MATERIALS SCIENCE AND METALLURGY

By

P. Dinesh Babu
SAP/SoME

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 MEC201
MATERIALS SCIENCE & METALLURGY
UNIT: I 12 Hours
FUNDAMENTAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE: Atomic arrangement.Crystal structure of materials. BCC,
FCC, HCP. Point, line, planar and volume defects.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS: Basic mechanical properties (Elastic modulus, strength

(tensile/compressive), ductility, toughness, resilience). Tribological properties (friction, types of
wear). Thermal properties (thermal conductivity and co-efficient of thermal expansion).

PHYSICAL METALLURGY: Phase. Phase rule. Solidification of pure metal & alloys. Hume Rothery
rules. Introduction to phase diagrams. Isomorphous, eutectic systems. Iron Iron carbide
equilibrium diagram. Lever rule. Quantification of phases.

UNIT: II 15 Hours
FERROUS MATERIALS: Types of steels – Classifications & Specifications (AISI and UNS).
Effect of alloying elements on properties of steels. Different grades carbon & low alloy steels.
Types, properties and applications of cast irons & stainless steels.TTT and CCT diagrams. Heat
treatment of steels – Annealing, Normalising, hardening & tempering, martempering,
austempering. Overview of case hardening of steels.

NON-FERROUS MATERIALS: Aluminium, Titanium, Copper, Magnesium alloys – Overview of

composition, properties and application. Precipitation hardening of aluminium alloys.

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UNIT: III
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS AND COMPOSITES: Classification of non-metallic materials –
Polymers, glasses and ceramic materials. Different types of polymers. Polymerization.
Properties & applications of polymers. Types of Ceramics. Properties & Applications.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS: Particulate and fibre reinforced composites, laminates, sandwich

structures. Metal matrix composites. Polymer matrix composites, Ceramic matrix composites.
Brief overview of at least one production method, properties and applications of composite
materials.
SMART MATERIALS: Definition and a brief overview of smart materials.

UNIT: IV
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS: Stress strain diagram for ductile and
brittle materials. Engineering stress, strain. True stress, true strain. Fatigue. Endurance limit.
Creep. Creep curve. Ductile to brittle transition temperature.

MECHANICAL TESTING OF MATERIALS: Hardness. Tensile. Compression. Impact. Fatigue.

Creep and Wear.

INTRODUCTION TO NDT: Overview of various NDT techniques. Visual. Liquid penetrant

testing. Magnetic particle testing. Eddy current. Ultrasonic testing. X-ray testing.

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TEXT BOOKS:
1. V. Raghavan, “Material Science and Engineering – A first course”, Prentice
Hall of India Ltd, New Delhi, 6th Edition, 2015.
2. Sydney H. Avner, An Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publications, New Delhi, 2010.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. William D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering- An Introduction, John
Wiley & Sons Inc., Singapore, 9th Edition, 2010.

2. Donald R. Askeland and Pradeep P. Phule, The Science and Engineering of

Materials,Thomson Asia Private Limited, Singapore, 2003.

3. R.A. Higgins, Engineering Metallurgy, Viva publications, Sixth Edition, New Delhi,
2006.

4. George, E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill Edition, 2015.

5. Baldev Raj, Non Destructive Testing Techniques, Narosa Publishers, 2002.

6. Kenneth G Budinski, Michael K Budinski, Engineering Materials, Prentice Hall of

India Private Ltd, 8th Edition, 2005.
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 Material Science and Metallurgy
Materials – Not refer to all matter in the universe.

Matter useful to mankind (food, medicines, explosives, chemicals, water, steel,

plastics, and concrete).

Materials - useful to the engineer in the practice of his profession.

Materials –only solid

Classification of Engineering Materials
1. Metals and alloys – Thermal and electrical conductivity, rigitity

2. Ceramics and Glasses – non metallic, brittle , thermal and electrical

insulating properties.(oxides and
silicates) Cement, sand, insulators

3. Organic Polymers –light, plasticity (PVC, cables, tyres, wood)

4. Semiconductors – Silicon chip used in computers (Germanium, silicon carbide,
Zinc sulphite and Galium arsenite)
5. Composites - Man made material (Fiberglass, helmet, body of washing
machine)
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Three Major Group of Engineering Materials

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 Engineering Requirements of Materials

Fabrication requirements
Able to get shaped (cast, forged, formed)

Service requirements
Proper strength, wear resistance and corrosion resistance.

Economic requirements
Made with minimum overall cost.

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 Application of Materials
Structures – Aircraft, building, ship

Machines – Engines, gear, piston, motors

Devices – radio, computer, television

Material Science?
Physics and chemistry of the internal structure of materials (solid state).

Investigates the relationship between the structure and properties.

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 Metallurgy
Science and technology of metals.

Science of extracting metals, production of alloys.

Physical and mechanical properties and relation with thermal and

mechanical treatment.

History of Metallurgy

Gold – First metal used.

Copper and Iron

19th century – Metal working

1864 – sorby (UK) – Microscopical photos of steels

1878 – Martens (Germany) – Summarize in paper

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1922 – Properties of metals – X-ray diffraction.
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 Classification of Metallurgy

Extractive Metallurgy – liberation of metals from ores.

Mechanical Metallurgy – Mechanical working (pressing, drawing,

rolling, forging) and testing of materials.

