Digital communication system block diagram

Introduction to digital communications

Line coding

Major encodings after the ADC & before Line encoding

bandpass modulation
1. Source coding
– Deals with digital data compression
Unipolar Polar Bipolar
– Goal: to represent the digital data with few bits as possible
– Encryption may be incorporated or done separately

2. Channel coding AMI

– Deals with protecting the digital data from errors in the channel 2BIQ B8ZS
– Goal: to have an error-free digital data or to correct them if in error
– Its error detection may have error correction or not
Etc.
NRZ RZ
3. Line coding
Differential
– Deals with reliable digital data transmission over baseband channels
Manchester
– Goal: to transport the digital data reliably
– Specific coding reflects the transmission medium requirements
– Makes phase sync possible between encoder & the decoder NRZ-L NRZ-I Manchester

3 4
 Unipolar Non-return to zero level (NRZ-L)

Amplitude Amplitude
0 1
Amplitude Amplitude
0 1

Time Time
Time Time

Amplitude Amplitude
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

Time
Time

5 6

Non-return to zero invert (NRZ-I) Return to zero (RZ)

This transition is used for synchronization

Logic 0 - No Transition from current state
Logic 1- Transition from current state to different state
Amplitude Amplitude
0 1

Amplitude Time Time

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
Logic 0 Logic 1
Amplitude
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

Time
Time

7 8
 Manchester encoding Differential Manchester encoding

Amplitude Amplitude
0 1
Logic 0 - Transition from current state to different state
Logic 1- Continuation of current state i.e. no transition
Time Time

Amplitude
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
Amplitude
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

Time
Time

9 10

Bipolar Two binary, one quaternary (2B1Q)

Amplitude

Logic 0 – Level zero 00 01 10 11 01 00 11 10

Logic 1- Levels are positive & negative alternately
3
Amplitude 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
0
Time
-1 Time

-3

11 12
Multiline transmission, three level (MLT-3) Alternate mark inversion (AMI)

Amplitude

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

Time

• Uses 3 levels of signal +1, 0, -1

• Zero voltage represents 0
• The signal transitions from one level to the next at the beginning of a 1
bit • Alternating positive & negative represent 1
• There is no transition at the beginning of a 0 bit

13 14

Introduction to digital communications

Bandpass modulation

15
Digital communication system block diagram Forms of bandpass modulation

v(t ) = V sin(2π ⋅ ft + θ )

ASK FSK PSK

QAM

17 18

Number of independent pulses that can be Hartley’s Law

propagated through
a noiseless transmission channel

According to Nyquist:
I∝B x t
pulse frequency is two times the bandwidth of the channel (Nyquist bandwidth)

Information theory tells us the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate information

pulse ≤ 2 through electronic communications systems

pulse frequency is a.k.a.:

where:
– Nyquist rate
I = information capacity (bits per second)
– Symbol rate B = bandwidth (hertz)
t = transmission time (seconds)

19 20
 Hartley’s formulation of the bit rate for the Shannon limit for information capacity
number of distinct messages M that could be
sent

I = B log 2  1 +
S
fb = 2 B log 2 M 
 N

where:
where:
fb = line or bit rate (bps) I = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
B = bandwidth of the channel (Hz) S
= signal-to-noise power ratio (unitless)
N
M = number of distinct messages

21 22

M-ary encoding Bit rate (in bps) vs baud

• M-ary is a term derived from binary

• Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal, which is
• M represents digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or usually binary
combinations possible for a given number of binary variables
• Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after
Example: a digital signal with 4 possible conditions is an M-ary system where encoding & modulation have occurred
M=4
– Baud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or symbol rate
• The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions is
expressed mathematically as
– Baud = symbols / s

N = log 2 M • In binary systems, baud & bits per second are equal (e.g. FSK & BPSK)
where N = number of necessary bits
M = number of conditions/levels • In higher-level systems, bps > baud (e.g. QPSK & 8-PSK)

