STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL MANIFESTATION OF LIFE

The cell is defined as the basic structural and functional unit of life. Structurally, a living
organism may be made up of a single cell (e.g. yeast, bacterium, Chlamydomonas), or a few to
a trillion cells with varying degrees of complexity (e.g. alga, moss, starfish, orchid, bee, bird,
ape or man). In the former, all functions of life, which include metabolism and self-
perpetuation, are performed by and within a single cell. In the latter case of multicellularity,
many different cells are so designed to perform specific functions.

I. THE CELL THEORY

The Cell theory is a basic principle in biology that defines the structural properties of life.
This theory may be summarized in three statements as follows:
1. All living things, whether plants, animals or microorganisms, are made up of cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of life.
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells.
It answers three important questions about life.
1. What are living things made of?
2. What can cells do?
3. Where do cells come from?
With an estimated 8.7M species of diverse organisms throughout the world, it is amazing to
know that they all share a common attribute, their cellular structure.
The cell theory was developed over a span of three centuries from the collective work of
many scientists that include the following:
ROBERT HOOKE (1635-1703) He coined the term “cell” and was responsible for the
beginnings of cytology as a subdiscipline in biology.
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632-1723) He discovered the bacteria and other microscopic
organisms and studied the structure of plant and animal tissues.
FRANCESCO REDI (1626-1697) and LAZZARO SPALLANZANI (1729-1799) They disproved
the theory of Spontaneous Generation.
R. H. DUTROCHET (1824) He presented one of the first clear statements of the idea that all
living things are composed of cells.
ROBERT BROWN (1831) An English botanist who discovered the presence of nuclei within
cells.
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1838) and THEODOR SCHWANN (1839) Botanist and zoologist
respectively who introduced the concept that all plants and animals are made up of cells.
PURKINJE (1839) A Bohemian who coined the term protoplasm to refer to the living part of the
cell.
FELIX DUJARDIN (1801-1860) He noted that all living cells contain the protoplasm.
RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1821-1902) He found that cells divide to form new cells. He concluded
that cells come from pre-existing cells.
LOUIS PASTEUR (1862) A French chemist who supplied the proof for Virchow's theory of
biogenesis.

II. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Cells vary in their sizes and shapes according to the functions that they perform. But no
matter how diverse cell forms are, they share common basic structures. Cells have three
fundamental parts, namely
1. Cell membrane – made of phospholipid bilayer, this is a selectively permeable
boundary of the cell that regulates the entry and exit of materials.
2. Cytoplasm – the region where metabolic processes, such as nutrition, respiration and
biosynthesis take place.
3. Nucleoid or nucleus – the region of the cell where the genetic material is located.
A. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Cells may be one of two types, prokaryotic or eukaryotic, based on the location of the
genetic material. A prokaryotic cell lacks a nuclear membrane, and its genetic materials are
located in the central region of the cell called the central body or nucleoid. A eukaryotic cell, on
the other hand, has a “true nucleus”, which means that its genetic materials are enclosed in a
nuclear membrane. In addition, prokaryotic cell do not have membrane-bound organelles, while
eukaryotic cells possess both membrane-bound and nonmembrane-bound organelles.

MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES NONMEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES

Nucleus Ribosomes
Smooth ER Centrioles
Rough ER Cytoskeleton
Golgi apparatus
Vacuoles and Vesicles
Mitochondria
Chloroplast and other plastids
Lysosomes

Below is a table of a comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

CHARACTERISTICS PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

Organisms bacteria and archaea protists, fungi, plants and animals
Cell size generally 1 to 10 um in generally 10-100 um in linear dimension
linear dimension
Organelles few nonmembrane-bound Many organelles, membrane-bound and
organelles such as nonmembrane-bound
ribosomes, cytoskeleton
Membrane-bound NONE Many, include the nucleus,
Organelles endomembrane system (endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles,
vesicles, lysosomes), plastids and
mitochondria,
DNA Single circular or coiled Linear DNA organized into
DNA in the cytoplasm chromosomes with many non-coding
regions; and bound by a nuclear
envelope
RNA and protein both synthesized and RNA synthesized in the nucleus,
processed in the cytoplasm proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm
Cytoplasm No cytoplasmic streaming With cytoplasmic streaming (cyclosis),
(cyclosis), endocytosis and endocytosis and exocytosis
exocytosis
Cell division binary fission mitosis (or meiosis)

Cellular mainly unicellular mainly multicellular with differentiation of

organization cells
Nuclear ABSENT PRESENT
membrane

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B. Cell Parts of and Functions
PARTS OF THE CELL DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTION
Plasma membrane Outer selectively permeable boundary of the cell made of
continuous sheets of phospholipid molecules in which various
proteins serve as pumps and channels to transport specific
molecules into and out of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum Flattened sheets, sacs and tubes of membrane that extend
throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells enclosing a large
intracellular space called lumen
Smooth ER
Is structural continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope and specializes in the synthesis lipids,
carbohydrates and steroid hormones, detoxification of
drugs and poisons, and storage of calcium ions (e.g. in
muscle cells).