Physical Metallurgy – Structure of metals and alloys.

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Material Structure – Internal structure of a material.
 Magnification and resolution of the physical aid used are a measure of the level of
observation.

 The higher the magnification, the finer is the level.

Structure of materials

Macrostructure - Low magnification, large crystals of a crystalline material may be

visible. (naked eye-0.11mm)

Microstructure - Optical microscope, magnify 1500 times without loss of resolution.

Resolution of human eye is 0.1 mm. Microscope has 0.0000001 mm

Substructure - Electron microscope, magnification of 1000000 times.

Crystal structure – Atomic arrangement within a crystal using X ray diffraction.

Electronic structure – Electrons in the outermost orbitals of individual atoms using

spectroscopic technique.

Nuclear structure – Nuclear spectroscopic technique (Nuclear magnetic Resonance)

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 Microstructure

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Atomic Arrangement

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 Atomic Arrangement

 Atomic arrangement plays an important role in

determining the microstructure and behaviour of a solid.

 For example, the atomic arrangement in aluminium

provides good ductility, while that in iron provides good
strength.

 Due to differing atomic arrangement, polyethylene is

easily deformed, rubber can be elastically stretched,
and epoxy is strong and brittle.

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 Crystal structure of materials
Solid materials classified according to the regularity with
which atoms or ions are arranged with respect to one
another.

Crystal: Orderly array of atoms in space.

Crystal Structure : The manner in which atoms, ions or

molecules are spatially arranged.

Crystallography : It is a system for describing crystal

structures, planes and direction in crystals.
By knowing crystal structure of material, scientists and engineers can deduce
some of the properties of a material.

For example if a metal is FCC, it should be relatively easy to deform the

material in processing through procedures such as rolling.

Lattice : A three dimensional array of points coinciding with atom positions

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 Lattice
 Lattice : Collection of points, which are arranged in a periodic
pattern so that the surroundings of each point in the lattice are
identical.

 A lattice may be one, two, or three dimensional.

 Lattice used to describe arrangements of atoms or ions.

 A group of atoms, located in a particular way with respect to each

other and associated with each lattice point, is known as the motif or
basis.

 Crystal structure = lattice + basis

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 Space Lattices
 Space lattice: Defined as an infinite array of points in three
dimensional space in which every point has identical surroundings.

 For ease of representation on paper, consider a two dimensional

square array of points.
 By repeated translation of the two
vectors a and b on the plane, we can
generate the square array.

 The magnitudes of a and b are equal

and can be taken to be unity. The
angle between them is 90 °.

 a and b are called the fundamental

translation vectors.
Two dimensional Lattice
 Unit cell is the square obtained by joining four neighboring lattice points.
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 Cont..
3D- Lattice
 A three dimensional space lattice is generated by repeated translation
of three non-coplanar vectors, a, b and c.

 The unit cell is the subdivision of a lattice. By stacking identical unit

cells, the entire lattice can be constructed.

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 Unit Cell
 The atomic order in crystalline solids indicates that small groups of atoms
form a repetitive pattern.

 Unit cells : Subdivide the crystal structure into small repeat entities .

 A unit cell is chosen to represent the symmetry of the crystal structure.

 It is the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure and
defines the crystal structure by virtue of its geometry and the atom
positions within.

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Crystal Systems

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Crystal Systems

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 Simple Cubic

volume of atoms in a unit cell Vs

APF  
total unit cell volume Vu

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 Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structures

 Cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners and a single atom
at the cube center.

 Example: Sodium, iron, Chromium, Molybdenum, niobium and tungsten

4R
unit cell length, a 
3
 Number of atoms = 2

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 Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structures
4R
unit cell length, a 
3

a
a

 The atomic packing factor is also lower for BCC- 0.68 versus 0.74.
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 Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structures

Face Centered cubic (FCC) unit cell

 Many metals has a unit cell of cubic geometry.

 Atoms located at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube
faces.

 Example: Copper, Silver, Gold, Nickel and Aluminum.

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 Atomic radii and crystal structures of 16 metals

Number of atoms per unit cell Nf Nc

N  Ni  
Where Ni = the number of interior atoms 2 8
Nf = the number of face atoms
Nc = the number of corner atoms

For FCC crystal structure

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 Atomic packing factor -FCC crystal structure
volume of atoms in a unit cell Vs
APF  
total unit cell volume Vu

a  2R 2

 
3
Total unit cell volume, Vc  a  2R 2
3
 16R3 2

4 3
The volume of a Sphere is R
3

4 16 3
In FCC there are 4 spheres (atoms) Vs  (4) R  R
3

3 3
 16  3
  R
Vs  3 
APF   3
 0.74
Vc 16 R 2
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 Hexagonally closed packed (HCP) Crystal Structures

 Top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of six atoms that form
regular hexagons and surround a single atom in the center.

 Another plane that provides three additional atoms to the unit cell is
situated between the top and bottom planes.

 Example: Titanium, Cobalt, Zinc, Cadmium and Zirconium

Nf Nc
 Number of atoms N  Ni  
2 6
 The atomic packing factor is 0.74.
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APF of Hexagonally closed
packed (HCP) Crystal
Structures

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 Coordination Number
 The coordination number is the number of atoms touching a
particular atom, or the number of nearest neighbours for that
particular atom.