23 24
 Baud & minimum bandwidth Amplitude-shift keying

• A digital modulation where a binary information signal directly modulates the

f f amplitude of the analog carrier
B= b and baud = b
N N • Sometimes called digital amplitude modulation

A 
M = 2N v( ask ) (t ) = [1 + vm (t ) ]  cos ωc t 
2 
where N is the number of bits encoded into each signaling element, &
where:
vask(t) = amplitude-shift keying wave
vm(t) = digital information (modulating) signal voltage
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
ωc = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second

25 26

Amplitude-shift keying Amplitude-shift keying

• The modulating signal vm(t) is a normalized binary form, where

– +1V = logic 1 &
– -1V = logic 0

• Thus, the modulated wave vask(t) is either

– Acos(ωct ) or
– 0
• Hence, the carrier is either on or off
– Amplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to as on-off keying (OOK)

27 28
 Amplitude-shift keying Frequency-shift keying

• Another relatively simple, low-performance type of digital modulation

• Sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK)

• The time of one bit (tb) is equal to the time of one signaling element (ts).
• The general expression for FSK is
• The rate of change of the ASK waveform (baud) is the same as the rate of
change of the binary input (bps)
v fsk (t ) = Vc cos {2π [ f c + vm (t ) ∆ f ] t }
• With ASK, the bit rate is also equal to the minimum Nyquist bandwidth
where:
f f vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform
• Setting N=1 B = b = fb baud = b = f b Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
1 1 fc = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
∆f = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency
vm(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)

29 30

Frequency-shift keying Frequency-shift keying

• The modulating signal is a normalized binary waveform where

– Logic 1 = +1 V &
– Logic 0 = -1 V.

The carrier center frequency (fc) is shifted (deviated) up & down

• For vm(t) = +1 V,
in the frequency domain by the binary input

v fsk (t ) = Vc cos  2π ( f c + ∆f )  t
• And for vm(t) = -1 V,

v fsk (t ) = Vc cos  2π ( f c − ∆ f )  t

31 32
 Frequency-shift keying FSK bit rate & baud

The frequency deviation is defined as

fm − fs
∆f = The time of one bit (tb) is the same as
2 the time the FSK output is a mark or space frequency (ts)

baud = fb
where:
∆f = frequency deviation (hertz)
|fm – fs| = absolute difference between the mark & space frequencies

33 34

FSK bandwidth FSK bandwidth

• FSK is an exemption to the rule for digital modulation, the minimum bandwidth is
given by

B = ( f s + f b ) − ( f m − fb )
= ( f s − f m ) + 2 fb
B = 2 ( ∆f + fb )
• Bessel function can also be used to determine the approximate bandwidth

• The highest fundamental frequency in a NRZ binary signal occurs when

• Resembles Carson’s Rule for determining the approximate bandwidth for an FM alternating 1s & 0s are occurring (i.e. square wave)
wave

35 36
 FSK bandwidth FSK modulation index

fb
• The highest modulating frequency of the binary input signal is fa = • Worst-case modulation index (deviation ratio) occurs when both of the following
2 are at their maximum values
– Frequency deviation

– Modulating frequency
• The formula used for modulation index in FM is also valid for FSK
• The deviation in FSK is constant & always at its maximum value
∆f
h=
fa

37 38

FSK modulator FSK modulator

• The center frequency is chosen such that it falls halfway between the mark &
space frequencies

– Logic 1 input shifts VCO to the mark frequency

– Logic 0 input shifts the VCO to the space frequency

• The VCO output deviates back & forth between the mark & space frequencies

• With sweep mode modulation, the frequency deviation is

∆f = vm (t )kl
where kl = deviation sensitivity (Hz/V)

39 40
 FSK demodulator Continuous-phase FSK

Noncontinuous FSK waveform introduces an abrupt phase discontinuity in the

A common circuit used for demodulating binary FSK signals is the PLL
analog signal when the input changes from 1 to 0 & vice versa

41 42

Continuous-phase FSK Continuous-phase FSK

• Has a better bit-error performance than the conventional binary FSK for a given
S/N ratio

