service or
your unit that you will brag that it can do many things it can’t possibly do. Above all, here is
another good place to be quiet unless you are sure of your facts. In staff work, to recommend a
course of action and tell all the pros of the matter and express none of the things against it is to
do yourself and your commander an injustice.
Reprinted from The Joint and Combined Staff Officer’s Manual by Col Jack D. Nicholas and
others with permission of Stackpole Books.

Figure 1-32

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