 Coordination number of FCC is 12.

 In FCC, front face atom has touch with four corner atoms, four face
atoms and four other equivalent atoms.

 Atomic packing factor (APF) is the sum of the sphere volumes of

all atoms within a unit cell (assuming the atomic hard sphere
model) divided by the unit cell volume.
volume of atoms in a unit cell Vs
APF  
total unit cell volume Vu
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Coordination Number

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 Miller Indices
 Lines which shows the direction with the help of arrow.

 Name of this direction in crystal is called miller indices.

 We give names to all parallel directions in the same sense one name.

 Pointing in opposite direction, opposite name.

 Choice of the origin is arbitrary.

 You can shift the origin.

 But the axis and sense once chosen, you will not change.

 It shows the unit distance in the direction.

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 Miller Indices for Directions
Coordinates of Points
We can locate certain points, such as atom positions, in the
lattice or unit cell by constructing the right-handed
coordinate system.
Directions in the Unit Cell
The procedure for finding the Miller indices for
directions is as follows:
1. Using a right-handed coordinate system, determine the coordinates of two points
that lie on the direction.

2. Subtract the coordinates of the ―tail‖ point from the coordinates of the ―head‖
point to obtain the number of lattice parameters travelled in the direction of each
axis of the coordinate system.

3. Clear fractions and or reduce the results obtained from the subtraction to lowest
integers.

4. Enclose the numbers in square brackets [ ]. If a negative sign is produced,

represent the negative sign with a bar over the number.
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 Determine the Miller indices of directions A, B, and C in Figure
Direction A
1. Two points are 1, 0, 0, and 0, 0, 0
2. 1, 0, 0 – (0, 0, 0) = 1, 0, 0
3. No fractions to clear or integers to reduce
4. [100]
Direction B
1. Two points are 1, 1, 1 and 0, 0, 0
2. 1, 1, 1 – (0, 0, 0) = 1, 1, 1
3. No fractions to clear or integers to reduce
4. [111].

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 Several points should be noted about the use of Miller indices for directions:

1. Because directions are vectors, a direction and its negative are not identical;
[100] is not equal to .They represent the same line, but opposite directions.

2. A direction and its multiple are identical; [100] is the same direction as [200].

3. Certain groups of directions are equivalent; they have their particular indices
because of the way we construct the coordinates.

 For example, in a cubic system, a [100]

direction is a [010] direction if we redefine the
coordinate system as shown in Figure.

 We may refer to groups of equivalent

directions as directions of a form or family.

 The special brackets < > are used to indicate

this collection of directions.

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 All of the directions of the form 110 are listed.

We expect a material to have the same properties in each of these twelve

directions of the form 110 .

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 Miller Indices of Planes
 Certain planes of atoms in a crystal also carry particular significance.

 For example, metals deform along planes of atoms that are most tightly
packed together.

 The surface energy of different faces of a crystal depends upon the particular
crystallographic planes. This becomes important in crystal growth

Miller indices are used as a shorthand notation to identify these important

planes, as described in the following procedure.
1. Identify the points at which the plane intercepts the x, y, and z coordinates in
terms of the number of lattice parameters.

2. If the plane passes through the origin, the origin of the coordinate system must
be moved to that of an adjacent unit cell.

3. Take reciprocals of these intercepts.

4. Clear fractions but do not reduce to lowest integers.

5. Enclose the resulting numbers in parentheses (hkl). Again, negative numbers

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Miller Indices of Planes

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Determine the Miller indices of planes A, B, and C in Figure

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We will need to move in the
negative y-direction, let’s
locate the origin at 0, +1, 0.

The ―tail‖ of the direction

will be located at this new
origin.

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 Several important aspects of the Miller indices for planes
1. Planes and their negatives are identical (this was not the case for directions)
because they are parallel. Therefore,

2. Planes and their multiples are not identical (again, this is the opposite of what
we found for directions).

3. In each unit cell, planes of a form or family represent groups of equivalent

planes that have their particular indices because of the orientation of the
coordinates. We represent these groups of similar planes with the notation {}.
The planes of the form {110} in cubic systems are shown in Table

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 CRYSTAL DEFECTS
 The arrangement of the atoms or ions in materials contains
imperfections or defects.

 These defects often have a profound effect on the properties of

materials.

 Crystal = Space lattice + Basis (Motif)

 Space lattice is infinite

 Real crystals are finite

 External surface of a crystal is an obvious defect or imperfection.

 Imperfections by their presence increase the energy or enthalpy.

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Three basic types of imperfections:
1. Point defects

2. Line defects (or dislocations)

3. Surface defects

4. Volume defects

 Imperfections only represent defects or deviations from the

perfect or ideal atomic arrangements.

 The material is not considered defective from a technological

viewpoint.

 In many applications, the presence of such defects is useful.

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 Crystal Defects
 Defects are useful for increasing the strength of metals and alloys;

 However, in single crystal silicon, used for manufacturing computer

chips, the presence of dislocations is undesirable.

 Often the ―defects‖ may be created intentionally to produce a

desired set of electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical
properties.

 For example, pure iron - soft, yet, add a small amount of carbon,
we create defects in the crystalline arrangement of iron and
transform it into a plain carbon steel- higher strength.