• Disadvantages
Mark & space frequencies: separated from the center frequency – Requires synchronization circuits
by an exact odd multiple of one-half bit rate – More expensive to implement

(fm & fs = n[fb/2], n is any odd number) • One-half the bit rate difference between the mark & space frequencies

– Minimum difference between the two frequencies

– Aka minimum-shift keying (MSK)

43 44
 Phase shift keying BPSK

• 2 output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency

• As the input digital signal changes state, the phase of the output carrier shifts
• Another form of angle-modulated constant-amplitude digital modulation between two angles that are 180° out of phase.

• Forms • Other names:

– Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) – Phase reversal keying
– Quaternary Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
– Eight-Phase Phase Shift Keying (8-PSK) – Biphase modulation
– Sixteen-Phase Shift Keying (16-PSK)

45 46

BPSK modulator A phase reversing switch implementation

• If the binary input is a logic 1 (positive value), diodes D1 & D2 are forward
biased & on, while diodes D3 & D4 are reverse biased

• The carrier is in phase with the reference oscillator & the binary data
• If the binary input is a logic 0 (negative value), diodes D3 & D4 are forward
biased & on, while diodes D1 & D2 are reverse biased.
• The balanced modulator acts as a phase reversing switch

47 48
 BPSK truth table & phasor diagram BPSK constellation diagram

49 50

BPSK modulator output BPSK Nyquist bandwidth

BPSK output = sin ( 2π f a t ) x sin ( 2π f c t )   f 

B = 2  b  = fb
 2

where:

fa = maximum fundamental frequency of binary input (Hz) The minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth is 2fa

fc = reference carrier frequency (Hz) because fa = fb/2 where fb = input bit rate

51 52
 Output phase-versus-time relationship for a BPSK demodulator
BPSK modulator

53 54

BPSK demodulator output Quaternary PSK

• 4-ary encoding technique

• For logic 1 input
• 4 output phases are possible for single carrier frequency
output = ( sin ωct )( sin ωct ) = sin ωc t
2

• Each 2-bit code generates one of the four possible output phases
– 00, 01, 10, 11

• For logic 0 input • For each of 2-bit code clocked into the modulator, a single output change occurs
– Symbol rate (baud) is half the input bit rate

output = ( − sin ωct )( sin ωct ) = − sin 2 ωct

55 56
 QPSK modulator QPSK truth table & phasor diagram

57 58

Recall QPSK constellation diagram

sin ∝ ± = sin cos ± cos sin

= sin +

= sin cos + cos sin

= sin cos + cos sin

= sin + cos

sin + cos = sin +

= +

= tan !

59 60
 Output phase-versus-time relationship for a QPSK bandwidth
QPSK modulator

Because the input data are divided into 2 channels, the bit rate in either the I or Q
channel is equal to one-half the input data rate (fb/2).

61 62

QPSK bandwidth QPSK demodulator

• The highest fundamental frequency present at the data input to the I & Q
balanced modulator is equal to one-fourth of the data (fb/4)

– So the output of I & Q balanced modulators requires a minimum double-

sided Nyquist bandwidth

fN = fb/2

• The baud is also equal to half the input bit rate

63 64
 8-PSK 8-PSK modulator

• 3 bits are encoded

– Forming tribits
– Producing eight different output phases

• Its modulator assigns the tribit to C, Q, & I bits

– I or Q bit determines the polarity of the output analog signal
• Logic 1 = +V
• Logic 0 = -V

– C bit determines the magnitude

• Logic 1 = 1.307 V
• Logic 0 = 0.541 V

– With 2 magnitudes & two polarities, four different output conditions are
possible.

65 66

I- & Q-channel 2-to-4-level converters 8-PSK truth table & constellation diagram

67 68
 8-PSK phasor diagram Output phase-versus-time relationship for
an 8-PSK modulator

69 70

8-PSK bandwidth 8-PSK demodulator

• Because the data are divided into three channels, the bit rate in the I, Q or C
channel is equal to one-third of the binary input data rate (fb/3).

