CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. The Nature of Reading

1. Definition of Reading

Reading is a kind of sharing activity between the reader and writer.

Through reading, writers can share their idea and information with the

reader. Kustrayo (1998; 2) defines reading as the meaningful interpretation of

printed or written verbal symbols. It means readers have to interpret writer's

idea in a written text. This written text can be read from printed text (such as

book, novel, sign, newspaper, magazine, etc) or non-printed text (such as

online source, online news).

Some experts have explained what nature of reading exactly is.

According to Liu (2010; 14), reading is an activity or process in which the

message in form of written is transferred then the reader will interpret it.

Readers should understand what the writer means in the text. They have to

understand by themselves because readers will not around to explain.

Widowwson (in Liu 2010:1), says that reading is the process of gaining

linguistic information through print or written message. He also says the

process occurs in reading is one-way process from writer or text to the reader.

Another expert who also has explained nature of reading is Smith.

According to Smith (in Liu 2010:8), reading refers to activity in which

readers proceed directly to meaning without recoursing to sound. In this

principle, Smith explains word recognition goes straight from visual input to

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 meaning and do not go through sound. Based on those three definitions of the

experts above, it may be concluded reading is the process of getting linguistic

information either from the visual message or written message.

Based on the definition above, it can be concluded that reading

is the ability of people in order to get much information from the

interpretation of printed or written the verbal symbol to understand the

message communicated. It is also an active process which the readers and text

interact each other in order to obtain the information.

2. The Purpose of Reading

Reading is an activity with a purpose. The purpose for reading

guides the readers' text selection. People read to gain information or verify

existing knowledge, to critique a writer's ideas or writing style, for

enjoyment, or to enhance knowledge of the language being read. According

to Grabe (2009: 8-10), there are at least six major academic purposes of

reading:

a) Reading to search for information

This kind of reading is to gain information in the text. Readers

might find some specific information by using scanning and skimming

techniques. Both of them are processes performed at very high speed.

b) Reading for quick understanding

Skimming techniques allow readers to build simple quick

understanding. Readers will determine what the text is about so they

could decide whether or not to go on with reading. Through skimming

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 readers will have a sense where the text will lead them to so that they can

decide which text to focus more attention on.

c) Reading to learn

People read to learn when the information in the text is

identified as important and when that information will be used to

complete some task or may be needed in the future.

d) Reading to integrate information

Reading with the purpose of integrating information requires

readers to read and learn multiple texts, evaluate the information

(deciding which aspects to select, prioritize, and highlight), then create

his or her own organizing frame for the information.

e) Reading to evaluate, critique, and use information

This purpose of reading represents a complex interaction of

reading processes. It requires people to evaluate and critique information

from multiple texts or from one long text, then makes the decision about

which aspects of the text that are most important, most persuasive, or most

controversial. Besides, readers need to decide how to relate the text

information to other information intertextually and to their prior

knowledge and beliefs.

f) Reading for general comprehension

This is the reading that takes place when we read a good novel, an

interesting newspaper story, or feature article, or a magazine when we are

relaxing. In other words, in many cases, this is a type of reading for

interest or reading to entertain.

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 Thus, the purpose of reading is also to understand the meaning of

message provided by the text. Peny Ur (1991: 45) mentions that reading

skills need to be fostered so that the learners can cope with

more sophisticated text and task, a deal with them efficiently: quickly,

appropriately and skillfully. So it is clear that when the learner improves and

extend their reading skill, they will be able to be an effective and flexible

reader. And also it will help them to read many kinds of reading text although

they don't seem familiar with them. In the reading activity, the reader will

involve themselves to the text when they read and they will try to use their

cognitive to comprehend the text.

3. Stages in Reading

There are three stages in reading. They are before reading, whilst

reading and after reading (Abbott, 1981). Before/pre-reading stage is the

activities before the students read the text. Then, whilst reading stage is the

activities during the students read the text and try to understand the text.

Hence, after/post reading stage is the activities to review the content of the

text.

The purpose of the pre-reading stage is to build the students'

knowledge of the text and to motivate the students to Read. It is needed to

focus the students' attention. To focus the students' attention can be done by

using a picture, asking some questions and analyzing word association. Then,

the teacher could motivate the students by providing interesting texts. It will be

difficult because each student has different interests. The different interests are

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 caused by age, sex, and cultural background. In this case, the teacher can

motivate a class by some anticipation.

In whilst reading stage, the students read the text and try to

understand both literal and implied meaning of the text. This activity can

include identifying the main idea, finding details in a text, following a

sequence, inferring from the text, recognizing the writer's purpose and attitude,

recognizing discourse features, and the teacher's role is to help both individual

learners with their particular difficulties and the whole group.

The purpose of post reading is intended to review the content of the

text. In this stage, the students work on bottom-up concerns such as Grammar,

vocabulary and discuss features and consolidate what has been read by relating

the new information to the students' knowledge, interest, and opinion. The

activities of this stage, for example, the teacher asks some questions for

evaluation, asks the students to write a Summary of the text, asks them to

retell the essence of the text.

B. The Nature of Reading Comprehension

1. The Concept of Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is the goal of reading. In the simple

definition, it can be said as an ability to grasp meaning from printed text. Sheng

(2000: 34) defines reading comprehension as a process of negotiating

understanding between the reader and the writer. The reader tries to

comprehend the writer's thoughts in the text. In addition, Grabe (2002; 14)

states that reading for general comprehension is the ability to understand

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information in a text and interpret it appropriately. General comprehension is

an essential need for much information in a text. Readers need to identify the

information and connect it with what they have known. The reader tries to

interpret information to get messages. In the process of interpreting

information, the readers must use their background knowledge. So, reading

comprehension also can be defined as readers ‘ability to construct the meaning

or important ideas of the text by using their background knowledge and

experiences.

Moreover, Grabe and Stoller (2002:29) notes that reading

comprehension is an extraordinary feat of balancing and coordinating many

abilities in a very complex and rapid set of routines that makes comprehension

a seemingly effortless and enjoyable activity for fluency readers. Some

activities can be applied to reach reading comprehension. These

activities should encourage understanding of the readers and make them enjoy

reading for several purposes.

Reading comprehension depends on readers’ background

knowledge. Anderson (1999: 11) affirms that a reader's background knowledge

can influence reading comprehension skills. Background knowledge includes

all experience that a reader brings to a text: life experiences, educational

experiences, knowledge of how texts can be organized rhetorically, knowledge

of how one's first language works, knowledge of how the second language

works, and cultural background and knowledge, to name a few areas.

According to Nunan (2003:70), in order to know the concepts of

reading comprehension, students consider three categories of reading process

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in order to comprehend the text: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive model.

Bottom-up models start with the fundamental basics of letter and sound

recognition, which in turn allow for morpheme recognition followed by word

recognition, building up to the identification of grammatical structures,

sentences, and longer texts. In other words, with a bottom-up approach,

reading is viewed as a process of decoding written symbols, working from

smaller units to larger ones.

Top-down model, on the other hand, is a process base on

knowledge. Readers use their background knowledge, makes a prediction, and

searches the text to confirm or reject the predictions they are made. The

interactive model combines elements of both bottom-up and top-down model

assume "that a pattern is synthesized based on information provided

simultaneously from several knowledge sources", Stanovich in Nunan (2003:

45). The interactive model is accepted to be the most comprehensive

description of the reading process.

Kuo (2010) states that in order to help students learn reading

comprehension successfully, two main issues must be addressed: (a)

an appropriate reading strategies to be used for helping students to enhance

English comprehension. (b) An appropriate system to integrate verbal and

graphic information. To enhance reading comprehension, students should

develop some strategies, for example, looking ahead to predict, looking back to

clarify, selecting or comparing new information to prior knowledge, and

summarizing. Some of these strategies will be more effective if they are

integrated into verbal or graphic information.

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 In short, reading comprehension is a reading activity to get an

understanding of information that includes a writer and a reader. The reader

should interpret some information and messages that are given by the writer.

Some strategies can be applied to enhance reading comprehension, such as

looking ahead of text by top-down model, looking back to clarify by bottom up

to the model and summarizing by using verbal information.