 A crystal of pure alumina is transparent and colorless, but, when

we add a small amount of chromium, it creates a special defect,
resulting in a beautiful red ruby crystal.
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 POINT DEFECTS
 Point defects are localized disruptions in perfect atomic or ionic
arrangements in a crystal structure.

 Even though we call them point defects, which affects a region involving
several atoms or ions.

 These imperfections, may be introduced by movement of the atoms or ions

when they gain energy by heating, during processing of the material, or
by the intentional or unintentional introduction of impurities.

Vacancies
 A vacancy is produced when an atom or an ion is
missing from its normal site in the crystal structure.

 When atoms or ions are missing (i.e., when vacancies

are present), the overall randomness or entropy of
the material increases, which increases the
thermodynamic stability of a crystalline material.
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 Cont..
Vacancies are introduced into metals and
alloys during solidification, at high
temperatures, or as a consequence of
radiation damage.

At room temperature (298 K), the

concentration of vacancies is small, but the
concentration of vacancies increases
exponentially as the temperature increases.
Arrhenius type behaviour

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 Interstitial Defects
 An interstitial defect is formed when an extra
atom or ion is inserted into the crystal structure at
a normally unoccupied position.

 Interstitial atoms or ions, although much smaller

than the atoms or ions located at the lattice points.

 Interstitial atoms such as hydrogen are often

present as impurities, whereas carbon atoms are
intentionally added to iron to produce steel.

 Interstitial atoms is one important way of

increasing the strength of metallic materials.

 Unlike vacancies, once introduced, the number of

interstitial atoms or ions in the structure remains
nearly constant, even when the temperature is
changed.
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 Substitutional Defects
 A substitutional defect is introduced when one atom
or ion is replaced by a different type of atom or
ion.

 The substitutional atoms or ions occupy the

normal lattice site.

 Substitutional atoms or ions may either be larger

than the normal atoms or ions in the crystal
structure,

 In which case the surrounding interatomic

spacings are reduced, or smaller causing the
surrounding atoms to have larger interatomic
spacings.

 In either case, the substitutional defects disturb the

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 Again, the substitutional defect can be
introduced either as an impurity or as a
deliberate alloying addition, and, once
introduced, the number of defects is
relatively independent of temperature.

 Examples of substitutional defects include

incorporation of dopants such as
phosphorus (P) or boron (B) into Si.

 Similarly, if we add copper to nickel,

copper atoms will occupy crystallographic
sites where nickel atoms would normally
be present.

 The substitutional atoms will often

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 Other Point Defects

 A Frenkel defect is a vacancy-interstitial pair formed when an ion

jumps from a normal lattice point to an interstitial site, leaving
behind a vacancy.

 Although, this is usually associated with ionic materials, a Frenkel

defect can occur in Metals.

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 A Schottky defect, is unique to ionic materials and is commonly found
in many ceramic materials.

 When vacancies occur in an ionically bonded material, a stoichiometric

number of anions and cations must be missing from regular atomic
positions if electrical neutrality is to be preserved.

 Example: NaCl sodium chloride. Representing 1:1 ration of sodium and

chloride ions.

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 Line Defects
 Dislocations are line imperfections or a linear or one-dimensional defect
around which some of the atoms are misaligned in an crystal.

 They are introduced into a crystal during solidification of the material or

when the material is deformed permanently.

 Dislocations are present in all materials, including ceramics and polymers.

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 Three types of edge dislocations:
1. Edge dislocation
2. Screw dislocation
3. Mixed dislocation

 The magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion associated

with a dislocation is expressed in terms of a Burgers vector,
denoted by b.

 The nature of a dislocation (i.e., edge, screw, or mixed) is defined by

the relative orientations of dislocation line and Burgers vector.

 For an edge, they are perpendicular, whereas for a screw, they are
parallel; they are neither perpendicular nor parallel for a mixed
dislocation.

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https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/kap_5/illustr/a5_1_1.html

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1. Edge dislocation
 An extra portion of a plane of atoms, or half-
plane, the edge of which terminates within the
crystal.
 This is termed an edge dislocation; it is a
linear defect that centers around the line that
is defined along the end of the extra half-plane
of atoms.

 This is sometimes termed the dislocation line.

 The atoms above the dislocation line are squeezed together, and those
below are pulled apart; this is reflected in the slight curvature for the
vertical planes of atoms as they bend around this extra half-plane.

 The magnitude of this distortion decreases with distance away from

the dislocation line; at positions far removed, the crystal lattice is
virtually perfect.

 Sometimes the edge dislocation is represented by

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also indicates the position of the dislocation
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 2. Screw dislocation
 Formed by a shear stress that is applied to
produce the distortion.

 The upper front region of the crystal is

shifted one atomic distance to the right
relative to the bottom portion.

 The atomic distortion associated with a screw

dislocation is also linear and along a
dislocation line, line AB in Figure.

 The screw dislocation derives its name from

the spiral or helical path or ramp that is
traced around the dislocation line by the
atomic planes of atoms.

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3. Mixed dislocation

Most dislocations found in crystalline materials

are probably neither pure edge nor pure screw, but
exhibit components of both types; these are
termed mixed dislocations.

A transmission electron micrograph of a

titanium alloy in which the dark lines are
dislocations
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 Significance of Line Defects or dislocations

Dislocations are most significant in metals and alloys since

they provide a mechanism for plastic deformation.

The slip process is particularly important in understanding

the mechanical behaviour of metals.

Slip provides ductility in metals.

 If no dislocations were present, an iron bar would be brittle

and the metal could not be shaped by metalworking
processes, such as forging, into useful shapes.

Mechanical properties of a metal or alloy can be controlled

by interfering with the movement of dislocations.
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 Surface or planar Defects
 Surface defects are the boundaries, or planes, that
separate a material into regions. For example, each
region may have the same crystal structure but
different orientations.

 Surface imperfections may include grain boundaries,

tilt boundaries, twin boundaries, stacking faults, and
phase boundaries.
Grain Boundaries
 A grain is a portion of the material within which
the arrangement of the atoms is nearly identical;
however, the orientation of the atom arrangement,
or crystal structure, is different for each adjoining
grain.

 The arrangement of atoms in each grain is

identical but the grains are oriented differently.
Grains and grain boundaries
in a stainless steel
 A grain boundary, the surface that separates the
individual grains, is a narrow
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 High and low angle of misalignment in grain boundary
 The boundary separating two small
grains or crystals having different
orientations in polycrystalline
materials.

 A grain boundary is formed when two

growing grain surfaces meet.

 When this orientation mismatch is

slight, on the order of a few degrees,
then the term small- (or low-) angle
grain boundary is used.

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 Tilt Boundaries

 A small angle grain boundary is an array of

dislocations that produces a small mis-orientation
between the adjoining crystals.

 Small angle boundaries formed by edge dislocations are

called tilt boundaries.

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 Twin Boundaries
 A twin boundary is a plane across which there is a special mirror image mis-
orientation of the crystal structure.(during annealing)

 Twins can be produced when a shear force, acting along the twin boundary, causes
the atoms to shift out of position.

 Twinning occurs during deformation or heat treatment of certain metals. The twin
boundaries interfere with the slip process and increase the strength of the metal.

A micrograph of
twins within a grain
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 Volume or bulk Defects
 Defects in 3-dimensions

 Exist in all solid materials that are much

larger.

 These include pores, cracks, foreign

inclusions, and other phases.

 They are normally introduced during

processing and fabrication steps.

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 Anisotropy and Isotropy

 In a single crystal, the physical and mechanical properties

often differ with orientation.

 When the properties of a material vary with different

crystallographic orientations, the material is said to be
anisotropic.

 Alternately, when the properties of a material are the same in

all directions, the material is said to be isotropic.

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 Properties of Engineering Materials
Property of a material is a factor
that influences qualitatively or
quantitatively the response of a
given material to imposed
constraints.

Different Material properties are:

1.Mechanical properties
2.Thermal properties
3.Electrical properties
4.Magnetic properties
5.Chemical properties
6.Optical properties
7.Physical properties
8.Technological properties

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1. Mechanical properties – It include the characteristics of material that describe its
behaviour under the action of external forces.

a) Elasticity : Tendency of a deformed solid to seek its original dimension upon

unloading.

b) Plasticity : Permanent deformation.

c) Toughness : Ability of the material to absorb energy during plastic

deformation.

d) Resilience : Ability to absorb energy when it is elastically deformed.

e) Tensile strength : Measure of the strength and ductility of a material.

f) Yield Strength : Ability of a material to resist plastic deformation.

g) Impact strength : Ability of a material to resist or absorb shock energy

before it fractures.

h) Ductility : Ability of a material to undergo deformation under tension without

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i) Malleability : Capacity of a material to withstand deformation under
compression (forging and rolling)

j) Brittleness : Tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation (cast

iron)

k) Hardness : Resistance of a material to plastic deformation.

l) Fatigue :Characteristic behaviour developed under fluctuating or repeated

loads.

m) Creep:Time dependent and permanent deformation under constant load or

stress.

n) Wear Resistance : Ability to resist wear.

Factors affecting mechanical properties

Alloy contents, grain size, crystal imperfections, manufacturing defects.

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 Mechanical Properties
Tensile Behavior

 Strength
 Young’s modulus
 Elongation
 Reduction in area
Videos\Tensile Testing a Stainless
Steel Tensile Specimen [720p].mp4

Resilience & Toughness

Ability to absorb energy
 Tribological Properties
Friction is a force that holds back the movement of a sliding object. The force
acts in the opposite direction to the way an object wants to slide.

Wear is the removal of the material from the surface of a solid body as a
result of mechanical action of the counter body.

The mechanisms of wear:

Abrasive wear
Adhesive wear
Fatigue wear
Corrosive wear
Erosive wear
 Abrasive wear
Abrasive wear occurs when a harder material is rubbing against a softer
material.

If there are only two rubbing parts involved in the friction process the wear is
called two body wear.

If the wear is caused by a hard particle (grit) trapped between the rubbing
surfaces it is called three body wear.

Two-body Hardness of materials

Hardness of particles
Particle size, shape
Sliding velocity
Contact stress

Three-body

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 Adhesive wear
Adhesion wear is a result of micro-junctions caused by welding between the
opposing asperities on the rubbing surfaces of the counter bodies.

The load applied to the contacting asperities is so high that they deform and
adhere to each other forming micro-joints.