Rough ER generally occurs as flattened sheets, studded on its outer face

with ribosomes engaged in protein synthesis. The RER also
functions for protein modification (folding and acquisition of
sidechains), synthesis of membrane proteins and phospholipids,
and transport of
Golgi apparatus A system of stacked, membrane-bound, flattened sacs, involved
in modifying, sorting and packaging macromolecules for
secretion or for delivery to other organelles; around the
apparatus are numerous vesicles, which are thought to carry
materials between the Golgi apparatus and the other
compartments of the cell. Produce oligosaccharides

Lysosomes membrane-bound vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes

involved in intracellular digestion. Also called suicide bag of the
cell.
Peroxisomes Membrane-bound vesicles containing oxidative enzymes that
generate and destroy hydrogen peroxide; perform important
functions including lipid metabolism and conversion of fatty
acids to sugars
Mitochondrion the powerhouse of eukaryotic cells, that produces adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the biological energy currency. It is the site
of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that harnesses
energy from simple organic molecules like glucose, amino acids,
fatty acids and glycerol, by breaking them down in the presence
of oxygen in order to produce ATP. Mitochondria are most
plentiful in cells that require significant amounts of energy to
function, such as liver and muscle cells.
Cytoskeleton arrays of protein filaments forming networks in the cytosol that
give the cell its shape and provide the basis for movement
Cytoplasm Consists of all spaces outside the nucleus, and generally
Cytosol represents 50 to 60% of the total cell volume in eukaryotes.
Cytoplasm organelles Most intermediary metabolism and protein synthesis required for
cell growth and maintenance occur here.
Nucleus The most conspicuous part of the cell, separated from the

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 cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope, consisting of two
membranes. All of the chromosomal DNA is held in the nucleus,
packaged into chromatin fibers by its association with an equal
mass of histone proteins. The nuclear contents communicate
with the cytosol by means of openings in the nuclear membrane
called nuclear pores.
A factory in the nucleus where the-cell’s ribosomes are
assembled and the cell's RNAs are manufactured.
nucleolus
III. VARIATIONS IN CELL STRUCTURE
Plant and animal cells are structurally very similar because they are both eukaryotic. They
contain membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes and peroxisomes. They possess cytoskeleton
and free ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Sharing common structures, it is not surprising that plant
and animal cells also perform very similar functions.
However, they do exhibit a few but distinct structural differences. Consequently, plant and
animal cells also exhibit significant functional differences.
Plant cells versus animal cells: The main difference between them is the presence of a
non-living cell wall in plant cells, which is lacking in animal cells. Other differences are
the presence of large and numerous vacuoles, phragmoplast for cell plate formation
during cytokinesis, chloroplast for photosynthesis and plasmodesmata for intercellular
communication in plant cells. Animal cells have centrosomes with a pair of centrioles,
tight junctions and desmosomes that are lacking in plant cell. They have fewer and
smaller vacuoles. And they form cleavage furrow during cell division.
SPECIAL PLANT CELL ORGANELLES/PARTS
Chloroplasts Chlorophyll-containing, double-membrane organelles found in all higher
plants. They also have elaborate internal membrane systems called
thylakoids that contain the photosynthetic apparatus.

Spherosome Single membrane-bound vesicle that synthesizes and stores lipids, also
produces cutin and wax
Glyoxysomes specialized peroxisomes that are present in postgerminative seedlings
of oil seeds and senescent organs of plants that engage in activities that
produce and destroy the toxic substance hydrogen peroxide
Vacuoles very large, single-membrane vesicles occupying up to 90% of plant cell
volume; functions for space filling, intracellular digestion and for the
control of cell turgor; present but inconspicuous in animal cells..
Phragmoplast A specific structure that forms in plant cells during cytokinesis. It serves
as scaffold for cell plate assembly and subsequent formation of new cell
wall, cell membrane and middle lamella to separate two daughter cells.
Cell Wall A rigid structure composed of tough fibrils of cellulose and hemicellulose.
It is the outer boundary of plant cells that provides strength and support
to the entire plant body and maintains the shape of individual cells.
Plasmodesmata Narrow channels that act as intercellular cytoplasmic bridges to facilitate
intercellular communication and transport of materials between plant
cells.