• There is one change in phase at the output for every three data inputs.

– The baud for 8-PSK equals fb/3, the same as the minimum bandwidth

71 72
 16-PSK 16-PSK truth table & constellation diagram

• An M-ary encoding technique where M=16

– 16 different output phases possible

• With 16-PSK, four bits (called quadbits) are combined

• The minimum bandwidth & baud is equal one-fourth the bit rate (fb/4)

73 74

Quadrature-amplitude modulation 8-QAM

• 8-QAM is an M-ary encoding technique where M=8.

• Unlike 8-PSK, the output signal from an 8-QAM modulator is not a constant-
amplitude signal
• A form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital information is
contained in both of the following of the carrier:
• As with 8-PSK, the incoming data are divided into groups of three bits
– Amplitude
– I, Q, & C bit streams
– Each stream has a bit rate equal to one-third of the incoming data rate
– Phase

– The I & Q bits determine the polarity at the output of the 2-to-4 level
• Amplitude & phase-shift keying are combined
converters
– Positions of the signaling elements on the constellation diagrams are
optimized to achieve the greatest distance between elements
– The C channel determines the magnitude
• Logic 1 = 1.307
– Reducing the likelihood of one element being misinterpreted as another • Logic 0 = 0.541
element

75 76
 8-QAM modulator 8-QAM truth table

77 78

8-QAM phasor diagram 8-QAM constellation diagram

79 80
 Output phase & amplitude-versus-time 16-QAM
relationship for 8-QAM

• An M-ary system where M=16

• The input data are acted on in groups of four (24 = 16).

• As with 8-QAM, both phase & amplitude of the transmit carrier are varied.

81 82

16-QAM modulator 16-QAM modulator

• I’ & Q’ bits determine the • I & Q bits determine the polarity at the
• The input binary are divided into four channels magnitude output of the 2-to-4 level converters
– I channel – Logic 1 = 0.821 V o Logic 1 = positive
– I’ channel – Logic 0 = 0.22 V o Logic 0 = negative
– Q channel
– Q’ channel

• The bit rate in each channel is equal to one-fourth of the input bit rate (fb/4)

• 4 bits are serially clocked into the bit splitter

– Outputted simultaneously & in parallel with the I, I’, Q & Q’ channels

83 84
 16-QAM modulator 16-QAM truth table for the I & Q-channel 2-
to-4 level converters
• 2-to-4 level converters generate a 4-level PAM signal
• 2 polarities & 2 magnitudes are possible at the output of each 2-to-4 level
converter
– ±0.22 V
– ±0.821 V
–

85 86

16-QAM output amplitude & phase 16-QAM phase diagram

87 88
16-QAM constellation diagram 16-QAM bandwidth

• Because the input data are divided into 4 channels, the bit rate in the I, I’, Q & Q’
channel is equal to 1/4 of the input data rate (fb/4)

• There is one change in the output signal (either its phase, amplitude or both) for
every 4 input data bits

• The baud & the minimum bandwidth is fb/4

89 90

16-QAM bandwidth 16-QAM bandwidth

91 92
 Bandwidth efficiency Bandwidth efficiency

transmission rate (bps)

• Ratio of the transmission bit rate to the minimum bandwidth required for a BW efficiency=
particular modulation scheme minimum bandwidth (Hz)
bits/second bits/second
• Generally normalized to 1 Hz bandwidth = =
hertz cycles/second
• Indicates the number of bits that can be propagated through a medium for each
hertz of bandwidth. bits
=
cycle

93 94

Drill problem Recall the minimum bandwidths required to

propagate on a 10-Mbps transmission rate with
the following modulation schemes:

Modulation Scheme Minimum Bandwidth (MHz)

Determine the bandwidth efficiencies for the following modulation schemes: BPSK 10
• BPSK QPSK 5
• QPSK 8-PSK 3.33
• 8-PSK
• 16-QAM
16-QAM 2.5