Thus some of the material is transferred by its counter body. This effect is
called scuffing or galling.
Surface roughness
Lubrication
Sliding velocity
Contact stress

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Erosion
Erosive wear is caused by
impingement of particles (solid,
liquid or gaseous), which remove
fragments of materials from the
surface due to momentum effect.

Substrate material/hardness
Erodent material/hardness
Shape, size & distribution
Erodent dosage
Impingement angle
Impingement velocity
Fragmentation of erodent
 Corrosive wear
Wear may be accelerated by corrosion (oxidation) of the rubbing
surfaces.

Fatigue wear
Fatigue wear of a material is caused by
a cycling loading during friction.

Fatigue occurs if the applied load is

higher than the fatigue strength of the
material.

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 Thermal Properties
The response of material to the application of heat.

1. Heat Capacity
Ability of the material to absorb heat from the surroundings.

2. Specific heat
The quantity of heat that must be added to a unit mass.

3. Thermal Expansion
When thermal energy is added to a material, a change in its dimension
occurs.

4. Melting point
It is the temperature at which a material changes from solid to liquid.

5. Thermal conductivity
The rate at which heat can flow through a material.

6. Thermal shock resistance

Ability to withstand sudden temperature changes without failure
7. Heat resistance
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 Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity (often denoted by k, λ, or κ) refers to the intrinsic
ability of a material to transfer or conduct heat. It is one of the three
methods of heat transfer, the other two being convection and radiation.

Thermal conductivity occurs through molecular agitation and contact.

Heat moves along a temperature gradient, from an area of high

temperature and high molecular energy to an area with a lower
temperature and lower molecular energy.

This transfer will continue until thermal equilibrium is reached. The rate at
which heat is transferred is dependent upon the magnitude of the
temperature gradient, and the specific thermal characteristics of the
material.

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Thermal conductivity is quantified using the units of W/m•K.
Thermal conductivity can be calculated using the following equation:

k=Q∗L/A(T2−T1)

Where:
Q = heat flow (W)
L = length or thickness of the material (mm)
A = surface area of material (m2)
T2−T1= temperature gradient (K)

The thermal conductivity of a specific material is highly dependent on a

number of factors. These include the temperature gradient, the properties
of the material, and the path length that the heat follows.

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Highly conductive metal - copper (385 W/m•K).

The thermal conductivity of materials

low thermal conductivity materials are excellent at insulating, while
high thermal conductivity materials are ideal for applications where
heat needs to be moved quickly and efficiently from one area to
another, as in cooking utensils and cooling systems in electronic
devices.

The molecular movement is the basis of thermal conductance, the

temperature of a material has a large influence on the thermal
conductivity.

Molecules will move more quickly at higher temperatures, and

therefore heat will be transferred through the material at a higher rate.

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In solids as temperature increases
molecules will begin to vibrate.

Molecules having higher

temperature at the hot part of the
body will vibrate with more
agitation than molecules at the
lower temperature part of the
body.

In conduction heat transfer kinetic energy is translated between the

molecules which are very adjacent to each other while vibrating.

And this energy is kept on transferring from hot region to the cold
region or from hot body to the cold body.

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 Thermal expansion
 Most of the solids expand when heated. This is known as
thermal expansion.

 It can be expressed as

where, L is the change in length due to a temperature

rise of T. l is known as linear coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE).

 Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) for metals is in the

range of 10 x 10-6/C to 25 x 10-6/C. Invar and super invar
have very low CTE (<2 x 10-6 /C).

 Alumina has a CTE of 7.6 x 10-6/C. Some ceramics have

much lower CTE.

 CTE of polymers is quite high compared to metals.

 Thermal stresses
Thermal stresses arise due to
 Constrained expansion or contraction e.g. heating or
cooling a rod with fixed rigid ends.
 Uneven heating/cooling
 Thermal expansion mismatch in dissimilar materials

Thermal stress  due to temperature change from To to Tf

E is the elastic modulus.

Upon heating, the stress is compressive and tensile while

cooling if the expansion/contraction is restrained.
Thermal properties of some materials
WHY STUDY Phase Diagrams?
 Knowledge and understanding of phase diagrams is important to the
engineer relates to the design and control of heat-treating
procedures;

 Some properties of materials are functions of their microstructures,

and, consequently, of their thermal histories.

 The understanding of phase diagrams for alloy systems is extremely

important because there is a strong correlation between
microstructure and mechanical properties, and the development of
microstructure of an alloy is related to the characteristics of its phase
diagram.

 In addition, phase diagrams provide valuable information about

melting, casting, crystallization, and other phenomena.
Definitions
Component

Components are pure metals and/or compounds of which an alloy is composed.

For example, in a copper–zinc brass, the components are Cu and Zn.

Solid solution

The addition of impurity atoms to a metal will result.

Solvent

Represents the element or compound that is present in the greatest amount;

On occasion, solvent atoms are also called host atoms.

Solute
Is used to denote an element or compound present in a minor concentration.
 Cont..
System

A specific body of material under consideration (e.g., a ladle of molten steel).

Solubility limit

For many alloy systems and at some

specific temperature, there is a
maximum concentration of solute
atoms that may dissolve in the solvent
to form a solid solution; this is called
a solubility limit.

The addition of solute in excess of this

solubility limit results in the formation
of another solid solution or compound
that has a distinctly different
composition.
The solubility of sugar C12H22O11 in a sugar–
water syrup.
Phase
Homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform physical and chemical
characteristics.

Every pure material is considered to be a phase. Every solid, liquid, and gaseous
solution.

For example, the sugar–water syrup solution just discussed is one phase, and
solid sugar is another.

When two phases are present in a system, it is not necessary that there be a
difference in both physical and chemical properties;

When water and ice are present in a container, two separate phases exist; they
are physically dissimilar (one is a solid, the other is a liquid) but identical in
chemical makeup.

A single-phase system is termed ―homogeneous.‖ Systems composed of two or

more phases are termed ―mixtures‖ or ―heterogeneous systems.‖

Most metallic alloys- ceramic, polymeric, and composite systems are

heterogeneous.
 Illustration of phases and solubility

The three forms of water—gas, liquid, and

solid—are each a phase. Water and alcohol have unlimited solubility.

Salt and water have limited solubility Oil and water have virtually no solubility
Microstructure
 The mechanical behaviour of a material depend on the microstructure.

 In metal alloys, microstructure is characterized by the number of

phases present, their proportions, and the manner in which they are
distributed or arranged.

 The microstructure of an alloy depends on such variables as the alloying

elements present, their concentrations, and the heat treatment of the
alloy (i.e., the temperature, the heating time at temperature, and the rate of
cooling to room temperature).

 After appropriate polishing and etching, the different phases may be

distinguished by their appearance.

 For example, for a two-phase alloy, one phase may appear light and the
other phase dark
Equilibrium

 Described in terms of a thermodynamic quantity called the free

energy.

Free energy is a function of the internal energy of a system, and also

the randomness or disorder of the atoms or molecules (or entropy).

A system is at equilibrium if its free energy is at a minimum

under some specified combination of temperature, pressure, and
composition.
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 Gibbs Phase Rule
Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903). Gibbs developed the phase rule in 1875–1876

It describes the relationship between the number of components and the

number of phases for a given system and the conditions that may be allowed to
change (e.g., temperature, pressure, etc.).

It has the general form:

2 + C = F + P (when temperature and pressure both can vary)

 In the phase rule, C - number of chemically independent components, usually

elements or compounds, in the system;

 F is the number of degrees of freedom, or the number of variables (such as

temperature, pressure, or composition), that are allowed to change
independently without changing the number of phases in equilibrium;

 P is the number of phases present.

 The constant ―2‖ implies that both the temperature and pressure are allowed
to change.
 SOLIDIFICATION OF PURE METAL
 Under equilibrium conditions, all metals exhibit a definite melting or
freezing point.

 If a cooling curve is plotted for a pure metal. It will show a horizontal

line at the melting or freezing temperature.
 Cont..
 Cooling curves used to determine the phase transition temperatures for both
pure metals and alloys.

 A cooling curve is obtained by recording the temperature of a material versus

time as it cools from a temperature at which it is molten through solidification
and finally to room temperature.

 If the metal is allowed to cool under equilibrium conditions (slow cooling), its
temperature drops continuously along line AB of the curve.

 At the melting point (freezing temperature) solidification begins and the

cooling curve becomes flat (BC, called a region of thermal arrest) and remains
flat until solidification is complete.

 In region BC, the metal is in the form of a mixture of solid and liquid phases.

 In BC, the temperature remains constant because there is a balance between the
heat lost by the metal through the mold and the latent heat supplied by the
solidifying metal.

 After solidification is complete at C, the cooling curve will again show a drop
in temperature with time (Segment CD).
 Cont..
 At 1538 degree C, a high temperature
solid of BCC structure is formed
called delta iron.

 Upon additional cooling, at 1394

degree C, a solid – solid phase
transformation of BCC delta ferrite to
an FCC gamma iron takes place.

 With further cooling a second solid-

solid phase transformation takes place
at a temperature of 912 degree C.

 In this FCC gamma iron reverts back

to a BCC alpha iron.
 ALLOYS
Pure metallic elements have engineering applications; For example,
Ultra-high purity copper (Cu) or aluminum (Al) is used to make
microelectronic circuitry.

In most applications, however, we use alloys.

We define an ―alloy‖ as a material that exhibits properties of a metallic

material and is made from multiple elements.

A plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C).

Corrosion-resistant stainless steels are alloys that usually contain iron

(Fe), carbon (C), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and some other elements.

Similarly, there are alloys based on aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), cobalt
(Co), nickel (Ni), titanium (Ti), zinc (Zn), and zirconium (Zr).
Cooling Curve for Solidification of Alloy
Solidification of an Alloy

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 Solid Solution:
A solid phase formed by combining multiple elements or compounds such
that the overall phase has a uniform composition and properties that are
different from those of the elements or compounds forming it.

Solid Solution

(addition of solute in solvent may results)

Homogeneous system Heterogeneous systems

Systems composed Systems composed

single-phase of two or more phases
 Substitutional solid solutions

Conditions for substitutional solid solution

• W. Hume – Rothery rule
Two elements should have
1. r (atomic radius) < 15%
2. Similar electro-negativities
The tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of
electrons.
3. Same crystal structure
4. Valency should be identical.
The combining capacity of the atoms of a element with
the atoms of same or different elements.
 Substitutional solid solutions
Conditions for substitutional solid solution
• W. Hume – Rothery rule
– 1. r (atomic radius) < 15%
– 2. Proximity in periodic table
• i.e., similar electro-negativities
– 3. Same crystal structure for pure metals
– 4. Valency
• All else being equal, a metal will have a greater tendency to
dissolve a metal of higher valency than one of lower valency
 Phase Diagram
 Phase diagrams are graphical representations that show the phases
present in the material under equilibrium condition a function of
intensive state variables (as pressure, temperature, composition).

Unary Phase diagrams

(One component)

Phase diagrams
(based on no of Binary Phase diagrams

components) (Two components)

Ternary Phase diagrams

(Three components)
 ONE-COMPONENT (OR UNARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS
 The control of the phase structure of a system is concisely displayed is
called a phase diagram, also often termed an equilibrium diagram.

 Three controllable parameters that will affect phase structure—

temperature, pressure, and composition.

 Phase diagrams are constructed when various combinations of these

parameters are plotted against one another.

 Perhaps the simplest and easiest type of phase diagram to understand is

that for a one-component system, in which composition is held constant
(i.e., the phase diagram is for a pure metal);

 Pressure and temperature are the variables. This one-component phase

diagram (or unary phase diagram) [sometimes also called a pressure–
temperature (or P–T) diagram] .
Pressure–temperature phase diagram for H2O.

 Intersection of the dashed horizontal line at 1 atm pressure with the solid-
liquid phase boundary (point 2) corresponds to the melting point at this pressure
(T= 0 ° C).

 Similarly, point 3, the intersection with the liquid-vapor boundary, represents

the boiling point (T =100 ° C).

 The three curves shown on the plot (labeled aO, bO, and cO) are phase
boundaries; at any point on one of these curves, the two phases on either side
of the curve are in equilibrium (or coexist) with one another.
 Also, upon crossing a boundary (as temperature and/or pressure is altered), one
phase transforms to another.

 All three of the phase boundary curves intersect at a common point, which is
labeled O (and for this system, at a temperature of 273.16 K and a pressure of
6.03x10-3 atm).

 At this point only, all of the solid, liquid, and vapour phases are
simultaneously in equilibrium with one another.

 This, and any other point on a P–T phase diagram where three phases are in
equilibrium, is called a triple point;

 It is also termed an invariant point in as much as its position is distinct, or fixed

by definite values of pressure and temperature.

 Any deviation from this point by a change of temperature and/or pressure will
cause at least one of the phases to disappear.
 Binary Phase Diagrams
 Binary alloys—those that contain two components.

 Temperature and composition are variable parameters, and pressure is held

constant—1 atm.

 If more than two components are present, phase diagrams become extremely
complicated and difficult to represent.

 Binary phase diagrams represent the relationships between temperature

and the compositions and quantities of phases at equilibrium, which
influence the microstructure of an alloy.

 Microstructures develop from phase transformations, the changes that

occur when the temperature is altered (ordinarily upon cooling).

 This may involve the transition from one phase to another, or the
appearance or disappearance of a phase.
 Isomorphous System
 In some binary metallic systems the two elements are completely
soluble in each other in both the liquid and solid states.

 In these systems only a single type of crystal structure exists for all
compositions of the components, and are called isomorphous systems.

 Isomorphous systems satisfy one or more of the following conditions

formulated by Hume-Rothery.
 For metallic alloys, solid solutions
are commonly designated by
lowercase Greek letters (alpha, Beta
and Gamma).

 The line separating the L and alpha

+ Liquid phase fields is termed the
liquidus line.

 The liquid phase is present at all

temperatures and compositions
above this line.

 The solidus line is located between

the alpha and alpha + Liquid
regions, below which only the solid
alpha phase exists.
 Binary phase diagram to understand and interpret is the type that is
characterized by the copper–nickel system.

 The composition ranges from 0 wt%

Ni (100 wt% Cu) on the left horizontal
extremity to 100 wt% Ni (0 wt% Cu)
on the right.

 Three different phase regions, or

fields, appear on the diagram, an alpha
field, a liquid (L) field, and a two-
phase alpha+Liquid field.

 The liquid L is a homogeneous liquid

solution composed of both copper and
nickel.

 The alpha phase is a substitutional

solid solution consisting of both Cu
and Ni atoms with FCC crystal The copper–nickel phase diagram.
structure.
 At temperatures below about 1080
°C copper and nickel are mutually
soluble in each other in the solid
state for all compositions.

 Both Cu and Ni have the same

crystal structure (FCC), nearly
identical atomic radii and electro
negativities, and similar valences.

 The solidus and liquidus lines

intersect at the two composition
extremities; these correspond to the
melting temperatures of the pure
components.

For example, the melting temperatures of pure copper and nickel are 1085 °C and
1453 ° C respectively.
Heating pure copper corresponds to moving
vertically up the left-hand temperature axis.

Copper remains solid until its melting

temperature is reached.

The solid-to-liquid transformation takes

place at the melting temperature.

Heating an alloy of composition 50 wt% Ni–

50 wt% Cu, melting begins at approximately
1280 degree C;

The amount of liquid phase continuously

increases with temperature until about 1320
degree C, at which the alloy is completely
liquid.