IV. FUNCTIONAL MANIFESTATIONS OF LIFE

One important concept in biology is “form-function relationship”, which states that a
structure is specially designed because it needs to perform a specific function. This
emphasizes the intimate relationship between the form of a structure and the function that it
has to perform. Hence, since all organisms share the same cellular structure, then they all are
capable of performing basically the same functions. The functional manifestations of life can be

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classified into two, metabolism and self-perpetuation.

A. METABOLISM: A group of life-sustaining processes which defines the capacity of

organisms to "keep alive' or to "maintain life.
1. NUTRITION: An activity of organisms to provide themselves the raw materials, such
as matter and energy for the maintenance of life.
a. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION: Type of nutrition where organisms require only
inorganic materials (e.g. water, carbon dioxide) from their environment to
manufacture their own food.
Photosynthesis
light energy
12H20 + 6C02 C6H1206 + 6H20 + 602
Chlorophyll glucose (sugar)

b. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION: Type of nutrition where organisms require pre-

fabricated organic nutrients (e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, fats, nucleic acids).
2. RESPIRATION: The breakdown or burning of simple organic nutrients to harness
energy and produce ATP.
a. FERMENTATION - occurs in the absence of oxygen:

Alcoholic fermentation
C6H1206 2C2H60 + 2C02 + ATP
Ethanol
Lactic acid fermentation
C6H1206 2C3H603 + ATP
Lactic acid
b. AEROBIC RESPIRATION: Complete breakdown of simple organic nutrients, which
requires the presence of oxygen.

C6H1206 +602 + 6 H20 12H20 + 6C02 + ATP

(Adenosine triphosphate)
Biological energy currency
3. BIOSYNTHESIS: The process by which nutrients are formed into new biomolecules
used as building blocks of life. Growth, development and repair are the characteristic
outcome of the use of nutrients in the construction of living parts.

B. SELF-PERPETUATION: A set of life processes that provides the necessary control over
metabolism, to permit communication among organisms and their environment in the
preservation of life.
1. STEADY STATE CONTROL: Maintenance of homeostasis or internal equilibrium
2. REPRODUCTION:The process by which organisms give rise to another generation of
individuals of their kind.
a. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Involves the fusion of two sex cells or gametes
(sperm in males and egg or ovum in females) through fertilization.
b. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Occurs in the absence of sex cells or gametes.
3. ADAPTATION: The process by which an organism changes to adjust to the changes in
the environment in order to survive and persist.

V. Biomolecules: The Four Organic Molecules that Make up Cell Parts

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are “go food” taken from the word carbon and hydration which mean each
carbon atom appears in combination with a molecule of water (C + H2O), eg. CH2O, C2H4O2,

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C6H12O6. Complex forms are polysaccharides and simple forms are monosaccharides or simple
sugars. Plants store food in the form of polysaccharide starch, and produce cell walls made of
polysaccharide cellulose and cementing material pectin in middle lamella. Humans store
polysaccharide in the form of glycogen in the liver.
Proteins
Proteins are “grow food”, complex forms are polypeptides and simple forms are amino acids.
They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Examples are melanin (brown skin
pigment), keratin (hair, nails and skin), collagen (connective tissues), actin and myosin (in
muscle cells), hemoglobin (in red blood cells).

Lipids
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, sterols, cholesterol, fat-soluble vitamins, monoglycerides,
diglycerides, triglycerides (fats), and phospholipids. Triglycerides are made of 3 fatty acids and
one glygerol. Phospholipids are the chemical constituents of the cell membrane.

Nucleic Acids
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid, is double helix made of 2 complementary polynucleotides
A polynucleotide is a chain of many nucleotides
Each nucleotide is made up of:
1. a sugar called deoxyribose
2. a phosphate group (phosphoric acid) and
3. a nitrogenous base such as
purines: Guanine and Adenine
pyrimidines: Cytosine and Thymine

RNA or ribonucleic acid is another type of nucleic acid, which is found in the nucleolus and in
the ribosomes. It is single-stranded, made of a single polynucleotide,
A polynucleotide is a chain of many nucleotides
Each nucleotide is made up of:
4. a sugar called ribose
5. a phosphate group (phosphoric acid) and
6. a nitrogenous base such as
purines: Guanine and Adenine
pyrimidines: Cytosine and Uracil

Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad