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Specification of concrete for marine environments: A fresh approach

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 ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL TECHNICAL PAPER
Title no. 96-M58

Specification of concrete for marine enviornments: a fresh

approach
by Daksh Baweja, Harold Roper, and Vute Sirivivatnanon

There is significant debate around the world regarding the most appropri- such authorities have specified volume of permeable voids
ate test methods for assessing the performance of concretes in marine envi-
ronments. Many papers have been presented on techniques such as the
criteria7 as part of their requirements to insure durability of con-
ASTM C 1202 charge transfer test method and various chloride diffusion crete in marine environments. Other specifications for marine
test methods focusing on their applicability in project specifications. Many environment concrete nominated limits on charge transfer, as
views are held regarding the theoretical validity of such methods and the
appropriateness of their practical applications in specifications. Some even
described by ASTM C 1202-91.8,9
suggest that, given the divergence of views on the different methods of per- The previous discussion serves to illustrate the diversity of
formance-based assessment of concrete for marine applications, prescrip-
opinion and the importance of the issue of specification of con-
tive specification methods focusing on maximum water-binder ratio of
concrete, minimum binder content, and binder type should be adopted. crete for marine applications as perceived by specifiers. Al-
Specifiers, on the other hand, are looking to ways in which concrete for though it is suggested by some observers that the most
marine environments can be specified with greater confidence, thereby lim-
iting their risk. appropriate method for such specification should be, in essence,
Much research work has been conducted on chloride ion penetration into prescriptive, specifiers, and specifying authorities have real
concrete and its relationships to embedded steel passivity and rate of cor- concerns as to how their specifications can be improved. Such
rosion. This paper summarizes work from a series of studies conducted at groups are mindful that concrete information requirements for
the University of Sydney. The focus of this work was on the long-term per-
formance of reinforced concrete under high-chloride conditions. Work
design purposes and those for site quality control purposes can
included the monitoring of concrete performance using half-cell potential be significantly different.
measurements, concrete resistivity, and the determination of gravimetric This paper proposes a new approach to specification of con-
weight loss of steel through corrosion. Corrosion rates of steel in concrete
crete for marine or high-chloride applications. The proposed
were also measured using anodic polarization techniques. Concretes con-
sidered were made with a range of commercially available portland cement method of specification has been based on steel corrosion mea-
and supplementary cementitious materials. Using the previously mentioned surement in concrete exposed to high-chloride conditions. Be-
information, concretes were classified on the basis of observed long-term tween 1987 and 1994, a major research project was conducted
performance based on resistivity and the time taken for embedded steel to
on corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete by the CSIRO
reach a probable active corrosion state. The development of a method for
designing and assessing concretes for critical marine structures based on
Division of Building, Construction, and Engineering in Austra-
the information is reported. Use of this method will lead to improved speci- lia. One of the aims of the investigation was to determine rela-
fications for concrete when compared with existing design specifications. tionships between chloride ion penetration and the onset and
rate of corrosion of embedded steel. The study included con-
Keywords: blast furnace slag; chlorides; corrosion; fly ash; marine atmo- cretes made with a range of portland and blended cements and
spheres.
cast at different water-binder ratios. Reinforced concrete speci-
mens were partially immersed in a simulated seawater solution
INTRODUCTION
for a period of approximately five years, during which measure-
The specification of concrete for marine environments is be-
ments were taken of half-cell potential, resistivity, and steel cor-
ing extensively discussed in various industry and academic fo-
rosion activity using anodic polarization techniques.10 The
rums around the world. 1 Researchers have reported on a range
purpose of conducting experiments was to model critical rein-
of performance-based assessment techniques for concrete in
forced concrete structural elements in marine environments.
marine environments, including chloride diffusion-based proce-
Data from the previously mentioned research have been pub-
dures, 2 ionic diffusion, 3 and water penetration into concrete.4
lished in a series of papers by the authors and others.11-16 Much
In Australia, there is much debate as to whether the current
of the work presented in this paper is taken from a Ph.D. thesis
Australian Standard AS 36005 provisions are appropriate for in-
undertaken by the first author.10 Half-cell potential data from
suring durable concrete for a specified design life normally in
this work have been previously discussed in some de-
the range of 40 to 60 years. This standard recommends a mini-
tail.10,11,13,14 Resistivity data relating to the concretes have also
mum characteristic compressive strength of 50 MPa where a
been investigated,10,12 as has information on corrosion rates of
structural element is exposed to tidal and splash zone condi-
steel in concrete.16
tions. Minimum cover provisions are also given in this standard.
Certain public authorities in Australia who require longer struc-
tural design lives of over 100 years have specified water sorp- ACI Materials Journal , V. 96, No. 4, July-August1999.
Received August 24, 1998, and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copy-
tivity as a criterion for concrete in marine applications6 in right  1999, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making
conjunction with prescriptive requirements for minimum binder of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent dis-
cussion will be published in the May-June 2000 ACI Materials Journal if received by
content, maximum water-binder ratio, and binder type. Other February 1, 2000.

ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999 1

ACI member Daksh Baweja is a business development manager for CSR Construction
Materials. Baweja has a Ph.D. and M.S. from the University of Sydney. Baweja has
carried out research in Australia, UK, and USA and is currently involved with techni-
cal marketing activities relating to in situ concrete, precast concrete, and construction
services businesses. Baweja is active on Australian Standards covmmittees covering
supplementary cemenitious materials and design of concrete structures. Baweja is
chairman of the NSW Technical Committee of the Australian Premixed Concrete Asso-
ciation and deputy president of the Civil Engineering Foundation at the University of
Sydney.

ACI member Harold Roper is a reaserch associate at the School of Civil and Mining
Engineering, University of Sydney. Roper is a principal of Harold Roper and Associ-
ates. Roper’s research interests include consulting in the field of materials for use in
reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. Roper has thirty years experience in
cement and concrete technology and is the author of over 70 research papers on the
properties of aggregates, cements, and concretes.

Vute Sirivivatnanon is the prinicipal research scientist with the CSIRO Division of
Building, Construction, and Engineering in North Ryde, Australia. Sirivivatnanon is
project leader of a research team working in the area of cement and concrete technol-
ogy. Sirivivatnanon’s research interests include the use of mineral additives for high-
performance concrete, supplementary cementitious materials for use in concrete and Fig. 1—Water:binder ratio versus mean 28-day strength for
quality assurance of concrete cover. Sirivivatnanon has industrial experience in the concretes used.

This study outlines design tools and quality control regimes that
could be directly applied to specifications for critical marine
Table 1—Mix proportions of concretes used, kg/m3
structures. This work is based on long-term laboratory research in
W:B* = W:B = W:B = W:B = W:B = W:B = the area of corrosion of steel in concrete.
Mix 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.36 0.45 0.55
constituent C1 to C4 C1 to C4 C1 to C4 C4e C4e C4e

Cement 420 325 270 440 335 280 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Materials used for concretes and concrete
strength details
Total water 190 180 175 160 150 155
Details of the mix proportions used in the casting of concrete
10-mm specimens are presented in Table 1. In the main, concretes were
440 460 470 450 460 460
aggregate prepared using four binder materials: a high C3A portland ce-
20-mm ment (C1); a low C 3A portland cement (C2); a slag-blended ce-
630 655 670 635 660 675
aggregate ment containing 35 percent ground granulated blast furnace slag
Coarse 580 605 620 585 610 600
(C3); and an ASTM Class F fly ash blended cement containing
sand
25 percent fly ash (C4). A set of concretes was also cast using
Fine sand 135 140 145 130 140 145
the C4 binder together with a water-reducing and an air-entrain-
ing admixture (C4e). Most concretes were cast at four nominat-
*W:B refers to water:binder ratio ed water-binder ratios: 0.36, 0.45, 0.55, and 0.65. All concretes
Note: A water-reducing and an air-entraining admixture were added to the C4e were cast so that the achieved slump was within a range between
concretes only. The admixture dose rate was 0.5 L per 100 kg of binder.
75 and 90 mm.
Fig. 1 presents mean 28-day strength and water-binder ratio
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
There is widespread debate on how to specify concrete for crit- data for each binder type considered. Reported compressive
ical marine structures. Some workers, satisfied with prescriptive strengths are averages of three individual results. Generally, the
specifications, question the reasons for pursuing and developing C1, C2, and C3 binder concretes developed similar strengths. At
performance-based techniques for assessing concrete for marine all water-binder ratios, the C4 binder concretes showed lower
applications. Many specifiers, on the other hand, urgently require 28-day strengths than those of the other concretes. The C4e con-
information and guides to help improve concrete specifications in cretes showed lower strengths at a water-binder ratio of 0.55
such harsh environments. Such groups have, in many cases, nom- when compared with the other concretes, possibly due to the ef-
inated a range of different performance criteria for concrete in ma- fects of entrained air.
rine environments in an attempt to provide better and longer
lasting structures, and to limit their potential risk. The design life Specimen Configuration and Exposure Details
for many critical marine structures could be in excess of 100 In Fig. 2, a schematic diagram of a typical slab used for rein-
years. Ultimately, performance-based procedures do impart a de- forcement corrosion investigations is presented. A reinforcing
gree of quantification into project specifications and, with this, mesh having 8-mm-diameter wires at 100-mm centers was cast
better allocation of risks associated with major contracts—issues into each slab. Slab dimensions were 300 × 300 × 56-mm, pro-
that are top of mind for specifiers and specifying authorities. This viding a clear cover-to-reinforcement of 20 mm. The slab con-
debate, therefore, necessitates the development of improved spec- figuration was chosen for a number of reasons. First, it
ification tools for assessing concretes for marine applications. It is represented small sections of structural elements typically used
not suggested that all future steel corrosion problems will be in a wide range of concrete structures. Second, it provided a
solved by the use of such new specification methodologies; rather, constant minimum cover-to-reinforcement of 20 mm. Third, it
that the incremental improvements in concrete technology and its provided nine reinforcement intersection nodes, one of which
application will result in lower future structure maintenance costs. was the location of the connection to the reinforcement. Fourth,

2 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999

specification and quality control of durable concrete structures.

3 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999

such reinforcement was typical of that cast into many concrete
structural elements.
Steel reinforcement used within each slab was sandblasted
with glass beads prior to inclusion within the concrete to pro-
vide a uniform surface to the metal and to remove all traces of
rust and other impurities from the steel surface. Slabs were cast
and moist-cured for two days. After casting and curing, slabs
were partially immersed to a depth of 40 mm in a 3 percent NaCl
solution. The slabs were stored in an air-conditioned environ-
ment at a temperature of 23 ± 2 C and a relative humidity (RH)
of 50 ± 5 percent. Chloride ion ingress into the concrete was
achieved mainly by inward and upward diffusion via the capil-
lary pores. Copper-copper sulphate corrosion potentials (CSE)
were measured using a portable electrode at eight locations (1A,
1C, 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, 3,B and 3C) and saturated calomel corro-
sion potentials (SCE) were taken using a portable electrode over Fig. 2—Schematic diagram of slab (all dimensions in mm).
Point 3A, as shown in Fig. 2. Earlier studies were conducted to
assess the influence of the reference electrode location (on the lated so that only their ends were in contact with the concrete.
slab surface) on the corrosion potential value recorded.9 It was This insured that a concrete resistivity value representative of
found that values varied depending on the degree of saturation material at a reinforcement cover depth of approximately 20
of the concrete as the reference electrode was moved upward mm was recorded. Resistivity data presented are mean values
from the bottom row (Row 3 to Row 1, Fig. 2). Results showed, from four replicate slabs for each binder type and water-binder
however, that this had no influence on the time to reach the po- ratio combination. Variations in results within each slab set
tential jump on reinforcement within the slabs, as discussed lat- were small. Commonly used guide-lines for the interpretation of
er. resistivity data have been published elsewhere.19

Half-cell potential measurements Measurements of corrosion rates and activity

Saturated calomel corrosion potential (SCE) measurements levels
were taken on the slabs at regular intervals over five years at Corrosion rates of steel in the concrete slabs were measured
Point 3A, designated in Fig. 2. The ASTM C 876-87 standard using a potentiodynamic anodic polarization technique and pro-
indicates that a probability of corrosion of greater than 90 per- cedures specifically developed for this project.16 A saturated
cent exists when recorded corrosion potential values are numer- calomel reference electrode was located on the concrete surface
ically greater than -350 mV versus CSE (-270 mV versus SCE). at Point 3A (Fig. 2). The cell consisted of a working electrode
The probability of corrosion is less than 10 percent if potential (the reinforcing mesh) cast into the slab that was partially im-
values are in excess of -200 mV versus CSE and 50 percent for mersed into the 3 percent NaCl solution during scanning and
values between -200 and -350 mV versus CSE. For each slab, two graphite counter electrodes that were also partially im-
the time to the potential jump value was determined and record- mersed in the solution. A sponge was used to cover the slab sur-
ed by calculating the time taken to first reach a value of -270 mV face to keep the specimen moist during scanning. A pump
versus SCE. This potential was selected to conform to the value circulated solution onto the surface of the sponge, keeping the
nominated in ASTM C 876 (referenced to CSE) as representing slab surface continuously moist, particularly in the region of the
a 90 percent probability of active corrosion occurrence on the reference electrode to minimize resistivity influences. Scans
reinforcement. The change between a passive to an active state were conducted from 50 mV versus SCE (saturated calomel
was generally found to occur over a small time period, repre- electrode) cathodic of the rest potential Ecorr to 800 mV versus
sented by a jump in the potential-time profile. The times taken SCE, insuring passage through the rest potential of the rein-
for reinforcement within concrete slabs to reach this jump and forcement. Calculated scan rates typically ranged between 0.4
the times taken for reinforcement to reach a corrosion potential and 0.7 mV/sec. A potentiostat was used for conducting scans.
of -270 mV were found to correlate closely.13 In other words, Total estimated corrosion currents Ic were measured for rein-
the value of -270 mV was never achieved before the definite forcement within each slab at regular intervals using procedures
jump in corrosion potential occurred. described in detail in previous publications.10,12,16 Total cur-
rents were recorded instead of current densities because instan-
Resistivity Measurements taneous estimates of corroding areas were not available during
Extensive studies were conduced on resistivity versus time in scanning. Data obtained from the potentiodynamic anodic po-
both studies referenced in this paper. Resistivity of the concretes larization scans were imported into a spreadsheet. A series of
was monitored using the Wenner Bridge four-electrode method, macroprograms were written to calculate E corr and the estimated
a commonly used testing method for concrete structures on corrosion current I c from the recorded information. The Ic value
site. 17,18 Locations of the resistivity electrodes on the concrete for each scan was calculated by selecting its maximum slope
slabs are shown in Fig. 2. Resistivity electrodes (screws) were and extrapolating its tangent to the E corr value.10,12,16 Steel rein-
cast 20 mm below the concrete surface. The screws were insu- forcement used within each slab was sandblasted with glass

ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999 4

Fig. 3—SCE corrosion potential data for a typical slab. Fig. 4—Estimated design life (years) versus cover to reinforce-
ment —portland (C1 and C2) and blended cement (C3, C4, and
C4e) concretes (28-day compressive strength ranage 10 MPa to
beads prior to inclusion into concrete to provide a uniform sur-
face for the metal and to remove all traces of rust and other im-
sumptions may lead to very conservative estimates of service
purities from the steel surface. This facilitated accurate
life for covers in excess of 20 mm (the cover used in the ex-
gravimetric measurements of steel weight loss through corro-
perimental slabs). It must also be noted that what is being dealt
sion when measured after long-term exposure to the high-chlo-
with is uncracked concrete sections. This analysis focused on
ride solution.20,21
the presentation and segregation of information based on a
binder type classification. It is clear that the blended cement
RESULTS
concretes in this analysis showed superior performance to
Use of corrosion potential data to determine
probable maintenance-free service life of concrete portland cement concrete having the same compressive
Saturated calomel (SCE) corrosion potentials taken from a strengths.
typical slab over a period of 700 days of partial immersion in 3 Two factors are clear from the data presented in Fig. 4. First,
percent NaCl solution are shown in Fig. 3. The time to the po- the lack of marine durability of concretes having a mean
tential jump value for each slab was determined and recorded by strength below 30 MPa is clearly observable. Second, the trend
calculating the time taken to first reach a value of -270 mV ver- for the performance of blended cement concretes (C3, C4, and
sus SCE. 9 This potential was selected to conform to the value C4e) was demonstrably superior to that shown by the portland
nominated in ASTM C 876 (referenced to CSE) as representing cement concretes (C1 and C2) for mean strengths of 40 MPa and
a 90 percent probability of active corrosion occurrence on the higher on the basis of steel corrosion onset. It is noted that spec-
reinforcement. Corrosion potential values recorded over time ifying concrete for marine environments, using the results in
for slab reinforcement typically followed the profile shown in Fig. 4, still requires the documentation of prescriptive require-
Fig. 3. The change between a passive to an active state was gen- ments based around binder characteristics.
erally found to occur over a small time period, represented by a
jump in the potential-time profile. The times taken for reinforce- Concrete resistivity data
ment within concrete slabs to reach this jump and the times tak- Resistivity versus time data for concrete slabs made at water-
en for reinforcement to reach a corrosion potential of -270 mV binder ratios of 0.45, 0.55, and 0.65 are presented in Fig. 5.12
were found to correlate closely.13 In other words, the value of - For C1 concrete slabs having a water-binder ratio of 0.45, resis-
270 mV was never achieved before the definite jump in corro- tivity values were found to increase to a peak with time of par-
sion potential occurred. tial immersion in the 3 percent NaCl solution, then decrease
Using measurements of time to the potential jump resulting slightly. Following this decrease, further increases in resistivity
from chloride ion penetration into concrete, it was possible to were observed with time. A peak value of resistivity was
develop nomographs relating cover to steel, concrete strength, achieved at approximately 600 days. For slabs cast at the higher
and estimated design life to corrosion onset. This analysis has water-binder ratios, peak resistivities were recorded within ap-
been previously published. 9 Fig. 4 presents a set of nomographs, proximately 200 days of partial immersion in the 3 percent NaCl
one relating to used portland cement concretes and the other to solution.
used blended cement concretes studied. In these nomographs, The shapes of the resistivity versus time curves for the C2
the estimated design life of a concrete has been related to its concretes were similar to those described for the C1 concretes.
mean 28-day compressive strength based on the long-term cor- However, concrete resistivities were lower than those observed
rosion potential data.9 The estimated design life is assumed to for the C1 concrete slabs. Resistivity versus time data for the C3
be the time taken to reach the potential jump for reinforcement concretes were significantly higher than those observed for the
within concrete. C1 and C2 concretes at water-binder ratios of 0.45 and 0.55. The
Extrapolation of the results to address a whole range of cov- shapes of the resistivity versus time profiles for the C3 concretes
ers to reinforcement was based on a simple diffusion model were similar to those described for the C1 and C2 concretes, ex-
assuming a constant diffusion coefficient and a constant sur- cept that no decrease in resistivity was observed with time for
face chloride ion concentration. It is recognized that such as- concretes with water-binder ratios of 0.45 and 0.55. For a given

5 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999

 Fig. 5—Mean resistivity mersus time data for concretes investigated.

water-binder ratio, the highest resistivities were obtained for the

C4 concretes (Fig. 5). The shapes of the resistivity versus time
profiles of the C4 concretes were similar to those of the C3 con-
cretes, except that higher resistivities were obtained even at a
water-binder ratio of 0.65. It can be observed that the C4 con-
cretes had the highest peak resistivities. In addition, it can be
seen that for a given binder, the lowest water-binder ratio con-
cretes had the highest peak resistivities and, generally, the long-
est periods to reach the peak resistivities. Additional analyses on
these data can be found in the literature.12

Resistivity and Corrosion Rate Data

Data showing estimated corrosion current Ic , as described
previously, versus concrete resistivity are presented in Fig. 6 for
a typical slab partially immersed in 3 percent NaCl solution.22 Fig. 6—Ic versus concrete resistivity for a typical slab having a
water:binder ratio of 0.65.
A slab having concrete with a water-binder ratio of 0.65 has
been selected to show high levels of corrosion activity over the Resistivity values varied between 800 ohm-cm and 650 ohm-
exposure period. Resistivity and Ic data shown were recorded at cm.
the same times over approximately 4 years of exposure to the The findings of each of the previously mentioned stages can
high-chloride solution. As opposed to the generally held initia- be explained as follows:
tion-propagation model for corrosion of steel in concrete,23
Quiescent stage—During this stage, resistivity increased as a
three distinct segments can be seen when the points on Fig. 6 are consequence of continued hydration of the binder in contact
linked:
with the 3 percent NaCl solution. Chloride ions have not
1. 0 < I c < 0.01 mA (quiescent stage) reached the level of the reinforcement, and the Ic values record-
During this stage of immersion, it was found that the resistiv- ed are low.
ity increased with time. Resistivity values varied between 800 Active stage—During this stage, chloride ions progress in-
ohm-cm and 1800 ohm-cm. wards and reach the level of the reinforcement, resulting in an
2. 0.01 < Ic < 0.75 mA (active stage) overall decrease in resistivity with time of immersion (chlorides
During this stage of immersion, it was found that resistivity facilitating increased ionic movement within the concrete ma-
values decreased with time. Resistivity values varied between trix). Chloride ion ingress progresses to a stage where the con-
1800 ohm-cm and 900 ohm-cm. centration is such that Ic increases with time.
3. 0.75 < Ic < 3.2 mA (breakaway stage) Breakaway stage —During this stage, active general corro-
During this stage of immersion, it was found that resistivity sion takes place. Increased amounts of chloride ions reach the
values decreased with time, but at a lower rate than previously. reinforcement level resulting in a further decrease in concrete

ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999 6

 Fig. 7—Estimated design life (years) versus cover-to-reinforcement for low- and high-resistiv-
ity concretes as defined in Fig. 5 and 6.

resistivity and a significant increase in I c with time of immer- covers, as expressed in Eq. (1) and (2) and the nomographs giv-
sion. en in Fig. 7, was based on a simplified chloride diffusion model
Importantly, the time to reach the maximum resistivity value where constant chloride diffusion coefficients and constant sur-
shown in Fig. 6 could be used as a criterion for corrosion onset. face chloride ion concentrations were assumed. Some workers
This point appears to mark the commencement of corrosion as have reported that diffusion coefficients determined after differ-
measured by Ic . This finding is used in later sections as a method ent exposure periods reduced with time.24,25 This is possibly due
to rapidly assess the potential durability of concrete subject to to further hydration of the concrete that results in improved
marine conditions. Also important , a detailed analysis of the chloride penetration resistance. A constant diffusion coefficient,
link between Ic and the weight loss of steel through corrosion assumed under the root-time equation, leads to a conservative
has been established.20,21 estimate of service life for concrete covers greater than 20 mm
(the cover used in the experimental slabs).

Characterizing concretes for marine environments

based on their resistivity characteristics 2822
C = --------------- ⋅ t (1)
All concretes described earlier were further characterized 2.61
(S )
based on their resistivity characteristics. The aim was to reas-
sess information shown in Fig. 4 based on a measurable perfor- (Description of trend for low-resistivity concretes)
mance criterion rather than on a prescriptive binder type
criterion. Concretes were separated into two sets, those having
226537
low-resistivity characteristics and those having high-resistivity C = ------------------
2.61
⋅ t (2)
characteristics, with the separating limit being approximately (S )
8000 ohm-cm (data shown in Fig. 5). The estimated design lives
of concretes were again calculated from the available data based (Description of trend for high-resistivity concretes)
on the time to potential jump criterion, following procedures de- where
scribed in detail elsewhere in the literature.9,10 These corrosion C = cover-to-reinforcement, mm;
onset periods were then related back to the compressive strength S = mean 28-day concrete compressive strength, Mpa; and
of the individual concrete slabs using information presented in t = time taken to reach a probable active corrosion state, years.
Fig. 1. In the previous equations, given a design life and a 28-day
It was thus possible to develop two modified equations to compressive strength for concrete, it is possible to determine the
those used for the calculation of the nomographs shown in Fig. cover-to-reinforcement required to achieve a time to corrosion
4.9 These equations related cover-to-reinforcement with com- initiation under crack-free situations for concretes having both
pressive strength and time to corrosion initiation (taken as the high- and low-resistivity characteristics.
design life of the concrete). Two equations, one for low-resistiv- Fig. 7 presents a set of nomographs, one for low-resistivity
ity concretes and the other for high-resistivity concretes, are de- concretes and the other for high-resistivity concretes. In these
scribed as follows. Equations were derived from regression nomographs, the estimated design life of a concrete has been re-
analyses with correlation coefficients that were all significant at lated to its mean 28-day compressive strength, based on the
the 95 percent confidence level, following procedures published long-term corrosion potential data. The estimated design life is
elsewhere in the literature. 9,10 It must be re-emphasized that ex- assumed to be the time taken to reach the potential jump for re-
trapolation of results to apply to a whole range of reinforcement inforcement within concrete (described in Fig. 3).

7 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999

Fig. 8—Peak (or maximum) concrete resistivity as influenced Fig. 9—Peak concrete resitivity as influenced by 56-day con-
by 28-day comcrete resistivity chart shows differentiation of crete resistivity chart shows differentiation of low- and high-
low- and high-resistivity concretes and proposed 28-day limit. concretes and proposed 56-day limit.

Importantly, in Fig. 7, nomographs are presented having a A proposed limit of 4000 ohm-cm at 28 days has been nomi-
minimum cover-to-reinforcement of 40 mm. In addition, a min- nated in Fig. 8 as a point whereby high-resistivity and low-resis-
imum concrete compressive strength of 40 MPa is nominated. tivity concretes can be classified, based on the peak resistivity
These factors have been incorporated into the proposed design data. In most cases considered, this limit will differentiate con-
process such that only high-quality concretes having a mini- cretes having desirable high-resistivity characteristics and those
mum practical cover for cast in situ applications are used. Al- having undesirable, low-resistivity characteristics. There are,
though it would be possible to generate options outside the however, some concretes nominated as special-case concretes
strength and cover limits nominated, these would generally not that could provide durable long-term characteristics that do not
be regarded as increasing the certainty of providing long-term show the desired resistivity at 28 days.
durability of concrete cast in situ. It is understood that from a Fig. 9 shows similar data to Fig. 8 for the same set of con-
quality-control perspective, higher target strengths with associ- cretes, except relating 56-day resistivity to the peak concrete re-
ated higher binder levels and lower water-binder ratios would be sistivities achieved. Again, a very good relationship between the
needed. This would further insure that only high-quality con- 56-day resistivity data and the peak, or maximum resistivity
cretes were used in these critical applications. data (as defined in Fig. 6) can be observed. A limit of 5000 ohm-
cm at 56 days, shown in the <****Query author as to what fig-
ures****> clearly differentiates all concretes considered into
Predicting Concrete Performance Based on Early
Age Resistivity Results those having the desirable high-resistivity characteristics and
Data in Fig. 7 are useful in selecting appropriate concrete for those having undesirable, low-resistivity characteristics. Data
application under aggressive marine conditions. However, to shown in Fig. 8 and 9 can serve to provide a platform for the
complement these nomographs, guides are needed to determine, specification of concrete for marine applications.
in a timely way, the resistivity characteristics of proposed con-
cretes to enable the corresponding nomograph to be applied in SPECIFYING CONCRETES FOR MARINE
ENVIRONMENTS BASED ON DATA GENERATED
the design process. To this end, Fig. 8 shows data relating the
In Fig. 10, a flowchart on how all the presented information
28-day concrete resistivities to peak (or maximum) concrete re-
could be applied to specifying concretes for critical marine
sistivity data for all concretes. structures is presented. The guide proposed, as follows, would
It can be observed in Fig. 8 that there is a distinct trend be- reflect critical marine applications with environments similar to
tween the peak concrete resistivity achieved and the resistivity those described in the research experimental setup (Section 0).
achieved at 28 days. The resistivity value at 28 days was select- This specification would also be focused on reinforced con-
ed to provide specifiers with a tool that could be used to assess cretes. The process recommended for specifying and assessing
the potential performance of concrete within project contract concretes for marine applications could be summarized as
time constraints. The importance of the peak (or maximum) re- follows:
sistivity is an important criterion for fingerprinting the perfor- 1.To determine the required design life of a structure (or crit-
mance of concrete with respect to embedded steel corrosion ical structural element).
onset. Data in Fig. 6 show the importance of the maximum re- 2. To determine if cover-to-reinforcement was a critical pa-
sistivity value for the concretes in regard to being coincident rameter (in that were there any restrictions to the specification
with the commencement of active corrosion as measured by Ic . of minimum cover requirements).
Generally, the time to reach this maximum or peak resistivity 3. If there are no restrictions on minimum cover, a concrete
value is greater for higher-resistivity concretes. Therefore, the strength grade could be selected using the nomograph for low-
time for steel in concrete to reach an active corrosion state is resistivity concrete (Fig. 7) along with the necessary minimum
also increased—a factor of specific interest in the design of ma- cover-to-reinforcement. If there were restrictions on cover, fur-
rine structures. ther processes, as outlined, would need to be followed.

ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999 8

 Fig. 10—Methodology proposed for specifying concrete for marine environments based on
long-term data on corrosion of steel in concrete.

4. Having a design life, a minimum cover would need to be steel screws can be used as metal probes for resistivity measure-
nominated. With this information, a corresponding concrete ment. Contact between the stainless steel screws and the con-
strength could be calculated based on the high-resistivity con- crete is recommended to be approximately 27 mm below the
crete nomograph. Once this were determined, a proposed con- specimen surface. Plastic sleeves to insulate the metal from the
crete mix would need to be designed. Tests would need to be concrete to a level approximately 27 mm below the concrete
conducted to determine the resistivity characteristics of the pro- surface are recommended (Fig. 11); the same concept as used in
posed concrete mix. Results on both compressive strength and the experimental slabs. Resistivity of the concrete can be mea-
resistivity would be available in 28 days (recommended proce- sured using the established Wenner bridge technique, following
dures for measuring resistivity are outlined in References 26 and procedures outlined in the literature. 17-19 Characteristics of
27). long-term resistivity data using the described specimens can be
5. Assuming the concrete strength results were adequate, if found in the literature. 26,27 Resistivity data from the prismatic
the resistivity values achieved were above 4000 ohm-cm at 28 specimens are believed to be similar to those described in earlier
days, the mix could be accepted and a quality control program sections of this paper, based on the information obtained.26,27
based on the strength data could be adopted for site quality con- The proposed methodology for specifying concrete for ma-
trol. If the resistivity values were below 4000 ohm-cm at 28 rine applications has a number of strong benefits over alterna-
days, the mix could be redesigned, or samples could be main- tive specification methods. First, the methodology addresses the
tained until 56 days when a further evaluation took place. separate issues involved with the specification of concrete for
6. At 56 days, if the resistivity values were in excess of 5000 marine applications in the design of a structure, prequalification
ohm-cm, the mix could be accepted and again, site quality con- requirements for such structures, and site quality control re-
trol could be based on compressive strength. Where concrete re- quirements. The nomographs shown in Fig. 7 could be used as
sistivities were below 5000 ohm-cm at 56 days, reproportioning a design tool. The tests for 28-day and 56-day resistivity of con-
of the mix would be necessitated. crete, if needed, would be recommended to be applied as
For ease of measurement of concrete resistivity, prismatic prequalification requirements only and not for site quality con-
specimens measuring 75 × 75 × 286 mm are proposed, cast hav- trol. The time period nominated and the ease of the test would
ing four metal probes spaced 20 mm apart (Fig. 11). Stainless well facilitate its application as a tool for prequalifying con-

9 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999

 environments. Factors used for the range of concretes investi-
gated covered chloride diffusion principles, acquired long-term
corrosion potential versus time data, and associated concrete re-
sistivity versus time data. Detailed procedures were described
for specifying concretes for marine environments based on con-
crete-resistivity characteristics. The procedures involved the
use of specially developed equations and nomographs relating
cover, design life, and concrete compressive strength for both
low and, more desirable, high-resistivity concretes. Simple re-
sistivity tests could quickly establish the resistivity characteris-
tics of proposed concretes, within 28 days or a maximum of 56
days. The methodology recommends the use of such resistivity
tests as prequalification requirements for concretes only and not
as tools for quality control on site. The methodology recom-
mends the concrete strength parameter as the preferred tool for
site quality control purposes.
Fig. 11—Schematic diagram of specimen for concrete resistiv-
ity measurement.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Work described in this paper was carried out at the CSIRO
cretes. Concrete compressive strength would be recommended Division of Building, Construction and Engineering in North
as the quality control tool, thereby insuring the possibility of Ryde, Australia. Much of the analysis work was carried out at
wide acceptance of the specification methodology in project the University of Sydney and presented in a Ph.D. thesis written
contracts. by the first author. Thanks are expressed to the Cement and
Concrete Association of Australia for supporting this work. In
CONCLUSIONS particular, thanks are expressed to individual members of the re-
The suggestions in this paper for specification of marine en- search advisory committee for their help and interest.
vironment concretes are recommended to be used as guides
only. What is hoped is that, within our current frame of refer- REFERENCES
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11 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999

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