2. The Level Reading Comprehension

According to Lerner (1985:359) there are some levels of reading

comprehension:

a. Literal comprehension

It is the skill of getting a primary direct literal meaning of a word,

idea, or sentence in context. Reading comprehension occurs when readers

recognize the form of words and the meaning so that the explicit

information can be understood.

b. Interpretation

This level of is to identify ideal and meaning that are not explicitly

stated in the written text. Moreover, readers understand the whole text and to

guess author's idea.

c. Critical reading

This level refers to the kind of reading that requires personal

judgment and evaluation. It means to evaluate what is read and examines

critically the writer's thought.

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 d. Creative reading

This level is to apply ideas from the text to new situations and to

recombine author's ideas with other ideas to form new concepts or to expand

old ones.

C. Teaching Reading at University

1. The Nature of Teaching Reading

Teaching is the process of transmitting information which given by

the teacher to the learner in a certain periods and in a certain methods.

Kimberly and garment in Brown (2001:7) defines teaching is an activity to help

someone to learn or do something, give command, guide in learning

something, and will cause someone understands and gets new knowledge. In

teaching, teachers guide and facilitate students in the learning process that

allows them to maintain a certain condition to study.

Teaching reading is very important in teaching English. This kind

of activity is to increase students' knowledge and their reading ability. A

teacher should know how to teach students to read effectively that allow them

to involve learning easily. Anderson (2008: 68), states that teaching reading in

two aspects. First, it can refer to teaching students who are learning to read for

the first time. It means that they transfer reading skill in Indonesian to reading

in English. The second aspect of teaching reading refers to teaching students

who already have reading skills in their first language. So, in teaching reading

teacher could guide students learn reading in understanding written text in

reading courses.

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 During teaching reading process we must pay attention to the

principles of teaching reading. The principles can be standard to limit teachers

when they teach reading. Harmer (2007) explains that there are several

principles of teaching reading. The principles of teaching reading are

stated below:

a. Allow the students to read

b. Encourage the students to respond the content of reading text

c. Predict is a major factor in reading

d. Match the task to the topic

To sum up, teaching reading is an activity to to help students to get

knowledge from printed text. This activity is to increase students' knowledge

and their reading ability. However, teacher could guide students learn reading

in understanding written text easily in reading courses. Teacher also needs to

follow the principles of teaching reading.

2. Teaching Reading at University

Teaching reading at university is different than teaching reading at

senior high school. Even though it seems students develop their reading skills

that they have already learned in senior high school, they are

more sophisticated than it seems. Kustaryo (1988: 3) says that at the university

level the students are faced with multiple needs, and one of these needs is to

understand reading materials. Students may be asked to read, comprehend, and

apply the text read in a meaningful way. Students can try to learn and

understand their level of text comprehension by using different strategies.

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 For students, university-level reading is more difficult than high

school reading. In a special case, students may encounter and face many more

literary genres than ever before. In reading university-level, students

also require reading numerous articles and essays such as narrative, descriptive,

discussion, persuasive, hortatory and argumentative text. Moreover,

understanding many kinds texts are essential for academic success. College

students who have strengthened their reading skills will improve more

and accomplish better development in all other areas of learning (Nunan:

2003:24). It can be assumed that students who read a lot tend to have a better

understanding which will influence their mark at the end of the semester.

Students also learn how to develop several reading comprehension

skills. These skills become reading indicator in this research, such as

identifying the topic, located the main idea, the supporting detail, identifying

the writer's purpose, making the inference, making reference, and identifying

vocabularies.

a. Identifying the topic

A thing that has to be considered in the reading test is about

identifying the topic. The topic is an essential part of a paragraph and

passage. In the reading process, the reader should know what the subject

talk in the paragraph is. According to McWhorter (1986:74), the topic is

the subject of the whole paragraph because each sentence in a paragraph

explains and discusses the topic in some way.

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b. Main Idea

The main idea tells what the author wants the reader to know

about the topic. The main idea consists of a sentence which tells the topic

explicitly. In a paragraph, the main idea can be found in several places.

It can be found in the first sentence. This paragraph is called deductive

pattern. The paragraph begins with a statement in the first paragraph (main

idea) and supported throughout the paragraph. The main idea also can

be found in the middle of a paragraph.

The writer builds up the main idea in the middle of a

paragraph and followed with the sentence which usually explains,

describes, or provides information about the main idea. Next, the main

idea can be found in the first and the last sentence. In this case, the writer

put the main idea in the first sentence and the following sentence explains

and supports the ideas. Finally, the main idea is restated in the end of the

sentence of a paragraph.

Actually, the main idea has two types; stated and unstated.

The stated main idea can be seen in the paragraph directly. It can be found

in the first sentence, last sentence, in the middle of a paragraph, and in the

first and the last paragraph. However, the unstated main idea is not directly

stated in the paragraph. This type of a paragraph contains details and

specific information related to a topic that is given. The reader must figure

out by inferring the topic, deciding what the writer wants readers to know

about the topic and expressing this idea in his or her own words.

Mc Whorther (1986) says there are some steps that can be used as a guide

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 in finding an unstated main idea. First, the reader has to identify the topic.

It can be done by looking at each detail and decide what larger ideas

explains. Finally, the reader expresses the idea in his or her own words.

c. Supporting Detail

Supporting detail consists of several sentences in a

paragraph. It involves facts, ideas, and information that prove and explain

the main idea in a paragraph (Mc Whorther, 1986). It means that

supporting details to make the reader know exactly about the main idea. It

also gives an explanation in details to make the reader know exactly about

the main idea in a paragraph.

Supporting detail can be supported in two types; major and

minor detail consists of a sentence that directly explains and supports the

main idea. In another word, provides information which less important to

prove main ideas. This detail provides information the qualifies, describe

or explain major detail

d. Understanding Vocabularies

Understanding vocabulary is also an important aspect that should

be mastered by the students. This aspect involves activity in knowing and

understanding about vocabulary that is found in the text. There are some

techniques that can be used in understanding vocabulary.

Mc Whorter (1986) says that one way to figure out the meaning of an

unknown word is to use context clues. It is one way of understanding the

vocabulary by using some clues can be classified into four types.

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 The first is definition clues. Here the writer may define a word

directly by giving a brief definition or providing synonym. The Second is

example clues. The writer often includes examples that help to explain or

clarify a word. The third one is contrasting clue. In this case, the writer

defines the meaning of an unknown word from a word or phrase that has

opposite meaning. The last one is making reference. This point is due to

the situation in which readers can figure out the meaning of an unknown

word by using logic and reasoning skills. In making reference students are

asked to identify the correct word that is pointed by the clues in the text.

e. Making Inference

Since information is not always stated in the exact term, Readers

have to find the specific information implied in the text by themselves.

They must supply their own information from details or ideas that are only

suggested by the writer. The Readers should go beyond surface the detail

and read between the lines to reach information logically. This process is

named making the inference. The inference is a process by which readers

use hints to gather information. Hint or suggestion may appear that they

have to build upon with their knowledge and experience in order

to understand the text fully.

f. Identifying Writer's Purpose

Some writers may have a certain purpose of writing a text. They

may have a purpose to entertain, to persuade the readers to believe

something, or just for giving information. Students have to be able to find

the writer's purpose in making the text. However, the purpose is not

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 merely stated in the text. They are often unstated or implied. The readers

have to get the purpose by reading the text and analyze with their own

thinking.

In summary, the teachers should be able to model those aspects

above in the teaching of reading for helping the students in getting

comprehension about the text. Those aspects above are very helpful making the

students get comprehension in teaching reading. The teachers have to be able

to model the text by using those aspects above.

D. Argumentative Text

1. Definition of Argumentative text

The argumentative text is one of the various texts that has been

taught in Reading courses. It is important for students to understand about the

kind of text read before reading which will help them to comprehend the text.

However, readers have to know about an argument, argumentative text, and the

generic structure of an argumentative text.

The first thing that they have to know is the argument. The

argument in the simple definition is expressing a point of view. Meriam-

Wester online dictionary states that argument is a statement or a series of

statements for or against something. However, some experts state about the

definition of argument. According to Buscemi and Smith (2004: 358), the

argument is a rhetorical technique used to support or deny a proposition by

offering detailed evidence for or against it in a logically connected fashion.

Likewise, an argument is also an exchange of ideas attempt to persuade each

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other (Long, 2008: 408). Another expert, VanderMey (2012: 250) also distinct

that argument is a series of statements arranged in a logical sequence,

supported by sound evidence and expressed powerfully so as to sway the

reader or listener. In sum, an argument can be defined as a series of statements

leading from a premise, base idea, to conclusion that the writer stands on its

argument, support it with solid reasons, and support reason with solid

evidence.

The second thing is about the argumentative text. An

argumentative text is a kind of text where writers prove their opinion, theory or

hypothesis about an issue is correct or more truthful than those of others. The

goal is to convince a reader that writers' opinion is right (Hogue: 2006). Hogue

also explains the unique an argumentative essay is that writers do not just

reasons to support their point of view. They must also discuss the other side's

reason and then rebut them. Rebut in this term is to point out the problem with

other side's reason to prove that they are not the good reason. They do this

because they want readers to know that they have considered all sides of issues.

When they show that they are reasonable and open-minded, readers are more

likely to listen to writer's point of view.

The argumentative text is written for several purposes. McCall

(1966: states that the central purpose of argumentative writing is to convince,

to persuade the readers to adopt a certain idea, attitude, or course of action. In

the same opinion, Hodgins & Yarber (1975:2) also assert the purpose of

argumentation is to convince the reader of the truth or relevance of the

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writer's position, to persuade him to adopt the writer's point of view, or to take

action to the writer recommends.

Based on the purpose of the text, this kind of text is very similar to

the persuasive text. The persuasive text is a text that the writers show the

argument to intentionally persuade readers for or against something. Even

though both texts have some purpose of persuading the readers, they are quite

different. The difference is in the argumentative text, it does not persuade

readers intentionally. Writers are arguing for their opinion as opposed to

others, rather than directly trying to persuade someone to adopt their point of

view. However, Oshima and Hogue (2006: 146) say that the unique of

argumentative texts is that the writer does not just give reasons to support his

or her arguments to support his/her point of view but he also discuss the other

side's reason and rebut them, which means to point out problems with the other

sides' reasons to prove that they are not good reason.

Knowing the generic structure of a particular text will enable the

writer to achieve the social purpose of the text effectively. The generic

structure is a set of distinctive functional stages or ‘chunks' of text (Coffin,

et.al., 2009:252). Other terms which also refer to the generic structure of text

are ‘schematic structure' or ‘generic structure potential'. The argumentative text

has its generic structure which differs than other texts. Some experts have

explained about the generic structure of an argumentative text. According

to Derewianka (2011;76), an argumentative text is organized into several parts:

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(1) Statement of positions

Statement of position is often accompanied by some background

information about the issues. In this text, statement of position is in the form

of a thesis statement. The statement of position is often addressed as a

claim which contains writer opinion about a certain issue.

(2) Supporting arguments

The writer should support his arguments with some reasonable

reasons, or he can point out that other arguments are wrong. To make the

supporting argument are trustful, the writer firms it with some solid

evidence.

(3) Summing up the position.

Summing up the position the writer makes a brief statement that

reviews the position that has been discussed in the text. The writer may

restate the argument or make a conclusion about his argument.

Another Expert Cappeleon (2008: 140) also explains that there are

several aspects that are important in the Argumentative text.

1) Position

Position means what side the writer is on. This shows that readers

are pro or contra, or they agree or not with something. They will

consistently stand with which position they think it is true.

2) Reasons

Reasons are why the writers believe their position is true. Writers

will give some reasons that show they are reasonable enough to stand with

their arguments.

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3) Evidence

The evidence is facts and data that support reasons. Maybe it is

some scientific articles or perhaps any data that related to issues. Both of

those pieces of evidence could support writers' reason. Further, the source

of some evidence can be questionable

4) Counterarguments

Counterarguments are reasons why the other side's arguments are

not correct which will point out some reasons that show other's side

opinion is wrong.

Likewise, Oshima and Hogue (2006: 146), also state 5 keys

elements of argumentative text which are must be available in every

argumentative text: (1) An explanation of the issue. (2) A clear thesis statement

(3) A summary of opposing arguments. (4) Rebuttals to the opposing

arguments (5) Writer's argument.

Based on the expert opinion above, there is three elements of

argumentative text: (1) position, (2) reason, (3) evidence, Position is often

accompanied by the background information about-about issues. This

statement becomes a thesis statement in an argumentative text. The statement

of position is often addressed as "claim". The claim is different with the issue

as well as Clouse (2008: 436) states that an issue is a concern or problem about

which people disagree. However, a claim is the writer's position on the issue.

An issue is also defined by McWhorter (2012: 516), as a controversy, a

problem, or an idea about which people hold different points of view and a

claim as the point the writer tries to prove, usually writer's view about an issue.

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So, based on the definitions above, can be concluded that claim is writer's

opinion about an issue.

McWhorther (2012: 517) and VanderMey (2012: 252-253) have

the classified claim into three specific categories: truth/fact, value, and policy.

The truth/fact claim is a claim that can be proved or verified which the

readers are hoped to accept this claim as trustworthy. However, value claim

states a claim which focuses on showing how one idea or more desirable than

another idea. In this claim, readers are hoped to accept his judgment. The last

claim is policy claim. It states that something ought or ought not to be done.

This claim offers one or more solution to the problem; it requires readers to

approve the writer's course of action.

Writer must present sequence of arguments with several reasons to

support his point of view. A reason is a general statement that backs up a claim

(McWhorter, 2012: 518). It will explain writers’ view on the issue is

reasonable or correct. Each of reason needs to prove with some solid evidences

and often by emotional appeals. The points should be carefully selected and

developed, and related to the writer’s claim. Evidence suggest several types of

evidence: observation and anecdotes, statistic, tests, and experiments, graphics,

analogies, expert testimony, illustrations, examples and demonstration, analyze

and prediction. The writer needs to be wise in choosing evidence that is used.

In comprehending argumentative text, requires students to use their

own critical thinking. According to Wilson (2009: 26), the critical thinking is a

process, a way of thinking, to understand something. She also states that

critical thinking is about using the ability to reason. It is about being active in

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the reading such as approach an idea, always questioning ideas in the text. In

other words, readers are identifying, analyzing, where possible, solving

problem systematically.

Students then will have an ability to create their own arguments. It

is the way in which ideas are developed and organized into a line of reasoning

which moves in logical order. Being able to discern and create structured,

reasoned arguments in central to critical thinking. Cottrel, S: 2005 in Wilson

said that good critical thinking includes recognizing good arguments even we

disagree with them and poor arguments even when these support our point of

view.

It can be concluded that critical thinking is the way to think and

argue. Students are being critical in the sense of analyzing ideas, observation,

experience and reasons, exploring the evidence and carefully considering

whether something makes sense and is accurate. This critical thinking will help

students understand more about the text. When the students read the text, they

will ask questions about the text. This will keep them to focus and will help

them to develop an understanding of the text.

From several previous opinions, it can be concluded that

argumentative text is an essay in which the author argues (agrees or disagrees)

about an issue, proves his point of view by providing solid reasons and sound

evidence (whether for or against the issue), and organizes them in a logically

connected way. This text has the main purpose is to persuade readers. The

generic structure of this text is the position, reason, and evidence. To

comprehend the text, the student’s critical thinking is needed.

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E. Assessing Students’ reading comprehension

1. Nature of Assessing Reading

Reading assessment has an important role to inform the teachers

about the successful of learning. It can be an indicator that the students

understand or not with the lesson given. Assessing reading is an ongoing

process that encompasses a much wider domain (Brown, 2004: 4). The domain

in this term such as students responds to a question offers a comment, or tries

out a new word or structure; the teacher subconsciously makes an

assessment of the student's performance.

Assessing reading also can diagnose students reading difficulty.

Nation (2009: 79) says "if a learner is having problems with reading, it is very

useful to be able to see where the problems lie. As reading is a complex skill,

there are many possible sources of difficulty". The assessors have to find a

right diagnostic in order to find a right approach in teaching. However, Nation

also states there are four principles in diagnosing students reading difficulty.

(1) Diagnosing problems should be done on an individual basis. (2) diagnosing

problems should begin with the smallest units involved and go step by step to

the larger units. (3) As much as possible, learners should feel comfortable with

and relaxed during diagnostic testing. (4) Do not rely on only one test. By

following this principle, the assessors will be able to diagnose students

effectively.

There are many procedures to assess students' reading, one of them

is a test. The test is a method of a measuring a person's ability, knowledge

Performance in a given domain depends on the purpose of assessment. As an

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instrument of assessment, it is used to obtain data about personal ability in

comprehending the materials that have been learned by test-takers. Besides

that, a test is an important instrument to measure students' achievement as

inputs for making the rational decision. Hughes (2002: 67) confirms that test is

needed to in order to provide information about the achievement of groups of

learners and to see how rationale educational decisions can be made.

Meanwhile, Richard and Amato (2003: 13) state that general test is important

to give because of three reasons. They are: (1) test is as an instrument to place

students appropriately in programs, (2) test is as an instrument to diagnose

students' problems in learning, (3) test is as an instrument to measure, how far

students have reached course objectives.

Since the aim of this research is to know students reading

comprehension, the test done must measure students reading comprehension.

However, Reading comprehension can be measured in several different ways.

Weir (1990) states that there are four instruments used to measure reading

comprehension namely multiple choice questions, short answer questions,

cloze procedure and C- test.

1. Multiple Choice Questions

Multiple choice question form is usually set out in such a way that

the students are required to select the answer from a number of given

options, only one of which is correct. The marking process is

totally objective because the marker is not permitted to exercise judgment

when marking the student's answer; agreement has already been reached as

to the correct answer for each item. Moreover, Multiple-choice questions

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 allow testers to control the range of possible answers to comprehension

questions. Students can learn how to answer multiple-choice questions by

eliminating improbable distracters or by various forms of logical analysis of

the structure of the question.

2. Short Answer Questions

These are questions which require the students to write down the

specific answer in space provided on the question paper. The technique is

extremely useful for testing both reading and listening comprehension and

the comment made below in reference to reading are, for the most part, also

applicable to test listening.

3. Cloze Procedures

In the cloze procedure, words are deleted from the text after

following a few sentences of introduction. The deletion rate is mechanically

set, usually between every fifth and eleventh words. The students have to

fill each gap by supplying the word they think has been deleted.

4. C- Test

In the C- test every second word in a text is partially deleted. In an

attempt to ensure solution students are given the first half of deleted word.

The students complete on the test paper and exact word scoring procedure is

adopted.

To sum up, reading assessment is very important in teaching the

reading process. The use of assessing reading may depend on the purpose of

the assessment is self. For example, assessing to encourage learning, assessing

to monitor progress and provide feedback, assessing to diagnose problems, and

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 assessing to measure the proficiency. However, a test is one of several

instruments for assessing.

F. Previous Related Studies

Several types of research have been conducted about student's

reading comprehension. The first is a research from K.M. Rebel and Connie

Sue, St.John's University, Taiwan (2004). The title is Developing Reading

Comprehension Skills in EFL University Level Students. This research is an

experimental research which obtained to explores the development of reading

comprehension in university-level EFL students. The students can

be assisted in the development of comprehension skills in various ways,

including the development of background knowledge, helping them to ask

pertinent questions of the text, making predictions, interpreting charts and other

illustrations contained in the text, as well as the way language, is used in the

text.

The second research is a research from Meredith Larson, M. Anne

Britt, And Aaron A. Larson (2004) from Northern Illinois University, Dekalb,

Illinois, and the USA with titled Disfluencies in Comprehending

Argumentative texts. There are several students that get involved this research.

They are asked to read several lengthy arguments and identified the main claim

and reasons. The experiment shows that students are not skilled in identifying

key elements from an argumentative text (only 30% accuracy). Claim and

reason identification errors showed the interesting patterns such as identifying

either an uncontroversial statement of the theme or a counterargument as the

claim.

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 The last research titled "SFL and Argumentative Essays in ESOL" from

Helen Holmesglen JENKINS (Institute of TAFE, Melbourne, Australia) and

Maria Lelia PICO (Universidad Nacional de Tucuman, Argentina) in 2006.

This research is the result of a current collaboration by two ESOL teachers on

opposite sides of the Pacific. SFL refers to the genre "expository essay". This

paper reports on the use of SFL analysis as a tool for analyzing model

argumentative essays plus a sample of essays written by students.

G. Conceptual Framework

Since the aim of this research is to know students' reading

comprehension in reading an argumentative text, the conceptual

framework can be drawn as:

Students’ Reading Comprehension

Argmentative text

Making
reference

Topic

Making
Generic inference
Structure Supporting
Writer’s Main Idea
purpose Idea

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