95 96
 Solution A comparison of bandpass modulation
schemes
10Mbps 1 bps 1 bit Modulation Encoding Bandwidth(Hz) Baud
BPSK: BW efficiency = = =
10MHz Hz cycle FSK Single Bit fb fb
10Mbps 2 bps 2 bits BPSK Single Bit fb fb
QPSK: BW efficiency = = =
5MHz Hz cycle QPSK Dibit fb / 2 fb / 2
10Mbps 3 bps 3 bits
8-PSK: BW efficiency = = = 8-PSK Tribit fb / 3 fb / 3
3.33MHz Hz cycle
8-QAM Tribit fb / 3 fb / 3
10Mbps 4 bps 4 bits
16-QAM: BW efficiency = = = 16-PSK Quadbit fb / 4 fb / 4
2.5MHz Hz cycle
16-QAM Quadbit fb / 4 fb / 4

97 98

Probability of error & bit error rate (BER) Carrier-to-noise power ratio (CNR)

C C
= (unit less )
• Probability of error (Prob(E)) N KTB
– Theoretical (mathematical) expectation of the bit error rate for a given
system
Ratio of the
average carrier power (combined power of the carrier & its sidebands)
• BER
to the
– An empirical (historical) record of a system’s actual bit error performance
thermal noise power

Example

If a system has a Prob(E) of 10-5, this means that mathematically, you can expect
one bit error in every 100,000 bits transmitted

99 100
 Energy per bit Energy Per Bit

Eb = CTb ( J / bit ) C
Eb =
Because Tb = 1/fb
( J / bit )
where : Eb = energy of a single bit (joules per bit) fb
Tb = time of a single bit(seconds)
C = carrier power (watts)
In dBJ
C
In dBJ Eb ( dBJ ) = 10 log
fb
Eb ( dBJ ) = 10 log Eb
= 10 log C − 10log f b
101 102

Noise power density Noise power density

N
No = (W / Hz ) In dBm
N o = 10 log
N
− 10 log B
B 0.001
Thermal noise power = N ( dBm) − 10 log B
normalized to 1-Hz bandwidth (noise power in a 1-Hz bandwidth)

KTB
where : N o = noise power density (watts per hertz) No can be expressed as
No = = KT (W / Hz )
B
N = thermal noise power (watts)
in dBm,
B = bandwidth (hertz)
K
No = 10 log + 10 log T
0.001
103 104
 Energy per bit-to-noise power density ratio Energy per bit-to-noise power density ratio
(Eb/N0)

Eb C / f b CB
• Used to compare 2 or more digital modulation systems that use different: = =
N o N / B Nf b
– Transmission rates (bit rates)
Rearranging,
– Modulation schemes (FSK, PSK & QAM)
Eb C B
= x
– Encoding techniques (M-ary) N o N fb

• Ratio of the energy of a single bit to the noise power present in 1 Hz of

bandwidth1
B / fb = noise bandwidth-to-bit rate ratio

105 106

Energy per bit-to-noise power density ratio BER performance of FSK modulation
in dB schemes under AWGN

Eb C B
(dB ) = 10 log + 10 log
No N fb
= 10 log Eb − 10 log N o

107 108
BER performance of PSK modulation BER performance of QAM modulation
schemes under AWGN schemes under AWGN

109 110

BER performance of binary modulation BER performance of M-PSK & M-QAM under
schemes under AWGN AWGN

111 112
 Drill problem Drill problem

C = 10−12 f b = 60 kbps
N = 1.2 x10−14 W B = 120 kHz
For a QPSK system & the given parameters, determine
1. Carrier power in dBm
2. Noise power in dBm For the following modulation schemes, construct a table showing the number of bits
3. Noise power density in dBm encoded, number of output conditions, minimum bandwidth, & baud for an
4. Energy per bit in dBJ information data rate of 12 kbps: QPSK, 8-PSK, 8-QAM, 16-PSK, & 16-QAM
5. Carrier-to-noise power ratio in dB
6. Eb/No ratio.

113 114